COMPETENCY BASED LEARNING MATERIAL

Sector:
ELECTRONICS SECTOR
Qualification:
COMPUTER SYSTEMS SERVICING NC II
Unit of Competency:
TEST ELECTRIC COMPONENTS
Module Title:
TESTING ELECTRIC COMPONENTS

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 HOW TO USE THIS COMPETENCY-BASED LEARNING MODULE

Welcome to the module “TEST ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS Computer

Operations”. This module contains training materials and activities for you to
complete.

The unit of competency “TESTING ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS” contains

the knowledge, skills and attitudes required for Electronic Product Assembly
and Servicing course required to obtain the National Certificate (NC) level II.

You are required to go through a series of learning activities in order to

complete each of the learning outcomes of the module. In each learning
outcome there are Information Sheets, Job Sheets, Operation Sheets and
Activity Sheets. Do these activities on your own and answer the Self-Check at
the end of each learning activity.

If you have questions, do not hesitate to ask your teacher for assistance.

Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL)

You may already have some basic knowledge and skills covered in this
module. If you can demonstrate competence to your teacher in a particular
skill, talk to him/her so you do not have to undergo the same training again. If
you have a qualification or Certificate of Competency from previous trainings,
show it to him/her. If the skills you acquired are consistent with and relevant
to this module, they become part of the evidence. You can present these for
RPL. If you are not sure about your competence skills, discuss this with your
teacher.
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After completing this module, ask your teacher to assess your competence.
Result of your assessment will be recorded in your competency profile. All the
learning activities are designed for you to complete at your own pace.

In this module, you will find the activities for you to complete and relevant
information sheets for each learning outcome. Each learning outcome may
have more than one learning activity.

This module is prepared to help you achieve the required competency in

receiving and relaying information. This will be the source of information that
will enable you to acquire the knowledge and skills in Electronic Product
Assembly and Servicing NC II independently at your own pace with minimum
supervision from your teacher.

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 LIST OF COMPETENCIES

N Unit of competency Module title Code

o
1. Apply quality standards Applying quality standards ELC315202
Perform computer Performing computer
2. ELC311203
operations operations
Perform mensuration and Performing mensuration and
3. ELC311201
calculation calculation
Prepare and interpret Preparing and interpret
4. ELC311202
technical drawing technical drawing
5. Use hand tools Using hand tools ELC724201
Terminate and connect Terminating and connect
6 electrical wiring and electrical wiring and ELC724202
electronic circuits electronic circuits
Test electronic Testing electronic ELC72420
7
components components 5

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 MODULE CONTENT

QUALIFICATION :COMPUTER SYSTEMS SERVICING NC II

UNIT OF COMPETENCY :TESTING ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
MODULE TITLE :TESTING ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
NOMINAL DURATION :8 hours
MODULE DESCRIPTOR :This unit covers the knowledge, skills and attitudes
required to test electronic components. It includes
competencies in determining the criteria for testing
electronics components, planning an approach for
component testing, testing the components and
evaluating the testing process.
SUMMARY OF LEARNING OUTCOMES:
Upon completion of this module, the trainee/student must be able to:
LO.1 Determine criteria for testing electronics components
LO.2 Plan an approach for component testing
LO.3 Test components
LO.4 Evaluate the testing process

PERFORMANCE CRITERIA
1 Work instructions are obtained and clarified based on job order or client
requirements
2 Responsible person is consulted for effective and proper work coordination
3 Data sheets/application notes are obtained and interpreted based on
manufacturer’s specifications
4 Testing criteria are defined to ensure that components meet technical and
quality requirements
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5 Document and communicate testing criteria to relevant personnel
6 Various testing methods are Identified based on types of electronic
components
7 Characteristics and appropriateness of testing methods to be used during
development and on completion is determined
8 Testing methods are considered/selected in relation to appropriate testing
strategy
9 Plan for testing components is developed at specified points during
development and on completion
10 Required test & measuring instruments and tools are prepared and checked
in accordance with established procedures
11 Records system is established to document testing results, including
problems and faults
12 Testing methods are applied to ensure that products meet creative,
production and technical requirements
13 Problems and faults detected by testing are recorded and remedial steps
taken in records system is documented
14 Problems and faults detected during testing are resolved in accordance with
agreed project or industry practice
15 Evaluate final products against the previously determined criteria
16 Testing process is documented and summarized evaluation report is
submitted to relevant personnel
17 Testing methods that were successful and those that led to difficulties are
identified based on industry standards
18 Testing process and records system are evaluated based on standard
procedures

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19 Test results/findings are documented for subsequent components testing.
Proper storage of instruments is undertaken according to company
procedures.
LEARNING OUTCOME 1
DETERMINE CRITERIA FOR TESTING ELECTRONICS COMPONENTS

CONTENTS:

1. Reading and comprehension skills required to interpret work

instructions and to interpret basic user manuals
2. OH and S principles and responsibilities
3. Criteria for testing Electronic Components

ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:
1. Requirements of tasks determined in accordance with the required
output
2. Appropriate hardware and software selected according to task assigned
and required outcome
3. Task planned to ensure that OH and S guidelines and procedures
followed
4. Client-specific guidelines and procedures followed
5. Required data security guidelines applied in accordance with existing
procedures

CONDITIONS:
Students/trainees must be provided with the following:
 Equipment:
1 unit of computer
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 Voltage regulator / UPS
 Learning materials:
Learning manuals
Work Instruction
Hand-outs
 Supplies/ materials:
Operating system
Application program

METHODOLOGIES:
 Lecture-demonstration
 Self-paced instruction
 Group discussion

ASSESSMENT METHODS:
 Hands-on
 Direct observation
 Practical demonstration

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 LEARNING EXPERIENCES/ACTIVITIES

LO.1 LEARNING OUTCOME 1: Determine Criteria For Testing Electronics Components

Read information sheet 1.1_1 assess quality After reading the information sheet, you
of received materials must be able to answer self-check 1.1_1 and
compare your answer to the answer sheet
Perform job sheet 1.1_1, and refer your
performance to the performance criteria
checklist

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 INFORMATION SHEET 7.1.1
DETERMINE CRITERIA FOR TESTING ELECTRONICS COMPONENTS

Scope
The testing in the field of electronics broadly covers the following categories:
a. Electronics components such as passive, active-semiconductors &
integrated circuits and hybrids.
b. Electro-mechanical components such as switches, relays and connectors.
c. Electro-magnetic components cores, solenoids, coils and transformers.
d. Wires, cables such as communication cables and PCBs.
e. Microwave components such as coaxial components, attenuators,
waveguides.
f. Picture tubes-color and black and white, CRTs and allied components
g. Electronics equipments such as mobile-land, sea and air borne
instruments.
h. Power supply equipments and systems.
i. Audio/ Video components and products.
j. Information technology equipments.
k. Opto-electronic components and instruments such as fiber optics.
l. Telecommunication equipments and systems.
m. Electro medical equipments.
n. EMI/ EMC and ESD testing.
o. Safety Testing.
p. Environmental testing such as conditioning and durability testing.
q. Development of environmental stress screening methods (ESS).
r. Failure mode analysis techniques for components, instruments and
systems.
s. Dependability analysis techniques and testing.
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While assessing testing capabilities of a laboratory in each of the above
categories, it should be understood that electronic products and application
cover a wide variety of tests based on relevant standards such as International
Standards and other national and international specifications/ standards.

These guidelines suggest only the broad range of tests in the above mentioned
categories of testing in electronics discipline for measurement of various
parameters.

Classes of Test

In the field of Electronics testing, the tests have been classified product-wise
e.g. domestic electronics appliances and accessories, computer and
accessories, electronics components & equipments etc. However, certain
specialized tests, which are performed on a wide range of equipment, have been
grouped test facility wise e.g. EMI / EMC testing, environmental testing etc.
Accreditation may be granted for tests performed in mobile laboratories, field
laboratory of locations, as well as in formal laboratory accommodation.

1. Wherever applicable, both fixed and variable types are covered under
relevant headings.
2. Wherever applicable, dimensions/ size, ranges and limits shall be indicated
(e.g. while indicating the environmental facilities, size and temperature,
humidity ranges shall be indicated).

Accommodation and Testing Environment

Accommodation requirements vary greatly depending on the nature of the

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articles to be tested and the order of accuracy required from the tests. Layout
of the laboratory shall be well defined to perform the desired tests. There shall
be sufficient space around test equipment to minimize the risk of damage or
danger and to provide for convenient and accurate operation and
measurement. The environment in which the tests are undertaken shall not
invalidate the results or adversely affect the required accuracy and precision of
measurement. There shall be all evidence of the implementation of all
necessary safety measures including first aid kits within the reach of all staff
members and safety instructions shall be displayed prominently. Fire fighting
equipments and fire exits shall be provided adequately. Various other
environmental conditions to be made available in the laboratory depending
upon the type of product being tested or type of test being conducted are as
follows:

1. The flooring shall have antistatic covering and test personnel shall ensure
that all static protection measures are taken while testing static sensitive
devices, high resistance circuits and instruments.
2. The laboratory shall be properly sealed to minimize the effects of external
noise, where relevant.
3. Testing shall be undertaken in a shielded cage/enclosure to minimize the
interference, where applicable.
4. All testing/ measurements which can be influenced by vibration should be
carried out in a specially allotted area where vibration is minimized. Use of
anti-vibration mounts and tables as required shall be provided in the
laboratory. All vibration generating instruments/ machines shall be isolated
as far as possible from the testing area. Proximity to lifts, plant rooms,
workshops, walkways, busy roads and other sources of noise and vibration
should be avoided.
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5. Satisfactory grounding is a critical element to measurement integrity and
personnel safety in the electronics testing laboratories. Dedicated earthling
shall be provided to the electronics test laboratory as per relevant
specification. The earth pit shall be maintained and monitored periodically
as per International Standards specifications and necessary records of earth
resistance shall be maintained.
6. The power to the testing laboratory and test bench should be on a phase
independent of the other electrical circuits as far as transients for which
necessary starters/ line filters stabilizers and isolation transformers shall be
provided. The power supply shall be provided with a regulated standby
power supply of adequate capacity.
7. Temperature and humidity control is one of the most critical elements for
consideration in testing laboratory. The laboratory shall be maintained at an
ambient temperature of 25 degree centigrade with tolerances to be decided
as per the requirements and sensitivity of measurements being made by the
laboratory. The humidity shall be between 45 and 70 percent RH ( relative
humidity – the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor to the equilibrium
vapor pressure of water at the same temperature). Both temperature and
humidity shall be effectively monitored, controlled and recorded periodically.
Where necessary, air curtains shall be provided.
8. The light fittings should be chosen to ensure adequate illumination at the
work bench without glare. The illumination should be in the range 400 to
500 lux. Provisions for emergency lighting should exist in the testing area.

