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 SURVIVAL eo ae
HANDBOOK
The
Survival
Handbook

How to save
your skin when
disaster strikes
without warning

By
Anthony
Greenbank

Bell & Hyman

First published by Wolfe Publishing Limited 1967
This revised edition published 1985 by
Bell & Hyman Limited
37-39 Queen Elizabeth Street
London SE1 2QB

© Anthony Greenbank 1985

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in
any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior
permission of Bell & Hyman Ltd.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Greenbant, Anthony
The Survival handbook.
1. Wilderness survival 2. Outdoor life—
Safety measures
I. Title
613.6[9 GC200.5
ISBN 0-7135—2514-2

Illustrations by Christopher Evans

Cover design by Colin Lewis
Designed by Neil Sayer

ISBN 0 7135 2514 2

Typeset by Inforum Ltd, Portsmouth

Printed in Great Britain by
Cox & Wyman Limited, Reading
 ALL THE FOLLOWING ADVICE
PRESUPPOSES THAT
WHOEVER FACES CATASTROPHE
TAKES A DEEP BREATH
AND MAKES UP THEIR MIND
TO HAVE A REALLY DETERMINED GO
TO BEAT THE ODDS
AT ALL COSTS
Contents

Preface

Introduction

Too Lonely

Too Crowded

Too Dry

Too Wet

Too Bright 109

Too Dark 119

Too Cold 135

Too Hot 163

Too Low 175

Too High 197

Too Fast 213

Too Slow 227.

13 Too Full 253

14 Too Empty 265

Index 281
Preface

This book is about how to survive. How to live

through almost every conceivable accident or disaster
that our dangerous world can produce.
Accidents and disasters, of course, can’t happen to
you. But they do. Every day. To thousands of people
like you, whose only really nightmarish experience
was their last.
Fires, flood, earthquakes, out-of-control cars,
crashing trains, sinking ships ask no questions.
Winds, rain, snow, ice, burning sun make no exemp-
tions. Lost in a mountain mist, wandering thirst-
crazed in a desert, freezing to death in a blizzard, the
fact that it can’t happen to you makes no difference. It
is happening.
When it does happen, you probably won’t have this
book in your coat pocket. You'll be lucky if you have a
coat at ali. But after reading this book you will be
mentally equipped. Equipped to escape the immedi-
ate danger. Equipped to stay breathing until help
arrives. Equipped to survive.
To live through an impossible situation, you don’t
need the reflexes of a Grand Prix driver, the muscles of
a Hercules, the mind of an Einstein. You simply need
to know what to do.
The Survival Handbook is a textbook of what, in an
increasingly complex and dangerous world, has be-
come a new science.
The book contains nothing but information. Tight-
packed, factual information. No cheap thrills. No
heroes. No heroics. Just hard facts. Which, we hope,
will enable many youngsters to live to be parents,
many parents to live to be grandparents and many
grandparents to live out, peacefully, their natural life
span.
Introduction

The Survival Handbook is like no other. It gives a man,

his wife and children a fighting chance in any catas-
trophe at a time when —as any newspaper will tell you
— the chances are they will succumb and die. It is nota
do-it-yourself James Bond manual, for it assumes no
advance preparation except reading it.
People are growing softer today. Elements of
modern-day living not only make us more vulnerable:
they fatten for the kill. Read the headlines: ‘careering
car wipes out newly-weds’; ‘rogue train annihilates 37
commuters’; ‘crowd at spectator sport crushes 9”;
‘flaming electric blanket murders family’; ‘unseen
knifing in dark discotheque’; ‘veering plane massacres
24 holidaymakers’ . .
Existing survival books go strongly on the moun-
tain, desert, jungle, arctic and ocean scene. They are
useless to the family facing an onrushing tide and
trapped by cliffs, or to the bookmaker whose car is
trapped among moorland snowdrifts miles from any-
where. Not only are they unlikely to have read them; if
they had, the pertinent information — wrapped among
graphs, tables, case histories, maps and bibliographies
-~- would be almost impossible to recollect.
Most of us have only the vaguest idea of survival. If
thought about at all, it is by some quaint rule of thumb
(does one pour petrol on frostbitten fingers — No!). We
face the bitterest winters at home with equanimity —
and are surprised, shocked and hurt when threats of
exposure and frostbite turn into a reality.
This book deals with crises. Prevention is better than
cure, but no one is immune from human or mechanical
failure, or Act of God. Hence the stress on when
catastrophe hits home — when car is submarining to
bottom of lake, when intruders are binding you hand
and foot, when eyes are blinded. Where possible,
prevention is treated too — in note form.
People would never remember in a crisis? Not
usually so! Fed with a drill to save its skin, the brain

8
grabs that plan by the scruff of the neck. True, the girl
whose arms are already pinned by an assailant cannot
produce the comb which might save her, but let her
hear him first, padding behind her along the pave-
ment, and she could.
Instead of being mesmerized with fright, you are
more likely to be ready and braced in a sudden crisis
after reading this book than before. In a fight for life
lasting weeks your subconscious would automatically
reach back for help from its pages. To this end, mne-
monics (memory-fixers) are incorporated in the very
layout of the book by using entry headings unique in
survival theses to-date.
Human feelings are the key. Pitched into catas-
trophe they cry for warmth or cold or water or dry land
or shade or light or speed or slowness regardless of
whether dazzling glare is from H-Bomb or headlights,
stifling heat is in desert or burning house, choking
contamination is radiation or carbon monoxide. This
book is arranged to rally these feelings by grouping
remedies under them: firemaking under Too Cold, car
collision drill under Too Fast. And so on.
No entry here presumes that you are prepared.
When crisis looms — that’s it! There is you (bone/skin/
hair/teeth/nails/saliva), your possessions (shoes/socks/
pants/skirt/frock/watch/possibly' cash, comb etc.),
the surroundings (sand/rock/water/trees/concrete/
guano) and quite often wrecked transport (car/plane/
train/boat). Desert captives are not allowed to find a
handy sheet of plastic for a water-still, though if they
have one all ready its use is shown — but well down the
list of water-seeking methods.
The theme of The Survival Handbook is not so much
‘be prepared’ as be prepared to improvise with anything.
When ‘everything’ seems so slight as to be ridiculous,
think of rescuers saying: ‘If only he’d wrapped up in
those newspapers . . .’ This book takes it for granted
you have nothing rather than something. . . butif you
have something, use it.
Using this book we suggest you (i) anticipate trouble
ahead in likely places (football match/plane flight/rush
hour traffic) by checking in the Index under the
appropriate heading, then turning to the relevant
pages for advance briefing (ii) read the book more than

9
once so that in sudden fire/flood/tempest/earthquake
you increase your chances of surviving. And as an
extra aid the entries are linked by cross-references —
climbing from sea into boat comes in Too Low, but
getting to that boat happens in Too Wet. Hence there is
a cross-reference to link them.
Survivors will always live to tell of surviving by
doing just the opposite of others who have also sur-
vived! Medical experts have often told survivors that
by all rights they should be dead. Instead of dying they
had the will to live. You too must enlist this will, that
sense of self-preservation which starts with a deep
breath and the determination not to give way at any
cost.
People are growing softer today — yes; but it is a
cheering fact that, given a plan of action, even though
despairing and shocked, people can and do react well
in crises. Once the initial shock has lessened you stand
every chance of becoming a survivor if, as we suggest,
you give yourself a regular servicing by re-reading
this, a kind of maintenance handbook.

10
1 Too Lonely

Anyone facing extinction feels the loneliest person on

earth. You are as alone in the rioting football crowd,
squashing air from your lungs, as on a raft at sea.
The anatomy of loneliness is a skeleton. Jerking
muscles, scrabbling fingers, shivering marrow, strain-
ing sinews — these are the bare bones of panic and
initial despair.
Survival of the fittest does not mean you have to be
physically perfect. Stripped to a clawing puppet by
crisis, everyone is reduced to an isolation where sur-
vival is all in the mind.

Aspects of Loneliness
Mental
Taking a deep breath and making up your mind to have a
really determined go at beating the odds at all costs is the
vital factor in survival.
When initial shock brings utter despair it is still possi-
ble for that sense of self-preservation to pull you
through, though you may be totally disorientated and
terrified.
If contemplating giving in or suicide: prayer is a
proven help. The Lord is my shepherd . . . though I
walk through the valley of shadow of death . . . Thy
rod and staff comfort me ... the 23rd Psalm is a
proven favourite (most can remember the words in
some form or other).
Other pleas range from the Catholics’s O my God
relying on Thy infinite goodness . . . and the Jewish
Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God. . . toa universal O
God, get us out of this lot.
Run/drive/signal/swim/make fires/build shelter/sig-
nal again .. . all the harder. Don’t lie down to die
without a fantastic struggle first. Never ever give in.
Tell yourself: even this will pass.

12
 In unknown environment improvise, improvise,
improvise.
Never never never never never never never never
never give up trying. Out of all the untidiness, quick-
ness and/or dragging slowness of survival, salvage,
clutch and spur your vital instinct of self-preservation.

