Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Step 1: Defining the Problem

Step 2: Developing an Approach to the Problem

Step 3: Formulating a Research Design

Secondary & Syndicated Survey & Observation Questionnaire & Form Sampling Process & Preliminary Plan of Data
Qualitative Research Experimental Research Measurement & Scaling
Data Analysis Research Design Sample Size Analysis

Step 4: Doing Field Work/ Collecting Data

Step 5: Preparing & Analyzing Data

Step 6: Preparing & Presenting the Report

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 4
Step 3 enlarged

Step 3: Formulating a Research Design

• Secondary & Syndicated Data Analysis

• Qualitative Research
• Survey & Observation Research
• Experimental Research
• Measurement & Scaling
• Questionnaire & Form Design
• Sampling Process & Sample Size
• Preliminary Plan of Data Analysis

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IsAUNs-IoSQ
Qualit r long
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 5
 Secondary
Data

Marketing
Research
Data Qualitative
Survey Data
Data

Primary Data Descriptive

Quantitative Observational
Data & Other Data

Experimental
Causal
Data
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 6
 Qualitative Research
Procedures

Direct Indirect
(Nondisguised) (Disguised)

Focus Depth Projective

Groups Interviews Techniques

Picture Role Playing

Word Sentence
Response and and
Association Completion
Cartoon Test Third Person
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 7
 Qualitative research is an unstructured, exploratory
research methodology based on small samples that
provides insights and understanding of the problem
setting.

 Quantitative research is a research methodology that

seeks to quantify the data and typically applies some
form of statistical analysis.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 8

 Qualitative Quantitative
Research Research

To gain a qualitative To quantify the data and

Objective understanding of the generalize the results
underlying reasons from the sample to the
and motivations population of interest

Sample Small number of non- Large number of

representative cases representative cases

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 9

 Qualitative Quantitative
Research Research

Data Collection Unstructured Structured

Data Analysis Nonstatistical Statistical

Develop an initial Recommend a final

Outcome
understanding course of action

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 10

Not everything that
can be counted, counts
and not everything
that counts
can be counted

Einstein

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wbdN_sLWl88&t=5s
Yale quali

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 11

 A focus group is an interview conducted by a trained
moderator in an unstructured and natural
 The moderator leads the discussion.
 The main purpose of focus groups is to gain insights by
listening to a group of people from the appropriate
target market.
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3TwgVQIZPsw history FG

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 12

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cCAPz14yjd4 Yale

 Make a summmary !

 Example

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j_cUnlQl29Q
( sauce)

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 13

Group size 8 – 12

Homogeneous; respondents
Group composition
prescreened
Physical setting Relaxed, informal atmosphere

Time duration 1 – 3 hours

Use of audio and
Recording
video recording
Observational, interpersonal,
Moderator and communication skills of
the moderator
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 14
Baltimore Research: Facility Overview.
Source: http://www.baltimoreresearch.com/marketing_research_facility.php?sPage=Facility

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 15

One-way mirror

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 16

Source: www.campos.com/focusgs.htm

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 17

 Design the Focus Group Environment

Recruit and Select Focus Group Participants

Select a Moderator

Prepare the Discussion Guide

Conduct the Group Interview

Prepare the Focus Group Report

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 18

 The group interaction produces a wider range of
information, insights, and ideas than do individual
interviews.
 The comments of one person can trigger unexpected
reactions from others, leading to snowballing with
participants responding to each other's comments.
 The responses are generally spontaneous and candid,
providing rich insights. Ideas are more likely to arise out
of the blue in a group than in an individual interview
and are likely to be unique and potentially creative.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 19

 The clarity and conviction with which group members
often speak leads to a tendency for researchers and
managers to regard findings as conclusive rather than
as exploratory.

 Focus groups also are difficult to moderate. The

quality of the results depends heavily on the skills of the
moderator; unfortunately, moderators who possess all of
the desirable skills are rare.

 The unstructured nature of the responses makes

coding, analysis, and interpretation difficult.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 20

 Advantages Disadvantages
1. Synergism 1. Misuse
2. Snowballing 2. Misjudge
3. Stimulation 3. Moderation
4. Security 4. Messy
5. Spontaneity 5. Misrepresentation
6. Serendipity
7. Specialization
8. Scientific scrutiny
9. Structure
10. Speed
Chapter 4 - 21
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education
Focus groups are the most
popular form of qualitative
research. They are generally
conducted at the front end of
the project before collecting
quantitative information.
Automobile companies such as
GM, Ford and Chrysler make
heavy use of focus groups to
understand consumer
preferences for new car
models and features.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 22

 In online focus groups, geographical constraints are
removed and time constraints are lessened.

 Unique opportunity to re-contact group participants at a

later date.