Measurement Traceability and Calibration

Testing laboratory is required to establish and maintain traceability of their

equipments (measurements) to national standards at all times. In the absence
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of meeting the above requirements, the laboratory is required to establish/
substantiate, through documents the traceability to international standards for
its testing activities. Where relevant, the test equipment shall be subjected to
in-service checks between regular re-calibrations.

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 SELF CHECK 7.1_1

1 What is required when testing static sensitive devices, high resistance

circuits and instruments?
2 How do we avoid the effects of external noise, where relevant?
3 How can we minimize the interference?
4 All testing/ measurements which can be influenced by vibration should
be carried out in a ________________where vibration is minimized
5 The light fittings should be chosen to ensure ______________ at the work
bench without glare.

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 Answer key to SELF CHECK 7.1_1

1 The flooring shall have antistatic covering and test personnel shall ensure
that all static protection
2 The laboratory shall be properly sealed
3 Testing shall be undertaken in a shielded cage/enclosure
4 Specially allotted area
5 Adequate illumination

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 LEARNING OUTCOME 2
PLAN AN APPROACH FOR COMPONENT TESTING

CONTENTS:
 Safety precautions in handling testing equipment as well as the
materials.
 Identified the materials needed to test components
 Used appropriate tools and equipment needed for testing electronic
components
 Planning to perform the procedures in testing electronic components.
 Reading skills required to interpret work instruction
 Communication skills

ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:

1. Various testing methods are Identified based on types of electronic

components
2. Characteristics and appropriateness of testing methods to be used
during development and on completion is determined
3. Testing methods are considered/selected in relation to appropriate
testing strategy
4. Plan for testing components is developed at specified points during
development and on completion
5. Required test & measuring instruments and tools are prepared and
checked in accordance with established procedures
6. Records system is established to document testing results, including
problems and faults

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CONDITIONS:
Students/trainees must be provided with the following:

 Materials
 Toots and equipment
 Personal protective equipment

METHODOLOGIES:
 Film Viewing
 Individualized Learning
 Direct Student Laboratory Experience
 Project Method

ASSESSMENT METHODS:
 Demonstration and Questioning
 Assessment of Output Product

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 LEARNING EXPERIENCES/ACTIVITIES

LEARNING OUTCOME 1: PLAN AN APPROACH FOR COMPONENT TESTING

Read information sheet 1.1_1 assess quality After reading the information sheet, you
of received materials must be able to answer self-check 1.1_1 and
compare your answer to the answer sheet
Perform job sheet 1.1_1, and refer your
performance to the performance criteria
checklist

INFORMATION SHEET 7.2.1

PLAN AN APPROACH FOR COMPONENT TESTING

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 How to Read an Analog Multimeter

Three Parts:
1. Reading the Dial Settings
2. Reading an Analog Multimeter
3. Part 3 Troubleshooting

Part 1 Reading the Dial Settings

Image titled Read a Multimeter Step 1

1. Test AC or DC voltage. In general, V indicates voltage, a squiggly line

indicates alternating current (found in household circuits), and a straight
or dashed line indicates direct current (found in most batteries). The line
can appear next to or over the letter.
 The setting for testing voltage in an AC circuit is typically marked V~,
ACV, or VAC.
 To test voltage on a DC circuit, set the multimeter to V–, V---, DCV, or
VDC.
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 Image titled Read a Multimeter Step 2

2. Set the multimeter to measure current. Because current is measured in

amperes, it is abbreviated A. Choose direct current or alternating current,
whichever the circuit you are testing is made for. Analog multimeters
typically do not have the ability to test alternating current.
 A ~, ACA, and AAC are for alternating current.
 A –, A---, DCA, and ADC are for direct current.

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 Image titled Read a Multimeter Step 3

3. Find the resistance setting. This is marked by the Greek letter omega: Ω.
This is the symbol used to denote ohms, the unit used to measure
resistance. On older multimeters, this is sometimes labeled R for resistance
instead.

Image titled Read a Multimeter Step 4

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4. Use DC+ and DC-. If your multimeter has this setting, keep it on DC+ when
testing a direct current. If you aren't getting a reading and suspect you've
got the positive and negative terminals attached to the wrong ends, switch
to DC- to correct this without having to adjust the wires.

5. Understand other symbols. If you're not sure why there are multiple
settings for voltage, current, or resistance, read the troubleshooting section
for information on ranges. Besides these basic settings, most multimeters
have a couple additional settings. If more than one of these marks is next to
the same setting, it may do both simultaneously, or you may need to refer
to the manual or a similar series of parallel arcs indicates the "continuity
test." At this setting, the multimeter will beep if the two probes are
electrically connected.
 A right-pointing arrow with a cross through it marks the "diode test," for
testing whether one-way electrical circuits are connected.
 Hz stands for Hertz, the unit for measuring the frequency of AC circuits.
 –|(– symbol indicates the capacitance setting.

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 Image titled Read a Multimeter Step 6

6. Read the port labels. Most multimeters have three ports or holes.
Sometimes, the ports will be labeled with symbols that match the symbols
described above. If these symbols are unclear, refer to this guide:
 The black probe always goes into the port labeled COM for common
(also called the ground. (The other end of the black lead always
connects to the negative terminal.)
 When measuring voltage or resistance, the red probe goes into the port
with the smallest current label (often mA for milliamps).
 When measuring current, the red probe goes into the port labeled to
withstand the amount of expected current. Typically, the port for low-
current circuits has a fuse rated to 200mA while the high-current port
is rated to 10A.

Part 2 Reading an Analog Multimeter Result

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 Image titled Read a Multimeter Step 7

1. Find the right scale on an analog multimeter. Analog multimeters have a

needle behind a glass window, which moves to indicate the result.
Typically, there are three arcs printed behind the needle. These are three
different scales, each of which is used for a different purpose:
 The Ω scale is for reading resistance. This is typically the largest scale, at
the top. Unlike the other scales, the 0 (zero) value is on the far right
instead of the left.
 The "DC" scale is for reading DC voltage.
 The "AC" scale is for reading AC voltage.
 The "dB" scale is the least used option. See the end of this section for a
brief explanation.

Image titled Read a Multimeter Step 8

2. Make a voltage scale reading based on your range. Look carefully at the
voltage scales, either DC or AC. There should be several rows of numbers
beneath the scale. Check which range you have selected on the dial (for
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 example, 10V), and look for a corresponding label next to one of these rows.
This is the row you should read the result from.

Image titled Read a Multimeter Step 9

3. Estimate the value between numbers. Voltage scales on an analog
multimeter work just like an ordinary ruler. The resistance scale, however,
is logarithmic, meaning that the same distance represents a different
change in value depending on where you are on the scale. The lines
between two numbers still represent even divisions. For example, if there
are three lines between "50" and 70," these represent 55, 60, and 65, even
if the gaps between them look different sizes.

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 Image titled Read a Multimeter Step 10

4. Multiply the resistance reading on an analog multimeter. Look at the range

setting that the dial of your multimeter is set to. This should give you a
number to multiply the reading by. For example, if the multimeter is set to
R x 100 and the needle points to 50 ohms, the actual resistance of the
circuit is 100 x 50 = 5,000.

Image titled Read a Multimeter Step 11

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5. Find out more about the dB scale. The "dB" (decibel) scale, typically the
lowest, smallest one on an analog meter, requires some additional training
to use. It is a logarithmic scale measuring the voltage ratio (also called gain
or loss). The standard dBv scale in the US defines 0dbv as 0.775 volts
measured over 600 ohms of resistance, but there are competing dBu, dBm,
and even dBV (with a capital V) scales.

Part 3 Troubleshooting

Image titled Read a Multimeter Step 12

1. Set the range. Unless you have an auto-ranging multimeter, each of the
basic modes (voltage, resistance, and current) has several settings to
choose from. This is the range, which you should set before you attach the
leads to the circuit. Start out with your best guess for the value which is
just above the closest result. For example, if you expect to measure around
12 volts, set the meter to 25V, not 10V, assuming those are the two closest
options.
 If you have no idea what current to expect, set it to the highest range for

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 your first try to avoid damaging the meter.
 Other modes are less likely to damage the meter, but consider the
lowest resistance setting and the 10V setting your default.