Desperation
Alcoholics Anonymous. The Samaritans. Dial-a-
Prayer. Citizens Advice Bureau ... all are typical
organizations available by telephone which have pre-
vented suicides when contacted by someone in deep
trouble.
Directory Enquiries will help in such circumstances
all over the world: an operator helping you from local
knowledge.
Dial 999 only for Fire/Police/Ambulance/Coast-
guards and Lifeboat/Mountain or Cave Rescue.

Claustrophobia
Very unpleasant feeling. The real thing grips trapped
people in proper panic. Will do something rash/
scream/kick/hammer place down/rave/fight. Very few
suffer from real claustrophobia; very many think they
do.
Restrain anyone so gripped with fear (so they don’t
hurt themselves or you). Comfort. Calm. Reassure.
Only slap in face or render unconscious if situation out
of control.
Count blessings. One — I’m alive. Two — (probably)
not injured. Three — can last several days without food
and water so long as not using energy. Four — only a
matter of time before they find me. Five — keep keep-
ing cool.
Check pockets/handbag/surrounds for food/mat-
ches/keys/nailfile/lighter — anything that may help to
scratch/dig/screw/signal way out.
Improvise lavatory from stones/holes/rubbish/cloth-
ing. If nothing (say in lift) make sponge from clothing/
newspaper etc.

ip
Agoraphobia
Fear of open or public places (rarer than claustropho-
bia) also brings terror. Dizziness/sickness/fainting
seizes victims. Can come gradually or in sudden
panic.
It is no cure to be told to ‘Snap out of it.’
Get inside (bus/shop/cinema) if attacked by agor-
aphobia. Buy magazine and bury head in it until you
get home.
If prone to attacks always carry a 10p piece and a 5p
piece for telephone call for help to friends or relatives.

Imagination
Terror can mount in the dark/gloom/shade (see Too
Dark page 120).
Fight it down. Get a grip. Rationalize the things-
that-go-bump/things-that-go-flash/things-that-touch-
you. They usually have ordinary explanations.
As with, for example, a lonely house you are
beginning to feel is haunted; the following are likely
causes. .
House is built above underground watercourse
Machinery in locality sets up vibrations
Echoes from next door
Roof/walls/floors expanding or contracting
Tight-fitting doors making air traps of each room
Reflections from passing cars/trains/planes
Tree branches scraping on window
Cats/mice/starlings-in-the-attic
Green wood in house structure groans and creaks
Slate off roof makes wind moan
Airlock in water pipes makes thumping noise
To reassure yourself make a ghost-check when day-
light comes. Inspect all house (cupboards/chimneys/
attic). Seal off rooms and windows. Tie black cotton
across stairs/landings/doors. Pans of water on floors
show vibrations. Shake out dust/sand/powder on
floors.
Final consolation: a real ghost. . .
(a) Will disappear if you approach it.
(b) Can do you no physical harm because it leaves
nothing earthly — not even messages or foot-
prints.

14
 (c) Will not cast a shadow; will look quite substantial
rather than misty; will not ignore you; will not
carry its head tucked under an arm.
(d)Is all in your mind anyway.

How to get Help

How do you call Help! successfully today when the
tendency is for passers-by to cross to the other side of
the road in case you are (a) part of the Esther Rantzen
team (b) going to make them look foolish anyway (c)
going to get them killed? How do you say SOS success-
fully miles from civilization?
Use everything. Screams. Whispers. Shouts. Sign
language. Red triangle. Whistles. Bonfires. Match-
light. Telephone 999. Bang central heating pipes/car
horn/doors. Wave clothes. Flash mirror. Throw
stones. Keep whistling kettle on boil. Toll bell. Blow
bugle. Smash glass. Fly kite. Pull communication
cord. Light candle. Bang head/shoes/fists on wall.
Note: don’t endanger yourself (e.g. rush to toll
church bell, unschooled in the art, and you will be
rocketed up by rope to crack skull on ceiling).
Peculiar crises — unorthodox signals. Trapped on
moonlit roof yank away TV aerials. Giving kiss of life
in express train compartment throw note (weighted
with ballpoint pen) on passing station platform beg-
ging ambulance ready at next stop (pulling com-
munication cord would waste time). On tailboard of
speeding hijacked lorry, go mad until some driver
slows, winds window down and you shout Police!
Don’t rely on one method. Yell and shake curtain.
Whistle and flick cigarette lighter. Whisper to garage
attendant that your passenger has gun and break law
in front of police car. Use sign language and break
glass. Light fire and wave. Erect red triangle on road
and set fire to oily rags.
Pick best position (if possible). By window. On
higher ground. On open snowfield (but never on a
steep slope). By chink blowing draught through roof-
collapse rubble. Under gap in tree top canopy. On
boat’s mast.
Select your signals. Save energy (shouting and
- waving), torch batteries, matches, bonfire fuel when

15
far from view and earshot until help approaches. Keep
them in reserve, dry and ready to use instantly. Mean-
while signal with: flags, markers, shadow writing,
dust clouds, mirror.
Never give up. Keep signalling until answered, no
matter how long that is.

Ways of Signalling
Flags
Rip sheets, shirts, coat linings — any material not used
directly for clothing or shelter. Fly flags from sticks,
poles, windows, roofs, conspicuous trees.

More chance of success when waved. Try for contrast

with background: red, orange, yellow against snow,
or dirt-smeared cloth if only white available. Keep it
flying all the time. Fly a kite when you have line/
handkerchief/coat/wind. Practise — a distress kite can
carry a fishing line too (see Too Empty page 273). Note:
twigs/saplings/wire/framework is ‘bowed’ away from
cloth.

nm aera ord

Fig 1 Kite made from a coat

16
Balloons
A protective sheath inflates to knee height and floats,
or can be hung from tree branches/chimney pots/rock
face as good distress signal. Reflects radar.

Markers
Use anything that is static to draw attention. Crashed
plane, beached boat, stranded car. They are better
seen from the air if the top surfaces are clean and —
where applicable — polished. Clear away snow, sand,
foliage. Trample, ravage, spoil and burn surrounds to
make conspicuous. Spread rocks into noticeable
formations. Deposit rubbish to litter the scene. Lay
anything that glints or is bright on top of plane or
vehicle. Polish bright surfaces with sand or gravel.
Important:
(a) Getting out froma crash scene far from civilization
is always to be desired and preferred to digging-
in/making wooden spoons/playing Boy Scouts.
But only leave the marker of plane (or other
transport) wreck in favour of trekking for help if
you stand a good chance of reaching inhabited.
croft/igloos/tents/huts/hydro-electric power sta-
tion/shooting lodge/settlement/town/city.
And only if you are in fit enough state to travel, if
no chance at all of being seen on crash site from the
air, and if you make preparations first for the trek
out (see Too Slow page 228).
Otherwise stay until found. Very many have
died after forsaking immbolized transport for a
desperate cross-country trip.
(b —S If living in snow holes or soundproof shelters
which blanket the sound of passing aircraft al-
ways, if conditions permit, have someone ‘on
watch’ in an open-topped shelter right among the
markers to listen and possibly mirror-flash too.

Writing
With nail varnish/keys/pebble/nailfile/soot/blood/char-
coal/cinders/soap/grease . . . on slate/stone/dirty car/
inner birch bark/walls/cloth/plastic/tin ... in. dust/
snow/sand/mud.
Write SOS on glass (if not in position to smash it)

17
with finger/fingernail/lipstick if glass is clear/misted/
frosted. To make it readable from other side write ZOZ
(and round off Zs to make about-turn Ss). Also write
JIHH And add anything to qualify: HHH Vi
HVIIA MA.
Write SOS message on paper and fold it into a dart
(as shown). Flight it for busiest street, say, when
trapped high in a building.

Sheet
folded in half

Two corners
Turned down a

Pee Nose wings tucked

into centre fold
Clip added

Fig 2 SOS dart

18
 On a bigger scale, and miles from anywhere .. .
Shuffle out letters SOS (shadow writing) in snow
6m-—9m (20 ft — 30 ft) tall. Deepen tracks into broad
channels, and pile the snow from these where they
will cast the sun into long shadows along the letters.
Increase size of these drifts with underlayer of rocks.
Stress shadows with soil, leaves, branches, stones. A
good shadow sign can be seen from aeroplane on
moonlit night. (See also Potassium Permangante page
154.)

Uppy
MWMWifyyy Wifi jp "YYy

Ui, y WM)
Z ff:
steglM/Z af Uy y, J
wee?

Fig 3. Shadow writing

Shadow writing can be used in sand.

Where neither snow nor sand, use rocks, tree bran-
ches and sods to build low walls to shadow letters
SOS. Again sculpt for shadows with leaves, debris,
soil in the shadow areas. Shovel any patches of snow
(in timber country) into letters to stress shadows.