 Can recruit people not interested in traditional focus

groups: doctors, lawyers, etc.

 Moderators can carry on side conversations with

individual respondents.

 There is no travel, video taping, or facilities to arrange,

so the cost is much lower.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 23

 Only people that have access to the Internet can
participate.
 Verifying that a respondent is a member of a target
group is difficult.
 There is lack of general control over the respondent's
environment.
 Only audio and visual stimuli can be tested. Products
cannot be touched (e.g., clothing) or smelled (e.g.,
perfumes).
 It is difficult to capture body language and emotions.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 24

Characteristics Online Focus Groups Traditional Focus Groups
Group size 4–6 8 – 12
Group
Anywhere in the world Drawn from the local area
composition

Time duration 1 – 1.5 hours 1 – 3 hours

Physical setting Researcher has little control Under researcher’s control

Respondent
Difficult to verify Can be easily verified
identity
Respondent
Can engage in other tasks Attentiveness monitored
attentiveness
Respondent
Easier. Flexible. By traditional means
recruiting
Group
Limited Synergistic effect
dynamics
Openness of Respondents candid,
Respondents more candid
respondents except for sensitive topics
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 25
Characteristics Online Focus Groups Traditional Focus Groups
Nonverbal Body language not observed Body language and emotions
communication Symbols used for emotions observed
Use of physical
Limited Variety of stimuli can be used
stimuli

Transcripts Available immediately Time consuming, expensive

Observers’
Can communicate Can manually send notes
communication on a split-screen to the focus group room
with moderator
Unique moderator Typing, computer, familiar
Observational
skills with chat room slang

Turnaround time A few days Many days

Client travel costs None Can be expensive

Basic focus More expensive: facility,

Much less expensive
group costs food, taping, and transcripts

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 26

 Online focus groups are
very suitable for
companies such as
Amazon.com that sell
goods or services on
the Internet.
They are also useful for
gathering feedback
from employees on
workplace issues.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cCAPz14yjd4 Chapter 4 - 27
 Like focus groups, depth interviews are an unstructured
and direct way of obtaining information.

 Unlike focus groups, however, depth interviews are

conducted on a one-on-one basis.

 These interviews typically last from 30 minutes to more

than an hour.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 28

 They attempt to uncover underlying motives, prejudices,
or attitudes toward sensitive issues.

 Substantial probing is done to surface underlying

motives, beliefs, and attitudes.

 Probing is done by asking such questions as:

› “Why do you say that?''

› “That's interesting, can you tell me more?''

› “Would you like to add anything else?”

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 29
 Can uncover deeper insights about underlying motives
than focus groups.

 Can attribute the responses directly to the respondent,

unlike focus groups.

 Result in a free exchange of information and there is no

social pressure to conform.

 As a result of probing, it is possible to get at real issues

when the topic is complex.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 30

 Skilled interviewers capable of conducting depth
interviews are expensive and difficult to find.

 The quality and completeness of the results depend

heavily on the interviewer's skills.

 The data obtained are difficult to analyze and interpret.

 The length of the interview combined with high costs

limits the number of depth interviews.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 31

Depth interviews can be
effective in situations that
involve detailed probing of
respondents, discussion
of sensitive topics, or
where strong social
norms exist.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 32

 Focus Depth
Characteristics
Groups Interviews
Group synergy and dynamics + -
Peer pressure/group influence - +
Client involvement + -
Generation of innovative ideas + -
Indepth probing of individuals - +
Uncovering hidden motives - +
Discussion of sensitive topics - +
Interviewing respondents who are
- +
competitors
Interviewing respondents who are
- +
professionals
Scheduling of respondents - +
Amount of information + -
Bias in moderation and interpretation + -
Cost per respondent + -
Note: A “+” indicates a relative advantage over the other procedure.
A “-” indicates a relative disadvantage.
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 33
 A projective technique is an unstructured, indirect form
of questioning that encourages respondents to project
their underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings
regarding the issues of concern.

 In projective techniques, respondents are asked to

interpret the behavior of others.

 In interpreting the behavior of others, respondents

indirectly project their own motivations, beliefs, attitudes,
or feelings into the situation.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 34

 In word association, respondents are presented with a list
of words, one at a time and asked to respond to each with
the first word that comes to mind. The words of interest,
called test words, are interspersed throughout the list
which also contains some neutral or “filler” words to
disguise the purpose of the study. Responses are
analyzed by calculating:

1. the frequency with which any word is given as a

response;

2. the amount of time that elapses before a response is

given;

3. the number of respondents who do not respond at all to a

test word within a reasonable period of time.
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 35
In sentence completion, respondents are given incomplete
sentences and asked to complete them. Generally, they are
asked to use the first word or phrase that comes to mind.