Image titled Read a Multimeter Step 13

2. Adjust to "off the scale" readings. On a digital meter, "OL," "OVER," or

"overload" means you need to select a higher range, while a result very close
to zero means a lower range will give more accuracy. On an analog meter, a
needle that stays still usually means you need to select a lower range. A
needle that shoots to the maximum means you need to select a higher
range.

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 Image titled Read a Multimeter Step 14
3. Disconnect the power before measuring resistance. Turn off the power
switch or remove the batteries powering the circuit in order to get an
accurate resistance reading. The multimeter sends out a current to
measure the resistance, and if additional current is already flowing, this
will disrupt the result.

Image titled Read a Multimeter Step 15

4. Measure current in series. To measure current, you'll need to form one

circuit that includes the multimeter "in series" with the other components.
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 For example, disconnect one wire from a battery terminal, then connect one
probe to the wire and one to the battery to close the circuit again.

Image titled Read a Multimeter Step 16

5. Measure voltage in parallel. Voltage is the change in electrical energy across

some part of the circuit. The circuit should already be closed with current
flowing, then the meter should have the two probes placed at different
points on the circuit to connect it "in parallel" with the circuit. This must be
done carefully to avoid discrepancy.

Image titled Read a Multimeter Step 17

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6. Calibrate ohms on an analog meter. Analog meters have an additional dial,
used to adjust the resistance scale and typically marked with an Ω. Before
making a resistance measurement, connect the two probe ends to each
other. Turn the dial until the ohm scale reads zero, to calibrate it, then
conduct your actual test.
 If there is a mirror behind the needle of your analog multimeter, turn
the meter left or right so that the needle covers its own reflection for
better accuracy.
 If you are having trouble reading a digital multimeter, refer to the
manual. By default, it should display the numeric result, but there
could also be settings that display bar graphs or other forms of
information display.
 If the needle of an analog multimeter points below zero even at the
lowest range, then your "+" and "-" connectors are probably backwards.
Switch the connectors and take another reading.
 The initial measurement will fluctuate while measuring AC voltage, but
this will stabilize to an accurate reading

How to Use a Digital Multimeter

Five Methods:
1. Measuring Resistance
2. Measuring Voltage
3. Measuring Current
4. Testing Diodes
5. Measuring Continuity
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A multimeter, also called a volt-ohm meter or VOM, is a device that measures
resistance, voltage and current in electronic circuits. Some also test diodes and
continuity. Multimeters are small, lightweight and battery operated, and they
can test a wide variety of electronic components in many situations, making
them indispensable tools for anyone who needs to test and repair electronic
circuits.

Method 1 Measuring Resistance

Image titled Use Digital Multimeter Step 1

1. Connect the multimeter to the circuit. Insert the black probe into the
common terminal and the red probe into the terminal marked for
measuring volts and ohms. The terminal may also be marked for testing
diodes.

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 Image titled Use Digital Multimeter Step 2

2. Twist the selector knob to set the multimeter to measure resistance. This
may be represented by the Greek letter Omega, which stands for ohms,
the unit of measurement for resistance.

Image titled Use Digital Multimeter Step 3

3. Turn off power to the circuit.

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 Image titled Use Digital Multimeter Step 4

4. Remove the resistor you want to measure. If you leave the resistor in the
circuit you may not get an accurate reading.

Image titled Use Digital Multimeter Step 5

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 5. Touch the tips of the probes to each side of the resistor.

Image titled Use Digital Multimeter Step 6

6. Read the display, taking care to note the units. A reading of 10 may
indicate 10 ohms, 10 kilo-ohms or 10 mega-ohms.

Method 2 Measuring Voltage

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 Image titled Use Digital Multimeter Step 1

1. Connect the multimeter to a circuit. Put the black probe in the common
terminal and the red probe in the terminal marked for measuring volts
and ohms.

Image titled Use Digital Multimeter Step 2

2. Set the multimeter it for the voltage you're measuring. You can measure
volts DC (direct current), millivolts DC or volts AC (alternating current). If
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 your multimeter has an auto-range function, it's not necessary to select
the voltage you're measuring.

Image titled Use Digital Multimeter Step 3

3. Measure AC voltage by placing the probes across the component. It's not
necessary to observe polarity.

Image titled Use Digital Multimeter Step 4

4. Observe polarity when measuring DC voltage or millivoltage. Place the

black probe on the negative side of the component and the red probe on
the positive side.

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 Image titled Use Digital Multimeter Step 5

5. Read the display, taking care to note the units. If you prefer, you can use
the touch-hold feature to keep the reading on the display after you
remove the probes. The multimeter will beep each time a new voltage is
detected.

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Method 3 Measuring Current

Image titled Use Digital Multimeter Step 1

1. Choose either the terminal marked for measuring 10 amps or the one
marked for measuring 300 milliamps (mA). If you're unsure of the
current, start in the 10 amp terminal until you're sure the current is less
than 300 milliamps.

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 Image titled Use Digital Multimeter Step 2

2. Set the multimeter to measure current. This may be represented by the

letter A.

Image titled Use Digital Multimeter Step 3

3. Turn off power to the circuit.

Image titled Use Digital Multimeter Step 4

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4. Break the circuit. To measure current, you must place the multimeter in
series with the circuit. Place the probes on either side of the break,
observing polarity (black probe on negative side, red probe on positive
side.)

Image titled Use Digital Multimeter Step 5

5. Turn the power on. The current will run through the circuit, up the red
probe and through the multimeter, then out the black probe and into the
circuit.

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 Image titled Use Digital Multimeter Step 6

6. Read the display, remembering whether you are measuring amps or

milliamps. You can use the touch-hold feature if desired.

Method 4 Testing Diodes

Image titled Use Digital Multimeter Step 1

1. Insert the black probe into the common terminal and the red probe into
the terminal marked for measuring ohms, volts or diode test.

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 Image titled Use Digital Multimeter Step 2

2. Use the selector knob to choose the test diode function. This may be
represented by a symbol representing a diode, an arrow pointing at a
vertical line.

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 Image titled Use Digital Multimeter Step 3

3. Turn the power off to the circuit.

Image titled Use Digital Multimeter Step 4

4. Test forward bias. Place the red probe on the positive side of the diode
and the black probe on the negative side. If you get a reading of less than
1 but more than 0, the forward bias is good.

Image titled Use Digital Multimeter Step 5

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5. Reverse the probes to test reverse bias. If the display reads "OL
(overload)," this indicates that reverse bias is good.

Image titled Use Digital Multimeter Step 6

6. A reading of "OL" or 0 while testing forward bias, and 0 while testing

reverse bias indicates that the diode is bad. •Some multimeters will beep
when the reading is less than 1. This doesn't necessarily indicate a good
diode, because a shorted diode will also cause a beep.

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Method 5 Measuring Continuity

Image titled Use Digital Multimeter Step 1

1. Put the black probe into the common terminal and the red probe into the
terminal used to measure volts and ohms.

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 Image titled Use Digital Multimeter Step 2

2. Set the multimeter to the same setting you use to test diodes.

Image titled Use Digital Multimeter Step 3

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 3. Turn the power off to the circuit.

Image titled Use Digital Multimeter Step 4

4. Place the leads on either side of the section of circuit you're testing. It's
not necessary to observe polarity. A reading of less than 210 ohms
indicates good continuity.

NOTE

Never use a multimeter to test whether a high-voltage circuit is dead, on

circuits that use more than 4800 watts, on a main power supply to a building,
when the multimeter's battery is low or if its probes are damaged. All these
conditions represent a significant shock hazard.

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 HOW TO MEASURE RESISTANCE?

Resistance is the measure of difficulty electrons have in flowing through a

particular object. Resistance is measured in ohms. One ohm is equal to 1 volt
of electrical difference per 1 ampere of current. Resistance can be measured
with an analog or digital ohmmeter.

Two Methods:

Method 1 Measuring Resistance with a Digital Multimeter

1 Remove the component from the circuit or test it before you install it.
Testing the component while still in the circuit can cause inaccurate
readings.
Caution: If you are testing a circuit or even just removing a component, be sure
that all power to the circuit is turned off before proceeding.

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2 Plug the test leads into the correct test sockets. On most multimeters,
one test lead will be black and the other will be red. A multimeter often has
multiple testing sockets, according to whether it is being used to test for
resistance, voltage, or current. Usually the right sockets to test for
resistance are labeled "COM" (for common) and one labeled with the Greek
letter omega, Ω, which is the symbol for "ohm". Plug the black lead into the
socket labeled "COM" and the red lead into the socket labeled "ohm".

3 Turn on the multimeter and select the best testing range. The
resistance of a component can range from less than one ohm to Gigaohms
(1,000,000,000 ohms). In order to get an accurate reading of resistance you
must set the multimeter to the proper range for your component. Some
digital multimeters will automatically set the range for you, but others will
need to be set manually. If you have a general idea of the range of resistance
just set it to that range. If you’re unsure, you can determine the range
through trial and error.
a. If you don’t know the range, start with the middle range setting, usually
20 kilo-ohms (kΩ).
b. Touch one lead to the end of your component and the other lead to the
opposite end.
c. The number on the screen will either be 0.00, OL, or the actual value of
resistance.