Noise
When making a noise remember . . .
(a) Shout only when likely to be heard (say when
stuck in old-fashioned lift with collapsible gates).
It takes up energy/makes thirsty/roughens throat.
(b) Keep quiet at intervals to hear any sound of
others.
(c) Whistles really carry. Practise shepherd’s techni-
que of putting two fingers in mouth while impris-
oned and awaiting rescue (put either first two
fingers or the 1st and 3rd fingers of one hand

19
A-—*=

B—
= eee U—ee=

C—
=e =e V — e3c53o
=

D— =ee W-e:--

alg eee

fF —°e=mme ae
G-=-—-e aed
H — eeee

oo
[--—
° ™™ee —
v- =" ee eee
Ni =e apes
eee
Pp — = =e ee
Ola 9 gee
R—e=me (=e
a8 678 pee
Fig 4 Morse code

20
 against tip of tongue in mouth and try to whistle
through narrow gap of these fingers. Don’t press
tongue too hard back. You may be successful in
time.).
How do you wet your whistle when scared? (It’s
difficult to salivate when fear-gripped.) Licking
lips/rolling tongue/sucking thumb or pebble
helps. Also — picture biggest steak/salad/oyster
platter — or whatever dish is your favourite.
~— Use best conductor of sound — say, tapping metal
pipes with hand-held dentures (if nothing else)
when buried in building rubble. You don’t have to
know the morse code. Just keep tapping/
scratching/thumping.
Smash glass for sound outlet. If nothing (not even
shoes) for a club use a fist thus:
1. Wrap something round wrist.
2. Punch straight — knuckles uppermost.
3. Hold fist rock steady after impact.
4. Withdraw hand very gingerly.
Shout help! in a low, booming tone. The low help
call is heard long after a whistle is inaudible (hence
Big Bertha bullhorns guide lost hunters in USA
forests). Jamming fingers in ears actually helps
you call even louder than usually possible.
—
Catastrophies can seize your tongue in a stammer.
When stuck with a vital message, untie tongue by:
(1) Breathing deeply; (2) then breathe in quicker
but exhale slowly and calmly; (3) Speak in a mono-
tone, pitching voice higher (this is like singing —
and singers never stammer in song); (4) Try hum-
ming the sound ‘mmmzm’ in front of word you are
trying to get out.

Dust cloud
Stir sand or dust into column if chance of help
approaches. And it is calm.

Signalling mirror
Most vital aid. An opened tin can substitutes. Punch
3mm (1/8 in) hole in centre of can top (this need not be
_ taken completely off the can if you don’t want to

24
Fig5 Three ways to hold a signalling mirror depending on
position of the sun

remove it). Hold up to face and sight aeroplane below

sun. The sunspot which falls on your cheek via the
hole can then be bounced back through hole at aircraft
so long as (i) you hold plane in sight (ii) tilt tin lid so
that sunspot disappears into hole. Note: reflection
must be on both sides of mirror for your face must be
reflected on one side of the tin (so you can see the
sunspot), and the sun must be reflected from the other
side.

22
as
If aircraft is in a position away from the sun, the
diagram shows how to bounce sunlight towards pilot
using either of two different grips — B and C. (Using
grip C the palm of the other hand acts as test-target to
help direction of flash.)
Keep flashing even at empty view: flash could be
seen kilometres/miles away by aircraft. Ease off if
plane nears into intermittent flashes so as not to
dazzle.

Bonfire
(See also Too Cold page 147.) Day and night use. If fuel
scarce then hoard the material under stones, bran-
ches, leaves, soil, grass until a plane or ship passes.
Then light quickly. Rock or log platform underneath
fire helps. Keep petrol (if available) standing by to
boost flames. Build more than one signal fire if possi-
ble. Keep checking them during bad weather. Kind-
ling can be kept dry by body warmth.

Smoke signals
Has to bea calm day. Use (i) white smoke on clear days -
by adding moss, green foliage, sprinkling fire with
urine (ii) black smoke for gloomy days by burning
rubber (floormats/tyres), oil or oily rags. But first en-
sure you have a good fire which cannot be snuffed out
easily.

Parachute-tepee
A kind of wigwam made from branches and parachute
fabric (see Too Cold page 145). You can burn a fire inside
to convert shelter into beacon — like electric bulb
glowing through a lampshade.

Torch
Save battery torch until chance of rescue nears. Even
small torch shows up well in open country at night.
Keep it moving. Reflect circle of light on snow or bright
reflector as well as pointing torch at sky or horizon.
Wave flaming spruce branch, or hanks of lit-up
dried and knotted grass, or burning oily rags on stick.
Whole spruce tree makes excellent torch when
ignited if (a) conspicuously placed (b) thick branched
-(c) you make a bird’s nest of intertwined dead bran-

23
ches low down in the centre (d) you shield this with
leaves, spare fabric, branches etc. until drone of plane
is heard. If tree is snow-covered when you want to
light-up, keep nest cover in place until you have
shaken off snow. Petrol helps to light. Tips of spruce
should flare . . . and show for miles.

Radio transmitter and other SOSs

Use immediately if intact, and while batteries are in
working order, by sending distress signals at regular
intervals. Emergency transmitter (when limited range
save until possible help approaches). Rockets (keep dry
until help near). Sea marker dye (good for staining snow
too). Gunshot (save until help near). Smoke flares (save
too).

Distress Signals
Letters SOS can be used anywhere: sounded, flashed,
smoke puffed, written — even blinked. In morse code
the letters become — 3 dots, 3 dashes, 3 dots. Pause
then repeat.
Some other recognized distress signals are:
1. International Mountain Distress Signal: 6 flashes,
whistles or waves in a minute, then a minute’s
silence, then repeat. Rescuing answer is 3 flashes,
and whistles a minute, then a minute’s silence,
then repeat.
2. International Ground-Air Signals. (Page 26.) These
should qualify the big SOS letters made in shadow
writing on snow, sand, soil, grass, shale.
Q . International Ground-Air Body Signals. (Page 26.)

4. Three fires ina triangle. If fuel is plentiful cover two

fires until needed, and use third as camp fire.
5. On boats signals include: gunshot; flames (from tar
or oil barrel say); a square flag with anything look-
ing like a ball above or below it.
6. Red triangle (made, say, from sticks draped in red
fabric) hanging from window. Also a road warning
of traffic crash or breakdown ahead.
7. Stretching both arms up high while facing oncom-

24
 ing trains — or, at night, swinging a light from side
to side — signifies crisis to the driver.
8. In football stadium waving a white handkerchief is
signal Red Cross/St Johns/St Andrews ambulance-
men recognize.
9. Waved-high stethoscope tells rush-hour point duty
traffic policeman that a doctor on emergency call
needs priority.

Going For Help

When in a group and an accident has only injured one
or some of party (say up mountain/in cave/on island)
go for help when route is known/messengers are fit to
travel/route for help is possible.
(Note: but only after all party is safe/injured have
been given first-aid/made as warm as possible.)
Messengers going for help should:
1. Be two in number if possible — always leaving one
person with the injured.
2. Take written message giving
Location of injured (as exactly as possible including
preferably six-figure OS grid reference)
Injuries
Time of accident
Number in group
Help needed
3. Go quickly but safely to nearest habitation/
telephone.
4. Wait there for rescuers so they can guide back.

SOS When You Don’t Want Others to

Know
Examples: ‘Hey, Rube!’ is code meaning ‘Emergency!’
in circuses (fire in big top/escaped lion/brawl); a coat
lapel rubbed is the underworld sign police are about
(‘collar felt’); the bell on a bus sounded three times
rapidly means bus conductor/inspector/mechanic is in
trouble.

Answering an SOS
Let survivors know you've seen them. Always answer

25
 YNO Need
K
Direct
# LL All well
compass me wau cae
and map Togo this way

“nd
"
Need
Dont
Will fT
bh, Bao
Aircraft Not
HlEse] fe ftNeed Need
signal take o badly understood doctor first aid
lamp damaged

v Probably Unable to Need Need Need food

Need safe To proceed fuel oil engineer = and water
firearms land here

Pick us up All well

Our receiver Land here Need mechanical Need doctor

is Operator aid. Long delay urgently

he x - ~™a

Can proceed shortly Use drop message Do not try to land

Fig 6 Ground-air signals

26
a distress call if you can help. If you cannot, raise the
alarm‘and try to get help from those who can. It is
essential you get the position of survivors — jotting it
down on paper as soon as you see or hear SOS if in
remote country. Or scratch it on slate, tree bark, metal.
It is better to try for extra help than try to attempt the
impossible — if you can’t help directly — which won’t
help at all. Survival means your own self-preservation
comes first.

In a Tight Spot
You are never lonelier than when buried alive. (See also
Too Dark page 120.)
Trapped among or by roof-fall, or in any circumst-
ance where there may be a narrow avenue of escape —
either to open-air or to a position where you can signal
for rescue (through chink blowing air) — crawl, wrig-
gle, squeeze or push through.
But if safe where you are and you are virtually sure
of rescue stay there. Don’t risk precipitating further
rubble collapse. Only if no chance of rescue should |
tentative efforts be made to inch through.
Crawls and squeeze-throughs can be safe — say
slots, slits and bedding planes in caves unaffected by a
roof collapse and possibly offering an escape route
when main corridor is blocked.
Such escape routes include porthole/manhole/
skylight-squeezes.