A person who wears Tommy Hilfiger shirts is

_______________.
As compared to Polo, Gant, and Eddie Bauer, Tommy
Hilfiger shirts are
_________________.
Tommy Hilfiger shirts are most liked by ______________.

A variation of sentence completion is paragraph

completion, in which the respondent completes a
paragraph beginning with the stimulus phrase.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 36

With a picture response, the respondents are asked to
describe a series of pictures of ordinary as well as unusual
events. The respondent's interpretation of the pictures gives
indications of that individual's personality.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 37

In cartoon tests, cartoon characters are shown in a specific
situation related to the problem. The respondents are asked
to indicate what one cartoon character might say in
response to the comments of another character. Cartoon
tests are simpler to administer and analyze than picture
response techniques.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 38

 Let’s get
some
clothes from
Macy’s!

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 39

Respondents are presented with a verbal or visual situation
and asked to relate the feelings and attitudes of other
people to the situation.

Role playing: Respondents are asked to play the role or

assume the behavior of someone else.

Third-person technique: The respondent is presented

with a verbal or visual situation and the respondent is
asked to relate the beliefs and attitudes of a third person
rather than directly expressing personal beliefs and
attitudes. This third person may be a friend, neighbor,
colleague, or a “typical” person.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 40

 They may elicit responses that subjects would be
unwilling or unable to give if they knew the purpose of
the study.

 Helpful when the issues to be addressed are personal,

sensitive, or subject to strong social norms.

 Helpful when underlying motivations, beliefs, and

attitudes are operating at a subconscious level.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 41

 Suffer from many of the disadvantages of unstructured
direct techniques, but to a greater extent.
 Require highly trained interviewers.
 Skilled interpreters are also required to analyze the
responses.
 There is a serious risk of interpretation bias.
 They tend to be expensive.
 May require respondents to engage in unusual behavior.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 42

 Projective techniques should be used because the
required information cannot be accurately obtained by
direct methods.

 Projective techniques should be used for exploratory

research to gain initial insights and understanding.

 Given their complexity, projective techniques should not

be used naively.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 43

Projective techniques can
be used in conjunction with
focus groups and depth
interviews to obtain
responses that subjects
would be unwilling or
unable to give if they knew
the purpose of the study.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 44

 Qualitative research might reveal the differences
between foreign and domestic markets.
 Focus groups can be used in many settings, particularly
in industrialized countries, but professional standards
and practices might vary from those in the United States.
 The moderator should not only be trained in focus-group
methodology, but should also be familiar with the
language, culture, and patterns of social interaction
prevailing in that country.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 45

 In some countries, such as those in the Middle and Far
East, people are hesitant to discuss their feelings in a
group setting. In these cases, depth interviews should be
used.
 The use of projective techniques should be carefully
considered, because the responses that these
techniques generate can reflect deeply rooted cultural
influences.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 46

Focus Groups and Depth Interviews
 Just being a part of different types of social media and
analyzing what people are talking about can yield a basic
understanding of customers.
 Companies are creating private online communities,
which can play the role of extended focus groups. The
members are carefully recruited and membership is only
by invitation.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 47

Focus Groups and Depth Interviews (Cont.)
 Another way to conduct focus group type of research
involves participant blogs. The general approach is to
define a specific topic and then recruit participants to
blog about that topic. Each participant is given his/her
own blog to maintain. The number of participants
typically range from 8 to 60. Blog projects tend to last
from one to four weeks.
 Depth interviews can be conducted by engaging
individual respondents in one-on-on e-conversations.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 48

Projective Techniques
 The unstructured and indirect form of questioning on
social media has consumers willing to project their
underlying thoughts, motivations and feelings regarding
the issues of concern.
 Sentence Completion can be implemented by asking
Community members to complete sentences like, “When
you talk to yourself, you refer to yourself as ………”

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 49

Projective Techniques (Cont.)
 Picture-Response Technique can be implemented by
analyzing photos posted on photo sharing sites include
Flickr, a leader in this category, PhotoBucket, Shutterfly,
Smugmug, and Snapfish. When analyzing these photos,
look for tags, descriptive labels applied by photographers
to their own work as well as the work of others.
 Role Playing can be implemented by asking consumers
to play various roles, e.g., to play the role of a TV
commercial producer and post the commercials they
have created.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 50

 Some of the salient ethical issues relate to misleading or
deceiving respondents, not maintaining their anonymity,
and embarrassing or harming the respondents. An
additional issue with wider ramifications is the use of
research results in an unethical manner.
 Deception, such as introducing clients as co-
researchers, raises ethical concerns and generates
mistrust.
 Whether or not they are initially told of the hidden
camera, the respondents should be informed about the
focus group recording at the end of the meeting and their
written consent obtained.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 51