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d. If the value is zero, the range is set too high and needs to be lowered.
e. If the screen reads OL (overloaded) the range is set too low and needs to
be increased to the next higher range. Test the component again with the
new range setting.
f. If the screen reads a specific number such as 58, that is the value of the
resistor. Remember to take into account the range applied. On a digital
multimeter the upper right-hand corner should remind you of your range
setting. If it has a kΩ in the corner, the actual resistance is 58 kΩ.
g. Try lowering the range one more time to see if you can get a more
accurate reading. Use the lowest range setting for the most accurate
resistance readings.
h. Again, touch the multimeter leads to the ends of the component you are
testing. Just as you did when you were setting the range, touch one lead
to one end of the component and the other lead to the opposite end. Wait
until the numbers stop going up or down and record that number. This
is the resistance of you component.

i.
For example, if your reading is .6 and the upper right corner says MΩ the
resistance of your component is 0.6 mega-ohms.

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4 Turn off the multimeter. When you are done measuring all of your
components, turn off the multimeter and unplug the leads for storage.

Method 2 Measuring Resistance with an Analog Multimeter

1. Remove the component from the circuit or test it before you install it.
Testing the component while still in the circuit can cause inaccurate readings
from other components.
Note: If you are testing a circuit or even just removing a component, be sure
that all power to the circuit is turned off before proceeding.

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2. Plug the test leads into the correct test sockets. On most
multimeters, one test lead will be black and the other will be red. A multimeter
often has multiple testing sockets, according to whether it is being used to test
for resistance, voltage, or amperage (current). Usually the right sockets to test
for resistance are labeled "COM" (for common) and one labeled with the Greek
letter omega, which is the symbol for "ohm."
Plug the black lead into the socket labeled "COM" and the red lead into the
socket labeled "ohm".

3. Turn on the multimeter and select the best testing range. The
resistance of a component can range from less than one ohm to Gigaohms
(1,000,000,000 ohms). In order to get an accurate reading of resistance you
must set the multimeter to the proper range for your component. If you have a
general idea of the range of resistance just set it to that range. If you’re unsure,
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you can determine the range through trial and error.

Setting the range:

1. If you don’t know the range, start with the middle range setting, usually 20
kilo-ohms (kΩ).
2. Touch the leads of the ohmmeter then turn the 0ΩAdj knob (zero ohms
adjustment knob) until the pointer points to 0Ω.
3. Touch one lead to the end of your component and the other lead to the
opposite end.
4. The needle will swing across the screen and stop in a specific spot. Multiply
the reading on the screen by the range (multiplier). The product is the
resistance of the component.
5. If the needle swings all the way to the top of the range (the left side), you
will need to increase the range setting, zero out the multimeter, and try
again.
6. If the needle swings all the way to the bottom of the range (the right side),
you will need to decrease the range setting, zero out the multimeter, and try
again.
7. Repeat step number 2 until you get the resistance reading in step number
4.

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Note:
The resistance range on a multimeter goes from right to left. The right side is
zero and the left side goes up to infinity. There are multiple scales on an analog
multimeter so be sure to look at the scaled labeled with a Ω that goes from
right to left. As the scale goes up, the higher values are clustered closer
together. Setting the correct range is crucial to being able to get an accurate
reading for your component.

5. Read the resistance. Once you have touched the leads to the
component, the needle will settle somewhere in between the top and bottom of
the scale. Check to make sure you are looking at the ohm scale and record the
value where the needle is pointing to. This is the resistance of your component.
For example if you had set the range to 10 Ω and the needle stopped at 9, the
resistance of your component is 9 ohms. If the resistance reading is outside of
the resistance range (determine by the tolerance)

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6. Set the voltage to a high range. When you are finished using the
multimeter, you want to make sure it is properly stored. Setting the voltage to a
high range before turning it off ensures that it won’t be damaged the next time
it is used if someone doesn’t remember to set the range first. Turn off the
multimeter and unplug the leads for storage.

Ensuring a Good Test

1. Test resistance on components not in a circuit. Measuring
resistance on a component in a circuit will cause inaccurate readings because
the multimeter is also measuring resistance from the other components in a
circuit as well as the one being tested. Sometimes, however, it is necessary to
test resistance on components in circuit.

2. Test only components that are powered off. Current flowing through a
circuit will cause inaccurate readings, as the increased current will create a
higher resistance. Also, the additional voltage could damage the multimeter.
(For this reason, testing the resistance of a battery is not advised.) Any
capacitors in a circuit being tested for resistance should be discharged before
testing. Discharged capacitors may absorb charge from the multimeter's
current, creating momentary fluctuations in the reading.

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3. Check for diodes in the circuit. Diodes conduct electricity in only 1
direction; thus, reversing the position of the multimeter's probes in a circuit
with diodes will cause different readings.

4. Watch your fingers. Some resistors or components need to be held in

place to maintain contact with the multimeter's probes. Touching the resistor
or the probe with your fingers can cause inaccurate readings due to your body
absorbing current from the circuit. This is not a significant problem when
using a low-voltage multimeter and in low resistance resistor, but it can be a
problem when testing resistance with a high-voltage multimeter and a high
resistance resistor. One way to keep your hands off components is to attach
them to a testing board, or "breadboard" when testing for resistance. You can
also attach alligator clips to the multimeter probes to keep the terminals of the
resistor or component in place while testing.

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Potentiometers

To test a potentiometer, (pot), or a variable resistor, connect the component to

the probes of a meter set to ohms and turn the shaft. A “noisy” pot can be
repaired using a special spray.

How to test an LDR

The resistance of an LDR varies according to the light falling on it. At bright
light, the LDR resistance will be around 500 Ohms and at darkness the
resistance will be around 200K. For a proper diagnosis we need to measure the
resistance of the LDR at bright light and at darkness.

Test1.
Keep the multimeter at Ohms mode. The LDR must be subjected to a bright
light source (day light is enough). Connect the LDR leads to the multimeter
terminals as shown in the figure. Now the multimeter will show a low
resistance reading around 500 Ohms.

Test2.
Keep the multimeter at Ohms mode. The LDR must be subjected to darkness
by covering it with an opaque paper. Connect the LDR leads to the multimeter
terminals as shown in the figure. Now the multimeter will show a high
resistance reading around 200K.

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If both of the above tests are positive then we can conclude that the LDR is
healthy

HOW TO TEST A CAPACITOR

Five Methods:
1. Using a Digital Multimeter With Capacitance Setting
2. Using a Digital Multimeter Without Capacitance Setting
3. Using an Analog Multimeter
4. Testing a Capacitor With a Voltmeter
5. Shorting the Capacitor Terminal

Capacitors come in 2 main types: Polarized (like electrolytic, and tantalum),

which are used with vacuum tube and transistor power supplies, and non–
polarized (like mylar, ceramic, and polyester), which are used to regulate direct
current surges. Electrolytic capacitors can fail by discharging too much current
or by running out of electrolyte and being unable to hold a charge. Non-
Polarized capacitors most often fail by leaking their stored charge. There are
several ways to test a capacitor to see if it still functions as it should.

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Method 1 Using a Digital Multimeter With Capacitance Setting.

Steps:
1. Disconnect the capacitor from the circuit it is part of.

Image titled Test a Capacitor Step 1

2. Read the capacitance value on the outside of the capacitor. The unit for
capacitance is the farad, which is abbreviated with a capital “F.” You may
also see the Greek letter mu (µ), which looks like a lowercase “u” with a tail
in front of it. (Because the farad is a large unit, most capacitors measure
capacitance in microfarads; a microfarad is a millionth of a farad.)

Image titled Test a Capacitor Step 2

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3. Set your multimeter to its capacitance setting.

Image titled Test a Capacitor Step 3

4. Connect the multimeter leads to the capacitor terminals. Connect the

positive (red) multimeter lead to the capacitor anode lead and the negative
(black) lead to the capacitor cathode lead. (On most capacitors, especially
electrolytic capacitors, the anode lead is longer than the cathode lead.)

Test a Capacitor Step 4

5. Check the multimeter reading. If the capacitance reading on the multimeter

is close to the value printed on the capacitor itself, the capacitor is good. If
it’s significantly less than the value printed on the capacitor, or zero, the
capacitor is dead.
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 Image titled Test a Capacitor Step 5

Method 2. Using a Digital Multimeter Without Capacitance Setting

Image titled Test a Capacitor Step 6

1. Disconnect the capacitor from its circuit.

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2. Set your multimeter to its resistance setting. This setting may be marked
with the word “OHM” (the unit for resistance) or the Greek letter omega (Ω),
the abbreviation for ohm. •If your unit has an adjustable resistance range,
set the range to 1000 ohm = 1K or higher.

Image titled Test a Capacitor Step 7

3. Connect the multimeter leads to the capacitor terminals. Again, connect the
red lead to the positive (longer) terminal and the black lead to the negative
(shorter) terminal.

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 Image titled Test a Capacitor Step 8

4. Observe the multimeter reading. Write down the initial resistance value, if
you wish. The value should soon revert to what it was before you connected
the leads.

Image titled Test a Capacitor Step 9

5. Reconnect the capacitor several times. You should see the same results as
on the first test. If you do, the capacitor is good. If, however, the resistance
value does not change on any of the tests, the capacitor is dead.

Image titled Test a Capacitor Step 10

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Method 3 Using an Analog Multimeter

1. Disconnect the capacitor from its circuit.

Image titled Test a Capacitor Step 1

2. Set your multimeter to its resistance setting. As with the digital multimeter,
it may be marked “OHM” or with an omega (Ω).

Image titled Test a Capacitor Step 2

3. Connect the multimeter leads to the capacitor terminals. Red lead to

positive (longer) terminal, black lead to negative (shorter) terminal.