Main principles are:

1. Strip off clothing so that if you are forced to back
out it doesn’t ruck up and cause jamming. Belts
with large buckles are dangerous on same count.
2. Most likely person to succeed in wriggling
through goes first, following — where possible —
any draught of air or gleam of light.
3. If roof unstable wait until he gets through. Then
follow, handling everything as if it were high
explosive. When surrounds are solid, however,
wriggle through with hands touching the feet of
person in front.
4. A body stiff with tension is more likely to get stuck

27
 than one relaxed. Experiment with body posi-
tions. Don’t rush to get through. Big people can
squeeze through amazingly small spaces so long
as they relax. Empty lungs before trying tight bit.
5. Help a stuck person by ‘talking’ him through.
Push and pull if physically possible and if captive
relaxes.
6. Don’t try to yank someone through hole by pull-
ing on a rope, belt or sheet tied round his waist.
Could jam him fast. Instead use a handline. First
man through tows string of belts tied together
with reef knots. He anchors this at far end. Any-
one stuck can then pull themselves along hand
over hand. Even so, this could lead to muscles
tensing, and a jammed person would have to stop
and relax to progress.
7. Probably best plan for helping wriggler in difficul-
ty is a loop at the end of the string of belts. Stuck
person works foot into loop and (a) bends at knee
of that leg (b) helpers take in slack of line and
anchor it (c) captive straightens leg squirming
forward from its power, then flexes knee again (d)
helpers pull in slack again . . . and so on.
8. Don’t try sliding down a slope with arms out
ahead — it is almost impossible to get back. Instead
try one arm ahead at a time. Or tuck both beneath
chest.

Fig 7 Tight spot footloop rescue

28
 9. Where roof lifts a little, stoop with hands on
knees. Or go onall fours, and crouch on haunches
when resting. Or waddle along on haunches. This
keeps knees off the ground.
(It is possible to black-out through pain on
kneecaps. They are not designed to carry the
body. Body heat escapes through them on to cold
floor. And crawling on knees over any distance is
far too inefficient.)
Ways of avoiding wriggling on knees: lie on
outside of leg and hold up body on forearm. Trail
other foot behind as you shove forward. Change
over to other side for a rest. Or sit on a leg and
squirm forward lifting lower thigh and buttock
during each thrust.
10. Flat-out crawling and wriggling .. . tuck elbows
into sides, hands under shoulders. Or grip fists
under chin with elbows nudging solar plexus, and
thrust forward with the toes (lift body and knees
clear at each reptilian movement). It is not a good
plan to reach forward all the time with both hands
— for one thing, it usually means your body drags
along the floor.
Child’s head stuck between railings
Gently turn child upside down (two helpers best).
Head is then eased out as easily as it went in. (Child is
stuck because ears flatten as head goes in, but are
forced outwards if head is pulled directly backwards.)

Load Handling
Survival situations call for lifting, pushing, carrying
and manhandling at all ages and conditions. Try to
avoid rupture or slipped disc risk by following these
few simple principles.

Key rules:
Don’t jerk, strain, tug wildly. Think, then p-u-s-h or
1-i-f-t or c-a-r-r-y smoothly. Never hold your breath
when load handling, but breathe freely. Bend knees
rather than your spine. Your back should never look like a
question mark ‘?" but instead should emulate an ‘I’, or ‘/’ or
_‘)', As upright as possible.

29
 Fig 8 Lifting

Lifting from the ground

Bend knees, crouching. Pull load — say a heavy rock —
on to your toes. This allows fingers to slide under-
neath. Lift rock on to knees, sliding forearms under-
neath. Stand up, back as straight as possible, legs
doing the work, lifting rock to chest. Curl fingers at far
side of rock.

Carrying
Can be done as you stand now: rock at chest height,
back straight. Alternative ways of carrying (depend-
ing on shape and type of load) are:
(a) On a shoulder. Keep changing sides to avoid
straining.
(b) On hip. Rather cumbersome method. Useful
when load too heavy to be lifted to shoulder.
(c) At pelvis level. Both arms straight down. Best if
fingers can interlock below load. Carry loads short
distances only this way.

Manoeuvring
Lifting and carrying long heavy loads like logs, posts,
bouncing cars out of ditch (see Too Slow page 234),
pieces of furniture.
1. Use lifting principles. Grip one end of long object at
best point (bumpers on car/near ground under
log/under edge of sideboard). Bend knees, and
keep back as straight as possible.

30
2. Keep lifting, then relaxing to bounce cars.
3. Lift and walk crabwise with log, say, if on your
own. Then lower that end (carefully, bending
knees) and go to other end. Lift and carry this
forward past the far end. Then lower and repeat
with the other end.
4. Two men can manoeuvre a long object like this. .
each takes an end, and crouches, hands low at best
gripping position. One gives commands - Ready,
Lift! They lift together and walk crabwise rather
than backwards or forwards.
5. Unwieldy rocks can be manoeuvred by lifting to
one edge, then rolling (while you balance rock
upright) for a few feet under own momentum. Take
care it doesn’t land on your toes.

Pushing
Drive from your legs. Arms can be outstretched with
elbows ‘locked’, or completely bent. Back or shoulder
against the object is probably best position.
(a) Place back to object, legs at 45 degrees to the
ground. Bend knees, dig heels into ground, then
straighten legs. Repeat.
(b Face object and push with straight arms. These
—

together with your body and legs should be in

straight a line as possible. Lock elbows. Don’t
push upwards, but rather horizontally and for-
ward. Steer the object (van say) by the push from
your legs and angle of your shoulders and back.
(c) Bend both legs and press shoulder against object.
Arms should be completely bent, but hands grip
so that when you straighten legs the object moves
forward (and upward at your end). Useful for
object like crate which needs raising to swivel or
slide into position.

Solo First Aid

Fantastic self-first-aid has been done by lone survi-
vors. American pilot hacked off leg while swinging
from parachute caught in jungle canopy. Trapper used
hunting knife to cut/saw/sear gangrenous leg. Both
survived.
People have always survived brutal surgery. British

31
 Fig 9 Pushing

sailors once had legs amputated and stumps sealed

with pitch. Kit Carson took off a companion’s arm
with waggon bolt, razor and saw — searing stump with
hot iron.
Women have given birth on the spot — alone. Men
have dragged smashed limbs/skulls/bodies for miles
. .all should give you hope if ever similarly disabled.
If on your own when injured, but still conscious and
able to move and think, you may be able to carry out
the first-aid principles explained later relevant to each
section (like childbirth in Too Crowded page 69) — or
enough of them to pull through.
But one factor that could be fatal is present in all
first-aid situations — and the more you are aware of it
the more you may be able to combat it...

32
Shock
Many people have died after injury because of untre-
ated shock.
Shock of the accident weakens the body. It lowers
your vital activities. Shock increases under pain/
exposure/exhaustion. It must always be treated in all
survival situations.

Treatment
Act immediately — unless some more pressing need
like severe bleeding. Or, if you are treating someone
else, they stop breathing.
1. Find shelter from rain/wind/snow (see Too Cold page
140). If conditions OK move as little as possible.
. Lie down comfortably and slightly raise feet.
. Loosen tight clothing without chilling.
. Relieve pain if possible and treat injuries.
CO. Get warm with extra clothing/covering, but don’t
rWN
make victim hot enough to cause sweating — don’t
overheat. Important — no hot water bottles.
6. Give nothing by mouth — allow a thirsty victim to
such a moist cloth.
and if you are treating someone else for shock:
7. Reassure patient.
8. Avoid noise and panic.

Getting a Doctor
A telephone operator will always be able to help you
with a list of available doctors whether you are in
roadside call box/strange town/home (when no
answer from your own doctor’s number).
A hotel proprietor will contact a doctor for you.
Use 999 service for ambulance after accident.
If no telephone near, say after road crash, stop
someone passing and ask them to phone urgently.
When phoning always say where you are as exactly
as possible e.g. give nearest town/city/village, and any
landmarks. Say, also, what help is needed — how
many need it.

33
 Too
Crowded
2 Too Crowded

Two is a crowd when one is booting/goring/biting the

other. Suffused with pain, rage, hate and fear, your
chances of surviving human or animal attack are un-
predictable.
Crushed in crazed soccer crowd, throttled in
emergency exit stampede or trampled in rush for
lifeboats . .. mob force is as lethal as a charge of
elephants/wolves/sharks. And much more likely.
What can someone unarmed and unversed in self-
defence do when things get too crowded? So different
is each individual, so varied are circumstances, the
only hard and fast rule is hard and fast action when it
comes to the crunch.