 To use social media monitoring techniques without
adverse impact, consumers should be adequately
informed about such stealthy activities. Moreover, firms
can act ethically by only extracting the keywords that
they are looking for without looking for more than
necessary information.
 The researcher has an obligation to make the
respondents feel comfortable. If a respondent is
experiencing discomfort or stress, the interviewer should
show restraint and should not aggressively probe any
further.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 52

 At the end of the interview, respondents should be
allowed to reflect on all they have said and be allowed to
ask questions. This helps reduce their stress and return
them to their preinterview emotional state.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 53

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 54
The key characteristics of a focus group may be described
by the acronym FOCUS GROUPS:
F ocused on a particular topic
O utline prepared for discussion
C haracteristics of the moderator
U nstructured
S ize: 8 to 12 participants
G roup composition: homogeneous
R ecorded: audio- and video-recording
O bservation: one-way mirror
U ndisguised
P hysical setting: relaxed
S everal sessions needed: One to three hours each
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 55
The main features of a depth interview may be
summarized by the acronym DEPTH:
D epth of coverage
E ach respondent individually interviewed
P robe the respondent
T alented interviewer required
H idden motives may be uncovered

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 56

 The main features of a depth interview may be
summarized by the acronym PROJECTIVE:
P roject themselves into the situation
R espondents assume the behavior of someone else
O vercome respondent's unwillingness or inability
J udgment required in interpretation of responses
E xpress underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes
C onducting them requires considerable skill
T hematic: themes are elicited
I ndirect
V ague situations are used as stimuli
E xploratory in nature

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 4 - 57

 Step 1: Defining the Problem

Step 2: Developing an Approach to the Problem

Step 3: Formulating a Research Design

Secondary & Syndicated Survey & Observation Questionnaire & Form Sampling Process & Preliminary Plan of Data
Qualitative Research Experimental Research Measurement & Scaling
Data Analysis Research Design Sample Size Analysis

Step 4: Doing Field Work/ Collecting Data

Step 5: Preparing & Analyzing Data

Step 6: Preparing & Presenting the Report

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 58
Step 3 enlarged

Step 3: Formulating a Research Design

• Secondary & Syndicated Data Analysis

• Qualitative Research
• Survey & Observation Research
• Experimental Research
• Measurement & Scaling
• Questionnaire & Form Design
• Sampling Process & Sample Size
• Preliminary Plan of Data Analysis

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 59

 Quantitative Descriptive
Research

SURVEY OBSERVATION
Information Obtained Information Obtained
by Questioning by Observing Behavior
Respondents or
Phenomena

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 60

 The survey method of obtaining information is based on
questioning respondents.

 Perhaps the biggest issue researchers face is how to

motivate respondents to candidly answer their questions.

 Questions regarding behavior, intentions, attitudes,

awareness, motivations, and demographic and lifestyle
characteristics all lend themselves to survey research.

A typical survey involves structured questioning. A

formal questionnaire is prepared and the
questions are asked in a prearranged order.
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 61
 Survey Method

Direct Questioning of Respondents

Prepare a Structured Questionnaire

Administer the Questionnaire to Respondents

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 62

 Ease. Questionnaires are relatively easy to administer.

 Reliability. Using fixed-response (multiple-choice)

questions reduces variability in the results that may be
caused by differences in interviewers and enhances
reliability of the responses.

 Simplicity. It also simplifies coding, analysis, and

interpretation of data.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 63

 Respondents may be unable or unwilling to provide the
desired information.

 Structured data collection involving a questionnaire with

fixed-response choices may result in loss of validity for
certain types of data, such as beliefs and feelings.

 Properly wording questions is not easy.

The survey approach is by far the most

common method of primary data collection
in marketing research.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 64

 Survey Methods

Telephone Personal Mail Electronic

Traditional In-Home Mail/Fax E-Mail

Telephone Interview
Mall Intercept Internet
Computer-
Mail Panel
Assisted Computer-
Telephone Assisted
Interviewing Personal
(CATI) Interviewing
(CAPI)
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 65
 Traditional telephone interviews
involve phoning a sample of respondents
and asking them a series of questions.

 The interviewer uses a paper

questionnaire and records the responses
with a pencil.

 Telephone interviews are generally

conducted from centrally located
research facilities.

 Field service supervisors can closely

monitor the telephone conversations.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 66

 Computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI)
uses a computerized questionnaire administered to
respondents over the telephone.
 The interviewer sits in front of a computer screen
wearing a mini-headset.
 When contact is made, the interviewer reads the
questions posed on the CRT screen and records the
respondent's answers directly into the computer.
 Interim and update reports can be compiled
instantaneously, as the data are being collected.
Several software packages, such as webCATI by CfMC
(www.cfmc.com), are available for conducting CATI.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 67

 Data quality is also enhanced with
on-the-spot review of completed
questionnaires.