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 Image titled Test a Capacitor Step 3

4. Observe the results. Analog multimeters use a needle to display their

results. How the needle behaves determines whether or not the capacitor is
good.
 If the needle initially shows a low resistance value then gradually moves
to the right, the capacitor is good.
 If the needle shows a low resistance value and doesn’t move, the
capacitor has been shorted out. You’ll need to replace it.
 If the needle shows no resistance value and doesn’t move or a high value
and doesn’t move, the capacitor is an open capacitor (dead).

Image titled Test a Capacitor Step 4

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Method 4 Testing a Capacitor with a Voltmeter

Image titled Test a Capacitor Step 15

1. Disconnect the capacitor from its circuit. You may, if you wish, disconnect
only 1 of the 2 leads from the circuit.

Image titled Test a Capacitor Step 16

2. Check the capacitor’s voltage rating. This information should be printed on

the outside of the capacitor as well. Look for a number followed by a capital
“V,” the symbol for “volt.”

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 Image titled Test a Capacitor Step 17

3. Charge the capacitor with a known voltage less than, but close to, its rated
voltage. For a 25V capacitor, you could use a voltage of 9 volts, while for a
600V capacitor; you should use a voltage of at least 400 volts. Let the
capacitor charge for a few seconds. Be sure to connect the positive (red) lead
from the voltage source to the positive (longer) capacitor terminal and the
negative (black) lead to the negative (shorter) terminal. The greater the
discrepancy between the capacitor’s voltage rating and the voltage you’re
charging it with, the longer it will take to charge. Generally, the higher
voltage of the power supply you have access to, the higher the voltage
ratings of the capacitors you can test with ease.

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 Image titled Test a Capacitor Step 18

4. Set your voltmeter to read DC voltage (if it’s capable of reading both AC and
DC).

Image titled Test a Capacitor Step 19

5. Connect the voltmeter leads to the capacitor. Connect the positive(red) lead
to the positive (longer) terminal and the negative (black) lead to the negative
(shorter) terminal.

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 Image titled Test a Capacitor Step 20

6. Note the initial voltage reading. This should be close to the voltage you
supplied the capacitor with. If it isn’t, the capacitor is no good. •The
capacitor will discharge its voltage into the voltmeter, causing its reading to
drop back to zero the longer you have the leads connected. This is normal.
Only if the initial reading is much lower than the expected voltage should
you be concerned.

Method 5 Shorting the Capacitor Terminal

Image titled Test a Capacitor Step 1

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1. Disconnect the capacitor from its circuit.

Image titled Test a Capacitor Step 2

2. Connect leads to the capacitor. Again, connect the positive (red) lead to the
positive (longer) terminal and the negative (black) lead to the negative
terminal.

Image titled Test a Capacitor Step 3

3. Connect the leads to a power supply for a short time. You should leave
these connected for no longer than 1 to 4 seconds.

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 Image titled Test a Capacitor Step 4

4. Disconnect the leads from the power supply. This is to prevent damage to
the capacitor when you perform the task and to reduce the likelihood of
your getting an electric shock.

Image titled Test a Capacitor Step 5

5. Short the capacitor terminals. Be sure to wear insulated gloves and not to
touch anything metal with your hands when you do this.

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 Image titled Test a Capacitor Step 6
6. Look at the spark created when you shorted the terminal. The possible
spark will give you an indication of the capacity of the capacitor.

 This method will only work with capacitors that can hold enough energy
to produce a spark when shorted.
 This method is not recommended because it only can be used to
determine if the capacitor can hold a charge, capable of sparking when
shorted, or not. It cannot be used to check if the capacity of the capacitor
is within the specifications.
 Using this method on larger capacitors could result in serious injury or
even death!

Tips

 Non-electrolytic capacitors generally are not polarized. When testing

these capacitors, you can connect the leads from the voltmeter,
multimeter, or power supply to either capacitor terminal.
 Non-electrolytic capacitors are subdivided by the types of materials they
are made of ceramic, mica, paper, or plastic – with the plastic capacitors
further subdivided by the type of plastic.
 Capacitors used in heating and air conditioning systems are subdivided
by purpose into 2 types. Run capacitors maintain constant voltage to the
fan motors and compressors in furnaces, air conditioners, and heat
pumps. Start capacitors are used in units with higher-torque motors in
some heat pumps and air conditioners to provide the extra energy
needed at startup.
 Electrolytic capacitors usually have 20% tolerance. It means that a
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 perfectly good capacitor may differ 20% higher or 20% lower from its
nominal capacity.

This is only a rough test and for complete check up you need to verify the
capacitor value using a capacitance meter.

HOW TO TEST A RELAY

Relays are discrete devices (as opposed to integrated circuits) that are used to
allow a low power logic signal to control a much a higher power circuit. The
relay isolates the high power circuit, helping to protect the lower power circuit
by providing a small electromagnetic coil for the logic circuit to control. You
can learn how to test both coil and solid-state relays.

Method 1 Getting Started

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1. Consult the relay schematic or data sheet. Relays have fairly standard pin
configurations, but it is best to search for the data sheets to find out more
about the number of pins from the manufacturer, if available. Typically,
these will be printed on the relay. Information on current and voltage
ratings, pin configurations, and other information is sometimes available in
the datasheets will be invaluable in testing, and eliminate most errors
associated with testing. Testing pins randomly without knowing the pin
configuration is possible, but if the relay is damaged, results may be
unpredictable. Some relays, depending on their size, may also have this
information printed directly on the body of the relay as well.

2. Do a basic visual inspection of the relay. Many relays have a clear plastic
shell containing the coil and contacts. Visible damage (melting, blackening,
etc) will help narrow down the issue. Most modern relays have a LED to tell

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 you if they are in the active state (ON). If that light is off and you've got
control voltage to the relay or coil terminals (typically A1 [line] and A2
[common]) then you can safely assume that relay is bad.

3. Disconnect the power source. Any electrical work should be done with all
power sources disconnected, including batteries and line voltage. Be
especially mindful of capacitors in the circuit, as they can hold a charge for
a considerable length of time after removing the power source. Do not short
capacitor terminals to discharge. It is best to check your local laws before
performing any electrical work, and if you feel unsafe, leave it to the
professionals. Extra low voltage work typically will not fall under this
requirement, but it's still important to be safe.

Method 2 Testing Coil Relays

1. Determine the coil requirements of the relay. The manufacturer's part

number should be listed on the case of the relay. Look up the applicable
data sheet and determine the voltage and current requirements of the
control coil. This also may be printed on the case of larger relays.

2. Find out if the control coil is diode protected. A diode around the pole is
often used to protect the logic circuitry from damage due to noise spikes.
The diode will be shown on drawings as a triangle with a bar across one
corner of the triangle. The bar will be connected to the input, or positive
connection, of the control coil.

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 Image titled Test a Relay Step 3

3. Assess the contact configuration of the relay. This will also be available from
the manufacturer's data sheet, or may be printed on the case of larger
relays. Relays may have one or more poles, indicated in drawings by a single
line switch connected to a pin of the relay. Each pole may have a normally
open (NO) and or normally closed (NC) contact. The drawings will indicate
these contacts as connections with a pin on the relay. The relay drawings
will show each pole as either touching the pin, indicating a NC contact, or
not touching the pin, indicating a NO contact.

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 Image titled Test a Relay Step 4

4. Test the de-energized condition of the relay contacts. Use a digital

multimeter (DMM) to test the resistance between each pole of the relay and
the corresponding NC and NO contacts for that pole. All NC contacts should
read 0 ohms to the corresponding pole. All NO contacts should read infinite
resistance to the corresponding pole.

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 Image titled Test a Relay Step 5

5. Energize the relay. Use in independent voltage source appropriate for the
rating of the relay coil. If the relay coil is diode protected, make sure that
the independent voltage source is connected with the proper polarity. Listen
for a click when the relay is energized.

6. Check the energized condition of the relay contacts. Use a digital multimeter
(DMM) to test the resistance between each pole of the relay and the
corresponding NC and NO contacts for that pole. All NC contacts should
read infinite resistance to the corresponding pole. All NO contacts should
read 0 ohms to the corresponding pole.

Method 3 Testing Solid-State Relays

Image titled Test a Relay Step 1

1. Use an ohmmeter to check solid-state relays. When solid-state relays start

to short, they will almost always fail. Solid-state relays should be checked
with an ohmmeter across the normally open (N.O.) terminals when control
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 power is off. The relays should be open, switched to OL, and closed (0.2 ,
the internal resistance of the ohmmeter) when control power is applied.

2. Use a multi-meter in diode-test mode to confirm your findings. You can

further confirm that the relay is bad by taking a multi-meter, put it in diode
test and checking across A1(+) and A2(-). The meter will apply a small
voltage to make the semiconductor conduct and read that voltage on the
screen. This will check the (typically NPN) transistor from the base (P) to
the... emitter. •If its bad, the meter will read 0 or OL, but if the relay is good
it will read 0.7 for a silicon transistor (which almost all of them are) or 0.5
for a germanium transistor (which are relatively rare but not unheard of).

HOW TO TEST A TRANSFORMER

Transformers are passive electromechanical components that operate on the

principle that every electrical field generates a magnetic field, and every
magnetic field generates an electrical field. This allows the isolation of 2
electrical circuits by having the first electrical circuit create a non-electrically
conductive magnetic field. The second electrical circuit then recovers the
energy from the generated magnetic field. Use these tips to learn how to test a
transformer.

Image titled Test a Transformer Step 1

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1. Inspect the transformer visually. Overheating, which causes the internal
wiring of the transformer to run at elevated temperatures, is a common
cause of transformer failure. If the transformer exterior is bulged or shows
what appear to be burn marks, don't test the transformer.