Recognize Danger
Escalating panic on jammed escalator; screams in dis-
cotheque; footsteps following you; dancehall punch-
up. None of these — or any other trouble — need affect
you directly. But be near them and you could be
involved.
The human body knowing itself in danger is much
stronger than one which doesn’t (despite escapes in
crises by the drunk/sleeping/unconscious). Aware in
time and body pumps adrenalin into bloodstream as a
tone booster/muscle accelerator/blood vessel constric-
tor. It can make all the difference between death and
survival.
When trouble flares steel yourself. Expect it to
spread and involve you. Take action.

Preparedness
. Fight down panic.
. Avoid getting involved if at all possible.
- Be looking for an escape route well in advance.
. Try to sidestep trouble when face to face.
- When trouble is head-on — resist with everything.
PWN

36
Self-Preservation
Crushed in crowd
Aim to ride like buoy in rough sea — where tide is
extremely powerful. To go under means drowning
from suffocation and trampling. Brace like a powerful
spring (as shown).
1. Take deep breath.
2: Tense biceps/shoulders/back against pressure.
3. Bunch arms in front of stomach — possibly shield-
ing child within.
4. Lift both feet off ground so they are not trampled
on.
. Keep moving wherever possible.

Fig 10 Spring and buoy position in surging crowd

37
At first signs of crowd-surge squirm away from any-
thing solid like wall, barrier or pillar.
In hysterical/swaying/terrified crowd this is all you
can do. Note: most vulnerable position of all is to be
caught with hands in pockets. Neither should you
clasp hands with interlocked fingers in front of body.
Where crowd is limited — too many trying to get out
of emergency exit, say, try to calm panic by shouting
humorous understatements.
Woman being followed
At sign of persistent footsteps behind . . .
1. Walk faster
if footsteps still follow
2. Run
if footsteps follow running
3. Scream
if attacked give your resistance everything.
Screaming is often sufficient deterrent. But if not, fight
like hell. The object is to stay alive, so don’t use
half-measures.
Think ahead when followed and choose some
weapon to have in hand if grabbed, from whole arsen-
al you carry — from high heels to hat pins.
(a) Comb with teeth dragged across underneath
nose.
(b) Umbrella stabbed forward.
(c) Matchbox held protruding from thumb side of fist
— struck hard on assailant’s temples.
(d Nail file/hairpins/safety pins/fingernails/ballpoint
~—

pens/hairbrush handle — all useful jabbers and

gougers.
(e) Key ring held in palm with keys sticking through
slits between fingers.
(f) Face powder blown or hair spray sprayed into
attacker’s eyes.
(g) Coins slipped between fingers of clenched fist in
advance.
(h ~— Handbag with hand wrist slipped through strap
ready to swing as a club.
(i) To land blow more effectively with clenched fist
punch at spot way beyond attacker’s face/
sternum/genitals. Do not tuck thumb inside fist.
38
If approached suddenly by a man, and no time for
running — talk. And in meantime prepare defences as
above. Say — looping hand through handbag strap.

Breaking grips
Use everything: belt knee hard into testicles; smash
with foot under attacker’s knee; drag foot down shin,
and stamp on instep of attacker’s foot; kick under
kneecap.
Close-range kick with knee is best as it is harder for
the protagonist to grab and pull you off-balance. But if
you do kick from a distance (say against knife/bottle/
razor attack) don’t use orthodox football-type kick
which can be seen coming for miles. Do it this way:

1. Turn sideways on or backwards to attacker.

2. Lift knee high into stomach.
3. Shoot out leg horizontally behind, turning foot
sideways (aim for knees/shin/crotch).
4. Pull back foot instantly after connecting.

Ram with point of elbow; butt with head if in range;

pry off fingers by wrenching them backwards — espe-
cially the little fingers; escape through the attacker’s
thumbs (see page 42); use persistent pressure with edge
of little finger (palm flat, fingers together, thumb
flexed outwards) under assailant’s nose to break fierce
grip (not necessarily on you.)
Stick fingers into attacker’s eyes (1st and little finger,
or Ist and 3rd fingers, of one hand make useful jabbing
fork spaced just right for most eyeballs).
Distract attention instantly when attacked. Hanky/
ashtray contents/spit can be aimed at attacker’s face
followed up by own attack. Or escape.
But be quick about it.
Arm from behind throttling you. If right arm is
being used then attacker’s right foot will probably be
forward and just behind yours (and vice versa if left
arm is used). Stamp hard on instep with heel.
Fingers strangling you from behind. Grab any of
fingers and bend them backwards, then burst hands
sideways away from your head.

oo
 must kee
my balance when

Fig 11 Breaking stranglehold and bear-hug from behind

40
Strangled from the front.
(a) Grab any of fingers and bend/twist/wrench quickly
backwards, separating his hands far apart, or
(b) Bring both of your arms (close together) up be-
tween opponent's hands viciously and outwards
to cleave the grip. Note: do a shin-grinding and
instep-stamping follow-up — one variation of re-
taliation.
Bear-hugged from front. Slap an arm up over out-
side one of attacker’s arms quickly, cup his chin and
snap his head back. Chuck knee up hard and stamp on
instep when all else fails.
Body-hugged from behind. Pry his fingers back
instantly before grip becomes concrete. Butting back-
wards with head can work if upper arms pinned — then
grab for attacker’s fingers (if set in consolidated grip
try screwing knuckles into back of hand).
If lifted high from behind, dig heels hard back into
crotch/thighs/shins — and run. But be ready for when
suddenly dropped. Keep your balance.
Pushed in chest. Press both hands on top of hand
pushing you, lean forward, step backwards and force
down with bottom edges of your hands to lever him
down.
Wrists (and lower arms) gripped. Escape through
the thumbs which are weakest part (Fig 12). If your
hands held up to protect face and wrists are grabbed —
swing both arms down and outwards immediately,
and disjoin his grip at the thumbs.
If your hands low and wrists or forearms gripped,
then instantly wrench arms up and outwards, again
putting pressure on opponent’s thumbs.
But if two hands are gripping one of your wrists
whip up your other hand between attacker’s arms,
close over fist of the imprisoned hand and wrench
either up or down (and towards protagonist) depend-
ing whether your wrist being gripped is high or low.
Or, if circumstances allow, just hit attacker with
other fist in face/solar plexus/stomach.
Being butted/kicked/punched. Try to sway/duck/
dodge with body movement first . . . as trunk move-
ment much quicker than arm reaction. Things happen
so fast you are virtually defenceless, but:
(a) When lapels grabbed be ready for being butted in

41
 Wa
wee Wize A Ae

Fig 13. Kidney and head protection when booted

face by oncoming head. Your only defence is to get

in first by butting forward hard so top of your head
hits opponent on bridge of nose — hard.
(b) When lying on ground and being kicked try to
keep rolling, shielding parts being kicked with

42
 arms. But always protect head as priority. Clasp
base of skull with both hands, bring wrists across
ears and side of head, and pressing elbows
together. Bring knees up, crossing ankles to save
genitals.
(c In hand-to-hand brawl avoid lying on back, but
—

pivot on hip to punch/kick/jab attacker with top-

most leg and arm.
In all attacks it pays to shout/gasp/yell more than
you need: feign pain. Especially when at receiving end
(lying on ground and being kicked). Attacker may be
satisfied sooner when you appear in agony.
Shout when attacking too. Expelling air makes you
stronger/excited/intimidates.

When facing weapon

If no space to manoeuvre, no escape avenue, no
inclination to get out — try to take weapon away (apart
from a gun where you have to play it by ear — talk/
divert attention if circumstances favourable/but usual-
ly acquiesce).
Person with gun could feel so upper-hand that he is
careless. If absolutely essential you must escape (say

Fig 14 Thwarting underarm knife attack

43
you are being herded into van preparatory to be being
thrown into Tyne ina sack) think of a rush attack. The
corny old cowboy film trick of glancing over gunman’s
shoulder can still help you here. Do it subtly. Look of
dawning recognition quickly stifled might make your
captor start to look round.
But never rush a knife. . .
Keep attacker at distance. Use chair/spade/ice axe —
anything solid and handy. Jab/stab/prod in defence
rather than make roundhouse swings. Make sure
assailant doesn’t grab your defensive gear with his
free hand. Tuck elbows into side and fingers into
palms.
Wrap coat/rug/towel around a forearm to fend off
attack with if nothing else.

Note how knife is held.

(a) If it is going to be thrown at you, attacker will
usually have to change grips on it which gives you
a moment’s warning.
(b) Beware knife held underarm which is stabbed
upwards and can slip through ribs easily and can
mean expertise in attacker.

Fig 15 Combating overarm clubbing

44
(c) Knife stabbed down at you could be sign that
assailant isn’t real knife fighter (though not neces-
sarily so) as harder for knife to enter ribs from
above.
Ways of removing weapon differ tremendously.
Three quick methods are shown which work so long as
knife wrist can be caught quickly enough — the hard
part.
Note: when all else fails — especially in drunken
bottle-brawls — lash foot into genitals, but don’t hesi-
tate once you decide to kick. Best kick — turn your back
and lash backwards like a horse. (See page 39.)
Such a kick gives you more reach than the man with
the weapon - especially as your body leans back as
counter balance. Aim hard at the knee. It can prove
very effective.
Diagrams show the holds. When knife is coming
upwards in attacker's right hand try to grab that wrist
with your right hand and pull his arm across your
body. At same time twist your body sharply to right so
his elbow lies across your body. Belt your left arm
across his chest to divorce him of knife (this can also
snap his arm). (See Fig 14.)