 The program will personalize questions

and control for logically incorrect
answers, such as percentage answers
that do not add up to 100 percent.

 The software has built-in branching logic,

which will skip questions that are not
applicable or will probe for more detail
when warranted.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 68

 In personal in-home interviews, respondents are
interviewed face-to-face in their homes.
 The interviewer's task is to contact the respondents, ask
the questions, and record the responses.
 In recent years, the use of personal in-home interviews
has declined.

In-home interviews are

still used, particularly by
syndicated firms that
need to collect large
amounts of data.
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 69
 In mall-intercept interviews, respondents are
intercepted in shopping in malls.
 The process involves stopping the shoppers, screening
them for appropriateness, and either administering the
survey on the spot or inviting them to a research facility
located in the mall to complete the interview.
 While not representative of the population in general,
shopping mall customers do constitute a major share of
the market for many products.
It is more efficient for the respondent to come to the
interviewer than for the interviewer to go to the
respondent.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 70

 In computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI)
the respondent sits in front of a computer terminal and
answers a questionnaire on the screen by using the
keyboard or a mouse.

 Help screens and courteous error messages are

provided.

 The colorful screens and on- and off-screen stimuli add

to the respondent's interest and involvement in the task.

CAPI, such as that using touch

screens, is becoming more
popular around the world.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 71

 This method has been classified as a
personal interview technique since an
interviewer is usually present to serve as a
host and to guide the respondent as
needed.

 This approach is used in shopping malls,

preceded by the intercept and screening
process described earlier.

 It is also used to conduct business-to-

business research at trade shows or
conventions.
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 72
 A typical mail interview package
consists of the outgoing envelope,
cover letter, questionnaire, postage-
paid return envelope, and possibly
an incentive.

 Those individuals motivated to do so

complete and return the
questionnaire through the mail.

 There is no verbal interaction

between the researcher and the
respondent.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 73

 Individuals are selected for cold surveys through mailing
lists the client maintains internally or has purchased
commercially.

 The type of envelope, the cover letter, the length of the

questionnaire, and the incentive (if one is offered) all
affect response rates.

Mail interviews will continue to be used because

of their low cost compared to other methods.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 74

 Mail panels consist of a large and nationally
representative sample of individuals who
have agreed to participate in periodic survey
research.

 Incentives in the form of cash or gifts are

often offered to the individuals who agree to
participate.

 Once the individuals have been admitted to

the panel, detailed demographic and lifestyle
data are collected on each household.

 The researcher uses this information to

select targeted mailing lists within the panel
based on client needs.
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 75
 If the addresses are known, the e-mail survey can
simply be sent electronically to respondents included in
the sample.

 Respondents key in their answers and send an e-mail

reply.

 Typically, a computer program is used to prepare the

questionnaire and email address list, and to prepare the
data for analysis.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 76

 Respondent anonymity is difficult to maintain because a
reply to an email message includes the sender’s address.

 E-mail surveys are especially suited to projects where

the email lists are readily available, such as surveys of
employees, institutional buyers, and consumers who
frequently contact the organization via e-mail (e.g.,
frequent fliers of an airline).

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 77

 An Internet survey is a questionnaire posted on a Web
site that is self administered by the respondent.

 The questions are displayed on the screen and the

respondents provide answers by clicking an icon, keying
in an answer, or highlighting a phrase.

 Web survey systems are available for constructing and

posting Internet surveys

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 78

 The researcher can obtain at any time survey completion
statistics, descriptive statistics of the responses, and
graphical display of the data.

 As compared to email surveys, Internet surveys offer

more flexibility, greater interactivity, personalization,
automatic skip patterns and visual appeal.

 Several Web sites, such as SurveyMonkey

(www.surveymonkey.com), allow users to design surveys
online.
With increased availability of the Internet, the popularity
of Internet surveys is growing across the globe.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 79

Method Advantages Disadvantages
Telephone Fast No use of physical stimuli
High sample control Limited to simple questions
Good control of field force Quantity of data is low
Good response rate
Moderate cost

In-Home Complex questions can be asked Low control of field force

Good for physical stimuli High social desirability
Very good sample control Potential for interviewer bias
High quantity of data Most expensive
Very good response rate May take longer

Mall- Complex questions can be asked High social desirability

intercept Very good for physical stimuli Potential for interviewer bias
Very good control of environment Quantity of data is moderate
Very good response rate High cost
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 80
Method Advantages Disadvantages
CAPI Complex questions can be asked High social desirability
Very good for physical stimuli Quantity of data is moderate
Very good control of environment High cost
Very good response rate
Low potential for interviewer bias