Image titled Test a Transformer Step 2

2. Determine the wiring of the transformer. The transformer should be clearly

labeled. However, it is always best to obtain a schematic of the circuit
containing the transformer to determine how the transformer is connected.
The schematic for the circuit will be available in the product documentation
or on the website of the circuit manufacturer.

Image titled Test a Transformer Step 3

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3. Identify the transformer inputs and outputs. The first electrical circuit,
which is generating the magnetic field, will be connected to the primary of
the transformer. The voltage being supplied to the primary should be on
both the transformer label and the schematic. The second circuit that is
receiving power from the magnetic field will be connected to the secondary
of the transformer. The voltage being generated by the secondary should be
on both the transformer label and the schematic.

Image titled Test a Transformer Step 4

4. Determine the output filtering. It is common to attach capacitors and

diodes to the transformer secondary to shape the AC power from the output
into DC power. This filtering and shaping will not be available from the
transformer label. The filtering and shaping will be shown on the
schematic.

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 Image titled Test a Transformer Step 5

5. Prepare to measure circuit voltages. Remove covers and panels as

necessary to gain access to the circuits that contain the transformer.
Acquire a digital multimeter (DMM) to take the voltage readings. DMMs are
available at electrical supply stores and hobby shops.

Image titled Test a Transformer Step 6

6. Confirm proper input to the transformer. Apply power to the circuitry. Use
the DMM in AC mode to measure the transformer primary. If the
measurement is less than 80 percent of the expected voltage, the fault
could lie in either the transformer or the circuitry providing the primary
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 with power. In this case, the primary must be separated from the input
circuit. If the input power (not the disconnected transformer primary)
climbs to the expected value, then the primary of the transformer is bad. If
the input power does not climb to the expected value, then the problem lies
not with the transformer, but with the input circuitry.

Image titled Test a Transformer Step 7

7. Measure the secondary output of the transformer. If you have determined

that there is no filtering or shaping being performed by the secondary
circuitry, use the AC mode of the DMM. If there is filtering and shaping in
the secondary circuitry, use the DC scale of the DMM. If the expected
voltage is not present on the secondary, either the transformer or a filtering
or shaping component is bad. Test the filtering and shaping components
separately. If the testing of the filtering and shaping components shows no
problems, then the transformer is bad.
Note:
 Do not assume that the primary side and secondary side of the transformer
are referenced to the same electrical ground. The transformer primary and

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 secondary are frequently referenced to different grounds. Be aware of this
split grounding while taking measurements.
 A buzzing or cracking sound is frequently an early sign that a transformer
is about to develop a burn.

Coils
Coils can be tested in the same way as transformers – through their resistance.
All principles remain the same as with transformers. Infinite resistance means
an open winding

Speakers and headphones

When testing speakers, their voice-coil can be between 1.5 up to 32 Ohms. The
value marked on the speaker is an impedance value and the actual DC
resistance will be lower. When measuring a speaker with an analog meter, you
should hear a click when the probes are connected.

HOW TO TEST A SILICON DIODE WITH A MULTIMETER

Three Methods:
1. Using the Diode Check Function
2. Testing Diode Resistance
3. Miscellaneous Tests

A diode blocks current from flowing in one direction, while allowing it to pass
through when the polarity reverses. You can use any multimeter to test
whether it is functional, but a digital multimeter with a diode check function
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will give best results. Most modern diodes are made from silicon, but this
reliable design can still break down when exposed to too much power.

Method1: Using the Diode Check Function

1. Check for a diode check mode. Most digital multimeters have a diode check
mode. To enable this mode, turn the dial to the symbol for "diode:" a black
arrow pointing to a vertical line. If your multimeter does not have this mode,
test resistance instead.
2. Shut off power to the circuit. Turn off all power to the circuit. Test voltage
across the diode to confirm there is no charge. If the voltage reading is zero,
continue to the next step.
 If the power is off but there is still voltage, you may need to
discharge capacitors in the circuit. This is highly dangerous and
should not be attempted by novices.
 If the diode is connected to other components in parallel, you may
need to remove the diode from the circuit completely. This usually
requires desoldering, then soldering it back once you're done testing.
3. Select the diode check function. Turn the dial back to diode check mode.
Confirm that the black (negative) lead is plugged into the port marked COM,
and the red (positive) lead is plugged into the port marked V, Ω, and/or R.
Touch the leads together and listen for a tone that indicates continuity. If
you do not hear anything, double check that your multimeter is on and set
up correctly. If you do hear a tone, the function is working. Continue to the
next step. This mode produces a current in order to measure the diode's
voltage, but this current is too small to damage any typical component.
4. Identify the positive and negative sides of the diode. The two ends of the
diode have opposite polarity. The cathode, or negative end, is usually
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 marked with a stripe. The anode, or positive end, is usually left unmarked.
If your diode uses a different labeling system, look up the manufacturer's
guide. Alternatively, conduct the tests and examine the results to determine
which the cathode is.
5. Test the forward bias of the diode. A forward-biased diode has a positive
charge flowing from the anode to the cathode. Touch the red (positive) lead
to the wire on the anode side, and the black (negative lead) to the wire on
the cathode side. Interpret the results: A result between about 0.5 to 0.8
volts means the diode is working. Some multimeters will also beep to
indicate continuity.
o A result of OL (overload) means the diode is opened, blocking all
current flow. This diode needs to be replaced, but check the next
test first. You may have hooked up your multimeter in the wrong
direction.
o A result of 0.4 volts or less means the diode may be shorted.
Confirm this with the next test.
6. Test the reverse bias. A reverse-biased diode has a positive charge on the
cathode side and a more negative charge at the anode. Diodes are designed
to prevent current flowing in this direction. To test whether this is working,
just switch the position of the leads. The red (positive) lead should be next
to the striped cathode, and the black (negative) lead should be next to the
anode. Read the multimeter display: A result of OL (overload) means the
diode is successfully blocking the current.
o A result of 0.5 to 0.8 volts means you've made a mistake. You are
actually testing the forward bias. (The previous test you did should
have a result of OL.)
o If the forward-biased result was 0.4 volts or less, and this test gives
the same result, the diode is shorted and needs replacement.
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 o If the forward-biased result was 0.4 volts or less, but this test is
successful (OL), you may be working with a germanium diode, not a
silicon one.

Method 2: Testing Diode Resistance

1. Use this method when necessary. This method of testing diodes is less
accurate than the diode check function. Follow these instructions if you
have an analog multimeter, or if using a digital multimeter without a diode
check function.
2. Set your multimeter to resistance mode. Turn the dial to resistance mode,
usually marked with the ohm symbol Ω. On some older models, this may be
labeled R. Choose a low range, such as 2KΩ or 20KΩ. Some digital
multimeters are auto-ranging, and will only have one Ω setting.
3. Plug in the leads. Plug the negative lead into the COM port. Plug the positive
lead into the port labeled Ω or R. On almost all digital multimeters, the red
lead is positive and the black lead is negative. An analog multimeter may
use the red or the black lead as the positive lead. Check your manual to find
out which setup your multimeter uses in resistance mode.
4. Disconnect the diode. A resistance test can give faulty results if the diode is
connected to a circuit. Desolder the diode from the circuit for independent
testing.
5. Measure the forward bias. Touch the negative lead to the cathode (the
negative end of the diode, marked with a stripe). Touch the positive lead to
the anode. A working diode should have a low resistance value in this
direction (usually below 1KΩ). If the result is 0, try lowering the resistance
range on your multimeter dial. If the result is still 0, your diode may have
broken down. The remaining tests can confirm this or rule it out. The exact
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 quantity displayed has no useful meaning for circuit design, as it is
influenced by multiple factors. You may get a different result on a second
multimeter, but it should still be in the same low range.
6. Measure the reverse bias. Set your multimeter to a high resistance range,
200KΩ or higher. Reverse the position of the leads, so the negative lead
touches the anode. Since diodes are designed to block current in this
direction, the resistance should be very high. Most working silicon diodes
should display a resistance in the hundreds of KΩ, or an overload reading
(OL) meaning it is too high to measure. A result of 0 means the diode needs
to be replaced. No matter what the results are, the diode is broken if you get
similar results in the forward and reverse direction.
7. Compare to a working diode. For best results, test a new silicon diode or a
silicon diode you know is working correctly. If you get similar results, the
diode is most likely functional. If you still encounter issues with your
circuit, consider buying a multimeter with a diode check function for a more
accurate test. If your forward-bias result is 0 for both diodes, then your
digital multimeter most likely isn't producing enough current for an
accurate test. Try again with an analog multimeter.

Method 3: Testing ordinary diode using analog multimeter.

To check an ordinary Silicon diode using an analogue multimeter, put the

multimeter selector switch in a low resistance position (say 1K). Connect the
positive lead of multimeter to anode of the diode and negative lead of
multimeter to cathode of the diode. If meter shows a low resistance reading, we
can assume that the diode is healthy. This is the test for checking forward
biased mode of the diode.

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Now put the multimeter selector switch in a high resistance position (say 100
K). Connect the positive lead of multimeter to cathode of the diode and negative
lead to anode of the diode. If the meter shows an infinite reading, we can
assume that the diode is healthy. This is the test for checking the reverse
blocking mode of the diode. The meter shows infinite or very high resistance
reading because a reverse biased diode has a very high resistance (usually in
the range of hundreds of K Ohms).

Testing Zener diode.