Fig 16 Twisting and ducking to break knife grip

45
 Knife striking down in attacker's right hand: try to
catch that wrist with your left hand, then slot your
right hand under his elbow and lock it on your own
wrist. Force his arm back until he is forced to drop
weapon (or have his arm broken). (See Fig 15.)
Another way is to catch knife-wrist and both hands
(overhand-grip), twist your trunk hard left, duck
under protagonist’s armpit, yanking hard to break the
knifehold. (See Fig 16.)

The Citizen’s Arrest (unofficial)

If you catch a villain and have the manpower/
girlpower/power! — detain him thus:
1. Have him embrace a lamp post/flagpole/tree as if
trying to climb it...
2. Right leg across left, toe of right shoe pushed
behind lamp post.
3. Push thug down into sitting position.
When police car arrives captive can be taken by arms
and lifted. There’s no other way (as left shoe binds
right leg and right shoe binds lamp post).

Potential Attackers
Hijacker
Do exactly as told — neither staring in eye or making
any sudden, unnecessary or menacing movements.
(See also When facing weapon page 43.)
(If shot at from a distance in the open anything like a
folded cape/policeman’s serge coat/sheepskin held up
loosely in front of you can sharply decelerate bullet
and take sting out of it.) This is a drastic measure —
when no other way.

Burglars
If you wake up in the night and discover a burglar. . .
If in bed:
1. Bite pillow corner and pretend to be asleep.
2. Inform police as quickly as possible.
If he wakes you up:
1. Ask what he wants.

46
2. Let him take money or property.
3. Do not provoke or anger. Keep quiet.
4, Try to remember what he looks like.
5. Contact police when you can.
If you surprise a burglar:
1. Avoid giving any aggressive impression. It is safer
for many to pretend to faint.
If you only suspect someone is in your home:
1. Keep the lights on. A light-out situation gives an
intruder the advantage.
2. Call police as soon as possible. Burglars usually
look for an easy touch — not trouble.

Hitchhiker who pulls weapon

Golden rule is: never pick up hitchhikers.
If you do and worst happens try to do something —
what depends on circumstances. If you haven’t
chance to act quickly when customer turns nasty,
acquiesce and drive on. But be thinking of best action.
Remember drivers who did nothing and were left shot
or stabbed at the wheel. And you have whip hand as
driver.
Things that have worked:
(a) Managing to pass on SOS at filling station — poss-
ibly when gunman has ‘hostage’ (your front seat
passenger) but lets you get out.
(b) Crossing double white lines in front of police car —
also misbehaving in other ways; and flashing
lights at patrol car, etc.
(c) Surreptitiously pulling out choke, explaining jer-
ky engine as serious petrol pump/carburettor/
electrics trouble which needs attention — and once
out of car run (if assailant has gun run in zig-zags
to nearest cover.)
(d ~—
Feigning sickness: diabetic insulin-surplus/heart
trouble/appendicitis while clutching body/slump
over wheel/pull into side. Then either overpower
and thump or get out and run.
Remember here your elbow is strongest weapon avail-
able when struck into passenger’s floating ribs (just
above waist). Some other pretext may give you open-

47
ing to strike thus — say extending arm as if to adjust
choke/ashtray/wipe windscreen.
(e) With front seat hitchhiker holding gun/knife/razor
on you, consider stopping very, very abruptly if
you are wearing seat belt and he is not. And eject
him into dash/scuttle/windscreen.
(f) Ifa good enough driver, give unwanted passenger
very fast drive so he knows that to kill or injure
you while at wheel will mean horrifying crash.
If driving with valuable load and stopped by someone
who suggests you get out to attend to flat tyre/unsafe
load/lights out/an accident ahead — don’t leave your
vehicle. Drive on until sure you are safe then check.
Waved-down by police (and with valuable load)
don’t leave vehicle if asked — but offer to drive to
nearest police station. Bogus police and warrant cards
hard to detect from real thing at night.

Driver who kidnaps hitchhiker

Put on spewing/puking/vomiting act all over car in-
terior. You may manage real thing if you stick two
fingers down your throat. If car stops get out and run.
See also Too Fast page 215 (when driver is drunk/
suicidal/tearaway).

Pickpockets and bag snatchers

Thieves who depend on stealth are unlikely to be
dangerous — unless you catch them red-handed and
try to retaliate. Likely situations: in crowds thronging
racecourses/prizefights/subway trains and rush-hour
streets.
Pickpockets will always try to distract you just be-
fore they have a chance. Be ready for such a moment.
When somebody knocks the parcel out of your hand,
say, and hands it back with profuse apologies. And
keep your other hand on your money. Keep walking.
Safest place for a man’s money: the two front trous-
er pockets as they are near a sensitive area. Never use
the back hip pocket.
Safest place for a woman’s money: a purse inside
her handbag which should be tucked firmly under her
arm — not dangling from a shoulder strap.

48
Peeping Tom
Don’t attack — he might be in shouting distance of
other kinky characters who ‘patrol’ lovers’ lanes/
parks/laybys after closing time.
If in car parked in field/lane/copse and face looms at
window - keep inside. Doors should be locked and
windows wound-up. Don’t open window to anyone
who taps on it — could admit a gun (viz. A6é murder).
Fact the spy-er has been seen is enough usually to
make him sheer off. In any case — drive off yourself.
If in building with telephone — dial 999.
Don’t rush into the attack in face of such complete
unknown.

Fighting drunk
Humour.
If involved in brawl, drunks can offer astoundingly
strong grip. Hit hard in stomach and this may make
him sick.

Madman
Humour (again can have three times the strength of
normal person).

Furious driver
Avoid being pulled from your car seat and battered by
motorist/lorry driver/cabbie who is incensed at way
you cut in front of him and catches you at traffic lights.
Lock doors and refuse to get out.
If driving door is forced open, back out through
other front door.
Or jump out towards complainant — fast. Don’t sit
there as sitting target for a punch on the nose. Or
possibly worse.
Holding two fingers with the thumb cocked (as if
shooting yourself) as an apology, or talking, can often
get you out of this spot — but be ready.

Mob
Can vary from a small crowd of Continentals angered
by your hitting pedestrian/car/dustcart with your vehi-
cle while on holiday to lynching party out for blood.
Get away — escape in time.

49
 If not: backs to the wall.
If you can dispatch the first assailant to lay hands on
you summarily enough, the others may have second
thoughts about coming to grips with you.

Drowning person
Keep well away as drowning people have strong
fighting instinct (see Too Wet page 101). Break holds as
previous if grabbed by drowner (say following ship-
wreck).

Natives
If attacked take cover. Avoid fighting back unless
poisoned darts (you suspect) are showering at you.
And then fire above heads. Killing primitive tribesman
will really precipitate things.
When you feel you are being watched in jungle
stand in any clearing, show yourself empty-handed in
all directions. If still not sure, leave gifts in obvious
place and come back to check if still there.
On meeting natives . . . show yourself unarmed by
holding out arms and hands. Use sign language to
show your needs, and you may be taken to village.
(a) Play it by ear. Take things slowly. Show yourself
friendly/well-intentioned/non-scared. Smile.
(b) Aim to see headman. Ask him for any help you
need. Sign language will get through. Don’t de-
mand. Give gifts.
(c) Don’tbe too generous in handing out possessions/
coins (not paper money)/food as payment. It is
unwise to overpay. Be fair — try to win their
confidence. Keep promises.
(d ~ Respect customs — and native homes/women/
possessions. If you don’t leave them alone expect
the worst. Survival when tribesmen are not sure
about you is very much a case of doing as you
would be done by.
(e) Mix. Join in. Be prepared to become butt of their
humour. Try to learn their tongue. Don’t keep
repeating faux pas which are obviously causing
consternation.

50
(f) Learn what you can of locale, food and water
supplies. Also whereabouts of hostile natives,
anything that can help.
(g) Watch your possessions aren’t pinched. Avoid
living in native shelters (you could catch disease) if
at all possible, but build your own, possibly with
native help. Boil your water, prepare your own
food — but don’t make your segregation (for health
reasons) obvious.