Mail No field force problems Limited to simple questions

No interviewer bias Low sample control for cold mail
Moderate/High quantity of data No control of environment
Social desirability is low Low response rate for cold mail
Low cost Low speed

Mail Panel No field force problems Limited to simple questions

No interviewer bias Low/moderate speed
Low/moderate cost No control of environment
High quantity of data
Good sample control
Low social desirability
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Method Advantages Disadvantages
Electronic: Low cost Moderate quantity of data
E-mail No interviewer bias Low sample control
High speed No control of environment
Social desirability is low Low response rate
Contact hard-to-reach Security concerns
respondents

Electronic: Visual appeal and interactivity Moderate quantity of data

Internet No interviewer bias Low sample control
Low cost No control of environment
Social desirability is low Low response rate
Very high speed
Personalized, flexible questioning
Contact hard-to-reach
respondents

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Outgoing Envelope
Outgoing Envelope: size, color, return address
Postage
Method of Addressing

Cover Letter
Sponsorship Signature
Personalization Postscript
Type of appeal

Questionnaire
Length Layout
Content Color
Size Format
Reproduction Respondent anonymity

Return Envelope
Type of envelope
Postage
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 Advantages/
Method Comment
Disadvantages
Completely Shares the advantages and Can be useful for
Automated disadvantages of CATI short, in-bound surveys
Telephone Surveys initiated by the respondent
(CATS)

Wireless Phone Shares the advantages and Can be useful for point-of-
Interview disadvantages of CATS purchase survey if
(voice-based respondent co-operation is
obtained
format)
Wireless Phone Shares the advantages and Can be useful for point-of-
Interview disadvantages of e-mail purchase survey if
(text-based format) Interview but should be much respondent co-operation is
shorter obtained

In-office Interview Shares the advantages and Useful for interviewing

disadvantages of in-home busy managers
interview
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 Advantages/Disadvantag
Method Comment
es
Central Location Shares the advantages and Examples include trade
Interview disadvantages of mall shows, conferences,
intercepts exhibitions, purchase
intercept
Kiosk-based Shares the advantages and Visit
Computer disadvantages of CAPI www.touchscreenresearch.
Interviewing com.au for more
information

Fax Interview Shares the advantages and Useful in some business

disadvantages of mail survey surveys
except it is faster with higher
response rate

Drop-of Survey Shares the advantages and Can be useful for local
disadvantages of mail surveys market surveys
with higher costs and higher
response rates
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 85
 When evaluating the various survey methods within the
context of a specific research project, one has to
consider the salient factors relevant to data collection.

 Often, certain factors dominate, leading to a particular

survey method as the natural choice.

 If no method is clearly superior, the choice must be

based on an overall consideration of the advantages and
disadvantages of the various methods.

 Often, in large projects these methods are combined to

enhance the quality of data in a cost-effective manner.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 86

1. If complex and diverse questions have to be asked, one
of the personal methods (in-home, mall intercept, or
CAPI) is preferable. Internet surveys are an option as
well.

2. From the perspective of the use of physical stimuli,

personal methods (in-home, mall intercept, or CAPI) are
preferable.

3. If sample control is an issue, cold mail (but not mail

panel), fax, and electronic methods might not be
appropriate.

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4. Control of the data collection environment favors the
use of central location (mall intercept and CAPI)
interviewing.

5. High quantity of data favors the use of in-home and

mail panels and makes the use of telephone
interviewing inappropriate.

6. Low response rates make the use of cold mail and

electronic methods disadvantageous.

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7. If social desirability is an issue, mail, mail-panel, fax, and
Internet surveys are best.

8. If interviewer bias is an issue, the use of mail (cold and

panels), fax, and electronic interviewing (e-mail and
Internet) is favored.

9. Speed favors Internet, e-mail, telephone, and fax methods.

10. Costs favor cold mail, fax, electronic (e-mail and Internet),
mail panels, telephone, mall intercept, CAPI, and in-home
methods, in that order (most favorable to least favorable).

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 89

 Methods of Improving Response Rates

Prior Other
Incentives Follow-up
Notification Facilitators

Monetary Nonmonetary

Prepaid Promised

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 90

 Prior notification consists of sending a letter or e-mail,
or making a telephone call to potential respondents,
thereby notifying them of the imminent mail, telephone,
personal, or electronic survey.

 Offering monetary as well as nonmonetary incentives to

potential respondents can increase response rates. The
prepaid incentive is included with the survey or
questionnaire. The promised incentive is sent to only
those respondents who complete the survey. Prepaid
incentives have been shown to increase response rates
to a greater extent than promised incentives.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 91

 Follow-up, or contacting the nonrespondents
periodically after the initial contact, is particularly
effective in decreasing refusals in mail surveys. Follow-
up can be done by telephone, mail, e-mail, or personal
contact.