The forward characteristics of a Zener diode is similar to an ordinary diode. So

the methods used for testing forward conducting mode of any ordinary diode
is applicable to the Zener diode too. But in reverse mode, the reverse
breakdown voltage has great significance and it has to be specifically tested.
For example a 5.3 V Zener diode must start conducting only when the applied
reverse voltage just exceeds 5.3 V. The reverse bias mode of Zener diode can be
easily tested by using the circuit given below. The resistance R1 can be
typically 100 Ohms. The multimeter must be in voltage mode. Now slowly
increase the output of variable power supply and at the same time observe the
voltage shown in the multimeter. The multimeter display increases along with
the increase in power supply voltage until the breakdown voltage. Beyond that
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the multimeter reading stays put despite of the power supply voltage. This is
because the Zener diode is now in breakdown region and the voltage across it
will remain constant irrespective of the increase in supply voltage and this
constant voltage will be equal to the breakdown voltage. If the reading of
multimeter in this instant is equal to the breakdown voltage specified by the
manufacturer, we can assume that the Zener diode is healthy.

While carrying out this test, remember not to exceed the input excitation
voltage to a point that forces the Zener diode to dissipate more power than it
can safely handle. Typically current through the diode should not be allowed to
exceed more than 10mA

HOW TO TEST A TRANSISTOR

Four Methods:
1 Understanding Transistors
2 Setting Up the Multimeter
3 Testing When You Know the Base, Emitter and Collector
4 Testing When You Don't Know the Base, Emitter and Collector

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A transistor is a semiconductor that allows current to flow through it under
certain conditions, and cuts current off when other conditions are present.
Transistors are commonly used as either a switch or a current amplifier. You
can test a transistor with a multimeter that has a diode test function.

Method 1 Understanding Transistors

1 A transistor is basically 2 diodes that share one end. The shared end is
called the base and the other 2 ends are called the emitter and collector.
The collector accepts an input current from the circuit, but it can't send the
current through the transistor until allowed to by the base. The emitter
sends a current out into the circuit, but only if the base allows the collector
to pass the current through the transistor to the emitter. The base acts like
a gate. When a small current is applied to the base, the gate opens and a
large current can flow from the collector to the emitter.
2 Transistors may operate by junctions or field effects, but both come in two
basic types. An NPN transistor uses a positive semiconductor material (P-
type) for the base and negative semiconductor material (N-type) for the
collector and emitter. On a circuit diagram, an NPN transistor shows an
emitter with the arrow pointing out ("Never Points iN" aids remembering). A
PNP transistor uses an N-type material for the base and P-type material for
the emitter and collector. The PNP transistor show an emitter with the arrow
pointing in ("Points In Permanently" is the memorizer).

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Method 2 Setting Up the Multimeter

1. Insert the probes into the multimeter. The black probe goes into the
common terminal and the red probe goes into the terminal marked for testing
diodes.

Image titled Test a Transistor Step 2

2. Turn the selector knob to the diode test function.

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 Image titled Test a Transistor Step 3

3. Replace the probe tips with alligator clamps.

Method 3 Testing When You Know the Base, Emitter and Collector

Image titled Test a Transistor Step 1

1 Determine which leads are the base, emitter and collector. The leads are
round or flat wires extending from the bottom of the transistor. They may be
labeled on some transistors or you may be able to determine which lead is
the base by studying the circuit diagram.

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 Image titled Test a Transistor Step 2
2 Clamp the black probe to the base of the transistor.

Image titled Test a Transistor Step 3

3 Touch the red probe to the emitter. Read the display on the multimeter and
note whether the resistance is high or low.

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 Image titled Test a Transistor Step 4

4 Move the red probe to the collector. The display should give the same
reading as when you touched the probe to the emitter.

Image titled Test a Transistor Step 10

5 Remove the black probe and clamp the red probe to the base.
6 Touch the black probe to the emitter and collector. Compare the reading on
the multimeter's display to the readings you got previously. •If the previous
readings were both high and the current readings are both low, the
transistor is good.
 If the previous readings were both low and the current readings are both
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 high, the transistor is good.
 If both readings you receive with the red probe are not the same, both
readings with the black probe are not the same, or the readings don't
change when switching probes, the transistor is bad.

Method 4 Testing When You Don't Know the Base, Emitter and
Collector

Image titled Test a Transistor Step 1

1. Clamp the black probe to 1 of the leads of the transistor.

Image titled Test a Transistor Step 2

2. Touch the red probe to each of the other 2 leads.

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  If the display shows high resistance when each of the leads are touched,
you have found the base (and you have a good NPN transistor).
 If the display shows 2 different readings for the other 2 leads, clamp the
black probe to another lead and repeat the test.
 After clamping the black probe to each of the 3 leads, if you don't get the
same high resistance reading when touching the other 2 leads with the
red probe, you either have a bad transistor or a PNP transistor.

Image titled Test a Transistor Step 2

3. Remove the black probe and clamp the red probe to 1 of the leads. Touch
the black probe to each of the other 2 leads.
 If the display shows high resistance when each of the leads are touched,
you have found the base (and you have a good PNP transistor).
 If the display shows 2 different readings for the other 2 leads, clamp the
red probe to another lead and repeat the test.
 After clamping the red probe to each of the 3 leads, if you don't get the
same high resistance reading when touching the other 2 leads with the
black probe, you have a bad PNP transistor

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Introduction to Conductivity probe

Conductivity tester is a simple, but very important instrument, which is able to

test for faults many components like: diodes, transistors, coils, transformers,
speakers and headphones, capacitors, switches, jumpers, cables and many
other different electronic components. This method is a lot faster and
straightforward than it is using some “off the shelf” instrument. The circuit
uses a 1.5V battery for supply, but it is possible to plug this instrument on any
battery between 1.5V and 9V. Current flowing through the component that is
being tested is lower than I=V/R, where V is the voltage of the supply battery,
and R is the resistance of the resistor in the base circuit. In the circuit, the
values are V=1,5 V and R=47 kW, which means that current flow is I=32 micro
amperes, which is very low, so tested component is safe from harm from this
device.

Printed board, battery and the speaker are placed in a small box. Miniature
speaker is fixed to the upper pane of the box using two wood screws. It is
connected to the circuit board using two threaded isolated wires. Same wires
are used for all other connections as well. Battery holder for 9V batteries would
simplify the process of changing the battery. Probes are cheap components and
come in various shapes and sizes with various purposes in mind. Red probe is
connected to point a and black probe is connected to point b. Give your new
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instrument the initial self-test by connecting the probe tips together. If sound
is heard from the speaker, everything is fine and ready for work.

FET testing is done in similar fashion as testing the bipolar transistors, which
is shown on below

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One principle that is applicable when testing the photo resistors, photo
transistors and diodes is NL-NM (or, No Light – No Music). Probe A is connected
to the collector of the transistor, or diode’s anode or one side of the photo
resistor, and the other one is connected to transistor’s emitter or diode’s
cathode or the other resistor’s side and some kind of sound should be heard
from the speaker. If this continues when the component is shadowed using
your palm, everything is in functional order. We displayed graphically the
method of testing photo sensitive components.

Many other components may be tested using this instrument. Base rule is: if
component is intended to conduct electricity, sound will be heard. This is the
case with resistors, coils, transformers, fuses, closed switches. If component
doesn’t conduct electricity, like capacitors, or open switches, or two copper
wires on the circuit board which shouldn’t be connected, then music would
have not been heard.

When testing different resistors, it is apparent that different resistance values

give different output sound. So with some experience using this instrument on
various resistors it will be possible to tell the resistance of the resistor in
question from only the generated sound. This may be easier and more
accurately done using regular ohmmeter on your multimeter, but your nerd

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level will certainly raise sky high if you are able to tell resistor’s value from bare
sound.

Components which have coils in them, like different electro motors,

headphones, speakers, transformers and such conduct electricity, so absence
of sound while testing tells of some coil connection failure. With transformers
with several secondary coils there is a possibility to find beginning and the end
of each of them. And from the sound frequency one is possible to tell which coil
is primary and which is secondary. Functional capacitor will generate no
sound.

Testing a UJT

Unijunction transistor can be easily tested by using a digital multimeter. The

three steps for testing the health of a UJT are as follows.

1. Measuring the resistance between B1 and B2 terminals.

Set your digital multimeter in resistance mode. Connect the positive lead of
multimeter to the B1 terminal and negative lead to the B2 terminal. The
multimeter will show a high resistance (around 4 to 10K). Now connect the
positive lead to B2 terminal and negative lead to B1 terminal. Again the
multimeter will show a high resistance (around 4 to 10K). Also both the
readings will be almost same.

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2. Reverse biasing the emitter junction.

Set the digital multimeter in resistance mode. Connect negative lead of the
multimeter to the emitter and positive lead to the B1. The multimeter will show
a high resistance (around 100KΩ). Now connect the negative lead once again to
the emitter and positive lead to B2. Again the meter will show a high
resistance. In both cases the reading will be almost same. This test is almost
like reverse biasing a diode.

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3. Forward biasing the emitter junction.

Set the digital multimeter in resistance mode. Connect the positive lead to the
emitter and negative lead to B1. The multimeter will show a low resistance
(around few 100 ohms). Now connect the positive lead once again to the emitter
and negative lead to the B2 terminal. Again the multimeter will show a low
resistance reading (around few 100 ohms). In both cases the reading will be
almost same. This test is almost like forward biasing a diode.

How to test an SCR

A multimeter can be used to test SCRs quite effectively. The first procedure is
to check the diode action between the gate and cathode terminals of the SCR.
This test is just like what you have done in the case of testing a silicon diode
(see testing a silicon diode).