While they are tying you up

Whether natives strapping you to a stake or assailant
who breaks into house while you are watching TV and
binds you toa chair. . . knowing basic escapology is a
must (you don’t have to be a Houdini to get away).
1. Arms to body. Take deep breath. Pull shoulders
back. Flex arms against the bonds. Try to fold arms
by simulating pain under the armpits so crossing
arms while pretending to rub sore parts — then hook
up as much slack as possible with 2nd finger
(longest) while binder is unsighted on the blind
side and/or underneath armpits.
Let breath out, shoulders slump forwards and
arms press into body — and bonds should slacken as
you go smaller.
. Wrists and hands. Brace these against the bonds,
arched slightly. When keeping wrists apart press
on fingertips and vice versa. Push against bonds,
especially at point where they are being bound,
using this contra-pressure. Try to keep hands in
front rather than having them bound behind you.
Free by relaxing hands and wrists and working
until slack can ride over palms and fingertips —
helped by long 2nd fingers which can feed loose
loops over hands. Use teeth if knots in suitable
position. Or work knot loose on some projection.
. Legs and ankles. Flex thighs, knees, calves and
ankles against the bonds. When bound at ankles
brace shoe toes and knees together, forcing ankles
apart. Keep feet (at toes) together and arch legs
apart when thighs and calves are being bound.
Free by relaxing legs. It is possible to free ankles,

51
 —_> <——

Fig 17 Bracing against and relaxing in bonds and gag

even though wrists still tied, if feet curled up be-

hind and knot is in suitable place.
. Gag. Tuck chin well in/clench teeth/puff out cheeks
before they gag you. Try to free by rubbing face
against wall, piece of furniture, anything project-
ing.
: If they tie you to tree, fence post, chair. Same
principles apply. Brace where possible against
bonds, forcing part of body being bound away from
object no matter how slightly by pressure against
object elsewhere —e.g. being bound by shoulders to
tree force back away from tree by pressing with
calves at bottom of tree.
Note: irregular surfaces like trees present good
chances of escape as working bonds towards any
depressions in tree means more slack.
Remember . . . even 13 mm (% in) slack in bonds
can mean escape using these principles. Usually you

52
can obtain more by determining your captors shall not
do exactly as they want with you, and bracing against
the rope/electric flex/wire.
A long rope bound round and round you gives
better chance of escape than several short ropes at
different points — ankles, wrists, chest and arms.
When you see bonds overlapping realize you have
chance of working slack.
Another resort: fray bonds on any sharp projection —
rope is easier to saw through than cord.

Creatures from Outer Space (stepping from flying

saucer)
There is no scientific evidence that aliens exist in the
neighbourbood of earth. There are tens of thousands
of unidentified flying objects. So far not one has been
identified as a flying saucer.
Whether or not sighting aliens disembarking is
merely an hallucination (most likely explanation) the
safest course is to get away.

Animal and Aquatic Hazards

Animal attack is unpredictable.
You can expect it when hunting/trapping/cine-
filming big game, but mostly fear lies in the mind of
survivor in wilderness country. He could well escape
without ever seeing a dangerous animal, and those he
does — will often avoid him.
Animal kingdom does offer real danger, however —
when cornered/surprised/with young. Some need no
provocation.
Animal hazard is not only present in jungle, but in
many places — parks/reservations/fields/mountains/
streets/sea. And on the beach...

Donkeys
Seaside resorts treat for donkey bites each year. Dis-
suade children from offering titbits to donkeys. But if
they must — offer sweets/carrot chunks on flat of hand.
Remedy — see page 66.

Weever fish
UK’s only poisonous fish, weevers burrow into sand,

53
their venous dorsal fins sticking up. These sting like an
adder bite. Remedy — see page 66.

Stingray
Looking like a skate, the stingray is an unwelcome
visitor to UK waters. It has a long flexible tail with
sharp spine — used as a weapon. Effect: similar to
weever fish. Remedy — see page 66.

Portuguese Man O’War

This jelly-fish resembles a blue or pink plastic bag
floating in shallows or rock pools. It makes rare
appearances along UK shores. It trails 13m (40ft) long
sting with venom like a cobra. The aged or very young
can die. Avoid. Remedy — see page 66.

Bulls
Keep your eye on the bull. Biggest cause of fatalities
and injuries is carelessness/familiarity/contempt. Bulls
are completely unpredictable.
If you have to go in field with bull, keep to edges.
Otherwise detour outside the field - some bulls may
take no notice of intruders some of the time, then
attack. They can run and swerve faster than humans.
Ways to evade...
(a) Try not to turn your back to a bull unless near
wall/fence/tree to which you can sprint. If some
way to go, however, try to dodge — still backing
away. Never square up to a bull.
It can help to slip coat/sweater/shirt off and toss
aside before making final safety dash. And if bull
is still some way off.
(b — Bulls tend to go for any bright colours — not
necessarily red. Subdue anything bright as best
you can.
(c Bulls don’t take to water easily — another escape
avenue: river/lake outlet/canal.
(d —— If with family (inconceivable if you have not been
careless) draw off bull while women and children
run in different directions — by flinging coat. Even
then no knowing what bull will do and whom he
will chase.

54
 Fig 18 Bull evasion

(e) If thrown by bull only way to hurt him is by

grasping the nose ring (if there is one) and hang-
ing on with fingers.
(f) Another survival method that has worked is: feign
death if you have already survived being thrown/
gored/knelt-on.

Dogs
Ordinary village dog in other countries is dangerous.
Semi-starved and savage, its bite can be fatal if dog has
rabies. Signs — glazed eyes/foaming mouth/stagger-
ing.
a te them to keep at bay if they attack you.
With other large dogs try not to give any aggressive
impression.
(a) Stand your ground, calling Leave! and talking to
dog quietly.

55
(b) If possible catch neck ruff and gently manhandle
dog backwards to gate/door/barrier which can be
slammed.
(c) Never grasp the tail (dog can whip round and
bite).
(d) Push back towards rear of dog’s mouth ifit bites
rather than tearing limb away. This can weaken
grip and cause a less lacerated wound.

Wolves
Wolves are only related to dogs. Spinal anatomy is
similar, but wolf has protective ruff and its spinal
(cervical) vertebrae are thickly encased in neck muscle.
Vulnerable parts: nose, lower ribs at side. Wolves are
tearers, pack hunters usually, and hunters of weak
victims, going after limbs. If attacked by a wolf:
1. Chop it on nose.
2. Slam arm to back of jaws.
3. If you go down with it, clutch its back in crossed
legs.
4, ee like hell with legs and cause a reflex backs-
quirm, then try jerking hand on neck.
If bitten see page 66.

Bears
A hazard all over world (from Arctic to Yellowstone
Park in America). Don’t encourage ‘tame’ bears to
approach you with food/posed-photographs-with-
people-included/fooling about. They can maul with-
out warning. Observe warning notices in such areas.
Marauding polar bear prowling round forced-camp
should be shot: hard and dangerous to kill, yet relent-
less in its curiosity. Aim for neck/heart/throat shots
just behind shoulder. One marksman on own very
vulnerable.
Grizzly bears are dangerous (tan colour with blond
collar and neck hump). Black and brown bears are
generally less lethal.
Worth remembering: a bear runs faster uphill than
down as front legs are shorter than rear.

56
Tigers
All big cats can either sheer away or attack. Unarmed
survivors who have been face to face with tigers/
leopards/lions have used various methods: freezing
still; staring back hard; yelling and screaming.

Snakes
In snake-prone country make lots of noise so as not to
surprise — cause of most snake bites. Wear boots.
Reinforce thin footwear with layers of cloth. Wind
round ankles (but not too tight). Thrash with stick
ahead when stepping over logs/rocks/thickets. Snakes
are nocturnal — take torch and thick stick at night.
Don’t sleep on ground. Watch where you put bare
hands.
If bitten, try to kill snake (with rock/stick/gun) — if
you or companions have presence of mind among
ensuing alarm. When sure it is dead handle by tail and
take to doctor/hospital/sick bay in camp (kind of snake
means venom can be identified).
Snakes will usually avoid you. Only 200 are fatally
poisonous out of over 2,000 different kinds. Even
poisonous snakes don’t always inject lethal venom. A
good chance you won’t die if bitten. Adder is only
poisonous snake in British Isles (not usually fatal in an
adult).
See page 66 for treatment.

Spiders
Avoid by not rooting/groping/feeling under rocks,
logs and in holes with your hands in potential spider
country — whether in home-docked banana boat or
abroad.
Black Widow (with reddish hourglass marking
underneath) has most dangerous nerve poison which
can kill. Tarantula is relatively harmless by compari-
son. Spiders don’t often kill — but inflict pain.
Hairy spiders cause intense skin irritation if they
touch you.

Scorpions
Be wary. They lie in dark places: don’t disturb with
bare hands when working among tree trunks/logs/

ays
rocks/sand. Knock shoes/socks/clothing before dres-
sing. Check bedding before you lie on it.
Poison affects nerve system, makes you vomit and
can kill — especially children. Smaller scorpions are
more potent than big ones. The poison glands are in
tail and big claws.

Centipedes
Check clothing and bedding in hot climates. Noctur-
nal. If you feel one crawling over you in night — let it.
Don’t attempt to brush off. Very painful sting.