 Personalization, or sending letters addressed to

specific individuals, is effective in increasing response
rates.
The amount of incentive has a positive
relationship with response rate, but the cost of
large monetary incentives may outweigh the
value of additional information obtained.
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Observation involves recording the behavioral patterns of
people as well as data on objects and events in a
systematic manner to obtain information about the
phenomenon of interest.
 The observer does not question or communicate with the
people being observed.
 Information can be recorded as the events occur or from
records of past events.

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 For structured observation, the researcher
specifies in detail what is to be observed and how the
measurements are to be recorded, e.g., an auditor
performing inventory analysis in a store.

 In unstructured observation, the observer monitors

all aspects of the phenomenon that seem relevant to
the problem at hand, e.g., observing children playing
with new toys.

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 In disguised observation, the respondents are
unaware that they are being observed. Disguise may
be accomplished by using one-way mirrors, hidden
cameras, or inconspicuous mechanical devices.
Observers may be disguised as shoppers or sales
clerks.

 In undisguised observation, the respondents are

aware that they are under observation.

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 Natural observation involves observing behavior as
it takes places in the environment. For example, one
could observe the behavior of respondents eating
fast food in Burger King.

 In contrived observation, respondents' behavior is

observed in an artificial environment, such as a test
kitchen.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 96

 In personal observation, a researcher observes actual
behavior as it occurs.

 The observer does not attempt to manipulate the

phenomenon being observed but merely records what
takes place.

 For example, a researcher might record traffic counts

and observe traffic flows in a department store.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 97

Do not require respondents' direct participation.
 the Nielsen audimeter
 turnstiles that record the number of people entering or
leaving a building.
 on-site cameras (still, motion picture, or video)

 optical scanners in supermarkets

Do require respondent involvement.

 eye-tracking monitors, pupilometers

 voice pitch analyzers

 devices measuring response latency

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 98

Web-based tracking of
Internet users using
cookies is a controversial
mechanical observation
method.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 99

 They permit measurement of actual behavior rather than
reports of intended or preferred behavior.

 There is no reporting bias, and potential bias caused by the

interviewer and the interviewing process is eliminated or
reduced.

 Certain types of data can be collected only by observation.

 If the observed phenomenon occurs frequently or is of short

duration, observational methods may be cheaper and faster
than survey methods.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 100

 The reasons for the observed behavior may not be
determined, since little is known about the underlying motives,
beliefs, attitudes, and preferences.
 Selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception) can
bias the data.
 Observational data are often time-consuming and expensive,
and it is difficult to observe certain forms of behavior.
 In some cases, the use of observational methods may be
unethical, as in observing people without their knowledge or
consent.
 It is best to view observation as a complement to survey
methods, rather than as being in competition with them.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 101

Method Advantages Disadvantages
Personal Most flexible High observation bias
Observation Highly suitable in natural High analysis bias
settings

Mechanical Low observation bias Can be intrusive

Observation Low to medium analysis Not always suitable in
bias natural settings

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 102

 Given the differences in the economic, structural,
informational, technological, and sociocultural
environments, the feasibility and popularity of the
different interviewing methods vary across countries.

 In the United States and Canada, nearly all households

have telephones and telephone interviewing is a popular
method despite losing the dominant status to the
Internet. This is also true in some European countries,
such as Sweden.

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 In-home personal interviews are the dominant mode of
collecting survey data in many European countries, such
as Switzerland, and in newly industrialized countries
(NICs) or developing countries.

 Although mall intercepts are being conducted in some

European countries, such as Sweden, they are not
popular in other European countries or in developing
countries.

 Central location/street interviews constitute the

dominant method of collecting survey data in France and
the Netherlands.
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 104
 Due to their low cost, mail interviews continue to be used
in most developed countries where literacy is high and
the postal system is well developed. In Africa, Asia, and
South America, however, the use of mail surveys and
mail panels is low because of illiteracy and the large
proportion of the population living in rural areas.

 Access to the Web or e-mail is limited in many countries,

particularly developing countries. Hence, the use of
electronic surveys is not feasible, especially for
interviewing households in rural areas.

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 Different incentives are more or less effective in
improving response rates in different countries. In Japan,
it is more appropriate to use gifts with business surveys
rather than cash as incentives. The same is true for
household surveys in Mexico.

When collecting data from different countries, it is

desirable to use survey methods with equivalent levels of
reliability rather than necessarily using the identical
method.

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 A survey that takes 20 minutes in the United States could take
more than twice as long in Germany. The German language is
not as concise as English, and Germans like to talk more than
Americans do. For similar reasons, the interviewing time could
be longer in other countries as well, such as in Brazil.

 Telephone directories are unreliable in some countries (e.g.,

some African nations, such as Sierra Leone), because they
are updated infrequently.