Now put the multimeter selector switch in a high resistance position. Connect
the positive lead of multimeter to the anode of SCR and negative lead to the
cathode. The multimeter will show an open circuit. Now reverse the
connections and the multimeter will again show an open circuit.

Then connect the anode and gate terminals of the SCR to the positive lead of
multimeter and cathode to the negative lead. The multimeter will show a low
resistance indicating the switch ON of SCR. Now carefully remove the gate
terminal from the anode and again the multimeter will show a low resistance
reading indicating the latching condition. Here the multimeter battery supplies
the holding current for the SCR. If all of the above tests are positive we can
assume the SCR to be working fine.
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Circuit for testing SCR.

This is another method for testing an SCR. Almost all types of SCR can be
checked using this circuit. The circuit is just a simple arrangement for
demonstrating the basic switching action of an SCR. Connect the SCR to the
circuit as shown in the diagram and switch S2 ON. The lamp must not glow.
Now press the push button switch S1 ON and you can see the lamp glowing
indicating the switch ON of SCR. The lamp will remain ON even if the push
button S1 is released (indicates the latching).If the above checks are positive
then we can conclude that the SCR is fine

How to test a TRIAC.

A multimeter can be used to test the health of a TRIAC. First put the
multimeter selector switch in a high resistance mode (say 100K), then connect
the positive lead of multimeter to the MT1 terminal of the TRIAC and negative
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lead to the MT2 terminal of TRIAC (there is no problem if you reverse the
connection).The multimeter will show a high resistance reading (open
circuit).Now put the selector switch to a low resistance mode, connect the MT1
and gate to positive lead and MT2 to negative lead. The multimeter will now
show a low resistance reading (indicating the switch ON).If the above tests are
positive then we can assume that the TRIAC is healthy. Anyway this test is not
applicable to TRIACS that require high gate voltage and current for triggering.

CIRCUIT FOR TESTING A TRIAC.

This is another approach for testing a TRIAC. Almost all type of TRIACS can be
tested using this circuit. This circuit is nothing but a simple arrangement to
demonstrate the elementary action of a TRIAC. Connect TRIAC to the circuit as
shown in circuit diagram and switch S2 ON. The lamp must not glow. Now
press the push button switch S1.The lamp must glow indicating the switching
ON of TRIAC. When you release the push button, you can see the lamp
extinguishing. If the above tests are positive you can assume that the TRIAC is
healthy

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 SELF CHECK 7.2_1

1 What is the range of values of interbase (base 1 to base 2) resistance of a

UJT?
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2 When an SCR is OFF, the anode to cathode resistance is _________
3 What is the range of forward resistance between gate–cathode of an SCR?
4 What multitester range can be used to test a TRIAC?
5 When can we say that a leaking resistor is defective?
6 If you do not know the value of the resistor, where will you set the
ohmmeter range in measuring the resistor?
7 What is the used of the zero ohms adjustment knob in analog
multitester?
8 Using and analog multitester without a capacitor check, How will you
determine a short circuited capacitor?
9 Why should we avoid of touching the terminal of a resistor when testing?
10 What is the common defect of a coil?
11 What is the indicator that a speaker is in good working condition?
12 What is an indicator of a grounded transformer?
13 Using an analog multitester, how will you determine that an SCR is
defective?
14 What multitester range will be used in determining a good or defective
capacitor?
15 Using an analog multitester, how will you determine that a diode is
open?

ANSWER TO SELF CHECK 7.2_1

1 4kΩ to 10 kΩ
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2 Very very high (infinity)
3 Below 1 kΩ
4 X 100 kΩ
5 When it is outside of the its minimum and maximum values
6 At the middle range either 10 kΩ or 20 kΩ
7 Set the pointer to zero ohms after every after changing the range.
8 When testing the capacitor, the pointer stays at zero.
9 Because our body will conduct current of charges, which will change the
reading of the in the multitester
10 Open coil
11 When we hear some noise while scratching the speaker terminals with
test probes.
12 When there is a certain connectivity between the core and the wire
13 When the pointer does not deflect while the cathode is connected to the
black test probe and both the gate and the anode are connected to the
red test probe, with the tester range set at X1
14 Depends on the size of the capacitor, the larger the capacitor, the lower
will be the ohmmeter range, and vice versa.
15 When the reading are both high resistance in both forward and reverse

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 LEARNING OUTCOME 3
TEST COMPONENTS

CONTENTS:
 Procedures in testing electronic components
 Reading skills required to interpret work instruction
 Communication skills

ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:
1. Testing methods are applied to ensure that products meet creative,
production and technical requirements
2. Problems and faults detected by testing are recorded and remedial steps
taken in records system is documented
3. Problems and faults detected during testing are resolved in accordance
with agreed project or industry practice
4. Evaluate final products against the previously determined criteria
5. Testing process is documented and summarized evaluation report is
submitted to relevant personnel

CONDITIONS:
Students/trainees must be provided with the following:

 Materials
 Passive components
 Active components
 Dynamic components
 Hybrid components

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  Tools and equipment
 Variable DC power supply
 Digital VOM
 analog VOM
 dual trace triggered oscilloscope
 function generator

METHODOLOGIES:
 Film Viewing
 Individualized Learning
 Direct Student Laboratory Experience
 On-the-Job Training
 Project Method

ASSESSMENT METHODS:
 Demonstration and Questioning
 Assessment of Output Product

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 LEARNING EXPERIENCES/ACTIVITIES

LEARNING OUTCOME 1: TEST COMPONENTS

Read information sheet 1.1_1 assess quality After reading the information sheet, you
of received materials must be able to answer self-check 1.1_1 and
compare your answer to the answer sheet
Perform job sheet 1.1_1, and refer your
performance to the performance criteria
checklist

INFORMATION SHEET 7.3.1

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 TEST COMPONENTS

Testing of components involves the process of finding the terminals of the

components and knowing whether a certain component is good or defective.

TASK SHEET 7.3_1

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Given the tools, equipment, and materials, the trainee has to draw the
equivalent electronic symbol, label each terminal, and put on remarks whether
it is good or defective.

Component Symbol Remarks

1

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10

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 Demonstration Checklist
Student name:
Teacher name:
Name of School Academia de Tecnologia in Mindanao
Module Title Testing electronic components
Unit of competency: Test electronic components
Instructions for the facilitator:
1. Observe the trainee’s [insert description of activity being observed].
2. Describe the assessment activity and the date on which it was undertaken.
3. Place a tick in the box to show that the tainee completed each aspect of the
activity to the standard expected in the enterprise.
4. Complete the feedback sections of the form.
Date of observation
Description of assessment
activity
Location of assessment activity
Yes No
 Did the assessee follow the procedure in preparing testing tools
and equipment
 Did the assessee apply operational health and safety procedures
in preparing testing tools and equipment
 Did the assessee apply the operational health and safety
procedures in testing electronic components
 Did the assessee classify good or defective components.
 Did the assessee perform safe keeping and storage of tools.
Did the assessee overall performance meet the standard?

Feedback to student:
Teacher signature: Date:

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Student’s Signature : Date:

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 LEARNING OUTCOME 4
EVALUATE THE TESTING PROCESS

ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:
1. Testing methods that were successful and those that led to difficulties
are identified based on industry standards
2. Testing process and records system are evaluated based on standard
procedures
3. Test results/findings are documented for subsequent components
testing. Proper storage of instruments is undertaken according to
company procedures.

CONTENTS:
 Testing manual
 Testing procedures and data logging
 Safety precautions in handling testing equipment as well as the
materials.

CONDITIONS:
Students/trainees must be provided with the following:
 Materials
 Tools and equipment
 Checklist of testing procedures

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METHODOLOGIES:
 Film Viewing
 Individualized Learning
 Direct Student Laboratory Experience
 On-the-Job Training
 Project Method

ASSESSMENT METHODS:
 Demonstration and Questioning
 Assessment of Output Product

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 LEARNING EXPERIENCES/ACTIVITIES

LEARNING OUTCOME 1: EVALUATE THE TESTING PROCESS

Read information sheet 1.1_1 assess quality After reading the information sheet, you
of received materials must be able to answer self-check 1.1_1 and
compare your answer to the answer sheet
Perform job sheet 1.1_1, and refer your
performance to the performance criteria
checklist

INFORMATION SHEET 7.4.1

EVALUATE THE TESTING PROCESS

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Evaluation on the process of testing components centered on work evaluation
with regards to preparation and validity of testing procedures.

Testing Procedure Evaluation Form

INSTRUCTIONS:

This testing evaluation instrument is intended to measure how satisfactorily

your testing procedure was. Rate the testing process by checking on the
corresponding cell of your response.
Use the following rating scales:
5 - Outstanding
4 - Very Good/Very Satisfactory
3 – Good/Adequate
2 – Fair/Satisfactory
1 – Poor/Unsatisfactory

Preperation 1 2 3 4 5

1. Does the preparation of tools include safety

precaution on testing equipment?
2. Does preparation of components include safety
precaution on electronic component?
3. Does the preparation of tools and materials
include operational health and safety for the
technician?

Procedures 1 2 3 4 5

1. Do the procedures of using the tools include

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 safety precaution on testing equipment?
2. Do procedures of testing the components include
safety precaution on electronic component?
3. Does the preparation using the tools in testing the
electronic components include operational health
and safety for the technician?
4. Do the procedures really identify the good and
defective components?
5. Practice exercises like Task/Job Sheets are
sufficient to learn required skills

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