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 The incidence of unlisted telephones can vary widely across
countries and segments. For example, in Colombia, the
numbers of some members of the elite and upper classes are
never listed.

 In some countries, such as Japan, China, Thailand, Malaysia,

and those in Southeast Asia, telephone interviews are
considered rude. In contrast, in some South American
countries, such as Argentina and Peru, the response rates to
telephone surveys are high given the low levels of
telemarketing and the element of surprise in receiving an
unexpected long-distance or local call.

 Traditional personal interviewing methods remain popular in

some European countries (e.g., Switzerland, France), Asian
countries (e.g., China, India), African countries (e.g., Nigeria,
Kenya), and South American countries (e.g., Colombia,
Mexico) due to face-to-face culture.
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 Low literacy rates and/or the lack of a reliable postal system in
rural areas may make mail surveys infeasible in some
countries such as in many African (e.g., Ghana, Ivory Coast)
and Central and South American nations (e.g., El Salvador,
Uruguay, Paraguay).

 Mall interviews are limited due to the lack of shopping malls in

many developing countries and some developed countries
(e.g., Germany). In addition, domestic laws may prohibit or
make it more difficult to interview people while shopping.

 Telephone penetration may be low in some countries, particularly

in rural areas. In some countries, such as Cambodia, multiple
families may be sharing a phone line because of high phone
rates.
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 In countries with high cellular/mobile phone penetration and low
hard/wired-line penetration (e.g., Thailand, Malaysia), the use of
traditional phone surveys is unappealing.

 Poor access to computers and the Internet may make the use of
electronic interviewing infeasible in some countries (e.g., rural
populations in Africa, Asia, and South America).

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 110

Surveys
 Short surveys can be administered on the social
media site itself, e.g., a Facebook page. For longer
surveys, a link can be provided on the site that
directs the user to the survey site.

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Advantages of Social Media for conducting Surveys
Social media offer the following advantages for conducting
surveys:
 Wider coverage through virtual nature of outreach
 Simplicity in implementing surveys due to easy to use
social media tools
 Ability to field more complex questions with aid from
interactive multimedia computing
 Responses are more candid due to the veil of anonymity
and lack of physical interaction thus encouraging honest
feedback
 Improved accessibility– Nature of Internet allows tags
and URLS to be linked to other sites of interest, thus
content of surveys are more accessible.
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 112
Advantages of Social Media for conducting Surveys
(Cont.)
 Lower cost of research – no need to maintain large field
force of interviewers and supervisors
 Ability to use multiple survey methods. For example,
social media worlds such as Second Life allow one-to-
one internet phone surveys to be made.
 No Interviewer Bias
 Low social desirability
 High-Speed, instantaneous results of polling

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Disadvantages of Social Media for conducting Surveys
Social media offer the following disadvantages for
conducting surveys:
 Surveys do not address the responses from nonusers of
social media, especially the older consumers.
 Survey administration is difficult to control and content
may be accessible to competitors.
 Response rate may be low because of the clutter
involved through the use of virtual communities. Surveys
may be dismissed as spam.
 Confidentiality is an issue to consumers because of the
relatively insecure features of virtual media, thus
discouraging the release of sensitive information.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 114

Observation
 The comments, photos, videos, audio and other stimuli
posted voluntarily by consumers on their social media
sites are traces of their behaviors. An analysis of these
constitutes a form of observation known as trace
analysis.
 Some researchers consider participant blogs and online
research communities to be examples of e-ethnography
or netnography (ethnographic research online).
 It is also possible to more directly observe the behavior
of interest to the researcher in the virtual world, e.g.,
Second Life.

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 Surveys often are used as a cover for a targeted sales
effort. This practice, called “sugging” in the trade
language, is unethical.
 A similar unethical practice is “frugging” and involves
fundraising under the guise of research.
 Respondents’ anonymity, discussed in the context of
qualitative research in Chapter 4, is an important issue
also in survey as well as observational search.
 The researcher has the responsibility to use an
appropriate survey method in an ethical and legal way.

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 Researchers often observe people’s behavior
without their consent, arguing that informing the
respondents might alter their behavior. This can be
considered an invasion of the respondents’ privacy.
Such observation should only be conducted in
places where people would expect to be observed
by the public. After observing their behavior, the
researcher is still obligated to obtain the necessary
permission from the subjects.
 The common practice of serving cookies on the
Internet raises ethical concerns.

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 117

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 118
The classification of survey methods by mode of
administration may be described by the acronym
METHODS:
M ail panels
E lectronic interviews
T elephone interviews
H ome (in-home personal) interviewing
O n-site mall interviews
D irect-mail interviews
S oftware for CATI/CAPI/electronic interviewing

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education Chapter 5 - 119