Insects
Disease (like malaria and yellow fever from mos-
quitoes) is biggest fatality risk. Cover up at all costs
against swarms of flies.
(a) Cover face/extremities/upper body with mud.
(b) Improvise wide-brimmed hat.
(c) Improvise head net from shirt/T-shirt (sleeves pul-
led up through buttoned-up neckhole) worn
round and over head and tucked into collar.
(d ~— Wear two layers of clothing where possible. Tuck
trousers into socks/boots/puttees (made from
cloth wound round and round spirally upwards
from ankle to knees). Tie off bottom of trousers
inside footgear with laces/string/vines. Tuck
sleeves into gloves (makeshift ones: socks).
—a’) ~— Keep clothes on at night. Improvise mosquito net
round bedding from any cloth.
(d Use first-aid ointment/repellant/anti-malaria tab-
—

lets if available. DEET (M-N-diethylmetatolu-

amide) is ultimate insect repellent (Repel 100, for
instance, contains it in 95% concentration).

Pitching camp on right site is important. Steer clear of

(1) swamps/pools/bogs (2) low-lying, damp and calm
land (3) sheltered site. Instead choose high windy
situation where possible.
Insect-proof shelter as tightly as materials allow —
Say with parachute canopy, or clothing. Cigarette
smoke is a deterrent inside, but smoky fire better.
Light healthy fire outside, then add damp foliage/
ferns/moss until smoking heavily. A smaller section of

58
 nt i il oa. a,

this is carried into back of shelter. Fan smoke (along

with flies) back out through door.

Ants
Avoid anthills and antpaths. Beware when climbing
tropical trees as ants which bite live high as well as
ground-level. Look where you sit and sleep. Don’t
scatter food remains around — bury them.
Faced with remorseless march of ant army — just
move your gear out of the path which will keep in a
straight line (but do it in time).

Bees, Wasps, Hornets

If you disturb a nest (usually 3m—9m/10-30 ft up trees)
and you are some metres/yards away sit tight for
several minutes, then crawl away (wasps chase mov-
ing targets). If attacked run through thickest under-
growth or take to water.

Ticks
Strip off clothes often — especially in grassy areas. You
may find ticks/leeches/bed bugs — among others. Ex-
amine each other. Ticks can be removed by brushing/
flicking/tapping. But if head is attached under skin
relax its grip with iodine/meths/lit-cigarette-held-near.
Don’t pull body, or head remains in and festers.
Leeches respond to flicking/salt/cigarette end, (they
will get through any clothing). Don’t pull if already
attached to you.
Fleas burrowing under toe nails (or skin) to lay eggs
may generally be removed with fire-sterilized knife/
needle/pricker. And iodine applied.
There are many other parasites which can burrow
below skin, fleas which can bite and insects which can
fill you with disease.

In all pest-prone areas...

(a) Keep clothes on as barrier (with layers tucked in).
(b) Keep clothing dry as possible, clean and mended.
Especially socks and stockings. Wash a lot.
(c) Never walk barefooted.
(d) If you fall into tropical water, no matter how
fresh-looking, act: wring clothing; drain shoes;

59
 towel-down all over; change into dry clothes if
possible.
(e) Keep out of water unless forced to wade, as
tremendous variety of attackers from waterborne-
skin-burrowing worms to sting rays; jellyfish to
barracuda; water snakes to electric eels; Portu-
guese Man O’War to coral reef stingers.

Crocodiles and alligators

They can lie with eyes just above water like logs. Oron
banks.
Beware when wading across rivers, swimming or
rafting across bays and estuaries in tropics. Don’t
thrash/splash/shout. Skirt well clear of any such in-
fested water. If attacked get to side fast. Check thor-
oughly first before entering any deep water. Don’t
trust method of throwing stones to scare off croco-
diles.

Sharks
Keep quiet in raft. Paddle away from blood/vomit/fish
remnants/excrement floating on water. Avoid fishing
near sharks. Wear dark clothing if possible and cover
bare limbs as white-flash can attract them.
Don’t jump overboard to swim from small boats
without checking all round and underneath. Stay near
boat. Avoid dangling hands or feet over side. Sharks
come scavenging round craft without warning. If in-
vestigated be ready for craft to be nudged/scraped/
bumped by shark.Avoid flashing bright objects to
attract them even more. Keep quiet. Chances are they
might lose interest if no apparent chance of food and
swim on.
When attacked by shark and you are on raft: all face
out back to back (tie yourselves together if rough sea)
and kick out at shark; use knife in gills or eyes; jab
snout/gills/eye with oar by prodding/stabbing/jabbing
— not swinging.
If anyone dies throw body over at night and paddle
fast away. Pull anyone injured into raft and treat for
bleeding and shock (see later).
Gunshot can scare.
Use shark repellent if available.

60
 Swimmers in shark infested waters should use regu-
lar smooth strokes. Panicky splashing movements
attract the big fish. Also — stay clear of large schools of
fish (another shark attraction).
Survivors in water without raft facing shark (or any
dangerous fish like barracuda and swordfish) should
form a circle facing outward and beat the water with
powerful regular strokes. Float if you see triangular fin
and shark doesn’t seem to have spotted you.
Swimmer can try these measures when single shark
attacks.
(a) Don’t turn and flee but face and swim to one side
as he comes in.
(b) Suddenly swim at shark.
(c) At close quarters — try kicking/punching/handing-
off.
(d) Scream underwater.
(e) Slap surface water with hands.
(f) If armed — stab gills or eye.

Swans
Avoid — especially if you have dog and swan has
cygnets. Large, angry swans have bone-breaking
potential with wings like iron bars.

Crowd Hazards
Crowd risks run gamut from apoplectic argument
which results in heart attack to bite of snake/punch of
fist/kick of boot. Or emergency birth of baby.
Sprains, strains, splinters, cuts and bruises and
other injuries are best treated cold first, heat later.
Cold water/wet towel/ice pack applied first relieves
pain and relaxes muscles.
Warm water/hot compress/hot water bottle used
after inflammation subsides helps relieve pain and
boosts blood circulation to injured part. Used too
soon following injury, however, can be harmful.
Try to resist drinking/offering/carrying-alcohol in
survival situations. It causes blood sugar shortage
and drop in body temperature. If, however, you

61
 must carry a hip flask at least take it with sugar/
glucose sweets/sugary food.

Shock
Always treat — as in all hazards (see Too Lonely page 33).

Bleeding
Priority hazard of all —- even to non-breathing (see Too
Wet page 105).
Act fast when someone is losing lifeblood.
A little blood looks a lot. But blood is antiseptic and
will usually clot itself — so long as flow is slowed. Can
take a few seconds to over 10 minutes.
1. Press directly with fingers (unless steel/rock/wood
embedded).
2. Press on pad (hanky) to make blood stop or ooze.
3. Raise bleeding part of body.
4. Get to doctor/hospital fast.
Don’t wash wound
Don't peel off blood clot
Don’t use tourniquet or bandage too tightly
Don't take off pad — add more on top ifbleeding
through.
Don't let pads move — bandage firmly with
tie/belt/stocking.
Clean pad is not essential though preferable. Don’t
mess round looking for hygienic one. Use handiest to
check spurting blood.
Forget about looking for special pressure points
(easily forgotten in crisis). Pinch wound edges
together with fingers. Keep pressing no matter how
exhausted/bloody/scared stiff you are.
Remember: raising a bleeding limb will force blood
to run uphill and slow down bleeding rate. Do that.

Bleeding inside victim

Happens in violent accidents — falling/crashing/
crushing.
Injured is cold/clammy/pale. Pulse is weak and
faint. Pain. Restlessness. Eyesight goes dim. Thirst
grows.
Frothy-red or coffee-grounds-like blood is spewed

62
up sometimes. Bowel movement can look like tar or be
stained crimson.
Play safe. Don’t give drinks (wet lips with sodden
cloth). Move as little as possible. Get medical aid.

Unconsciousness
Test by touching eyeball gently — a blink = injured is
conscious.
Never shout/shake/pummel. Don’t try to force
down fluids (and never try to give alcohol). If back
does not appear broken (see Too Fast page 226)...
1. Turn body and head to one side.
2. Clear mouth of dentures/vomit/dirt and check
breathing.
3. Look for bleeding and stop.
4. Loosen clothing and treat for injuries.
5. Search pockets for identity — and notice of diabetes
etc.
Get stretcher/medical help/ambulance.

Fractured bones
Can range from break under unbroken skin to
smashed bone ends rammed into each other. Some-
times bones stick into view, sometimes into internal
organs.
Signs (if not obvious): pain, shock, power-loss of
limb, swelling (compare one leg, say, with the other
for size).
Never — unless going to be in wilds for ages — try to
fix fracture back into place. Survivors in way-out situa-
tions have tractioned breaks on their own (like single
man who hooks ankle of broken leg into fork of tree
and pulls to reset leg straight). Normal situations need
opposite of this treatment.
Leave broken bones alone as much as possible until
they can be properly treated by doctor or hospital.
More danger from doing too much than too little.
Eliminate pain: this is best you can do. If your treat-
ment does this, no matter how little or rough and
ready, you are doing a good job. Elevate limb if
possible — as fracture nearly always bleeds inside.
If injured crying out in pain, or has tobe moved...

63
don’t jab/prod/finger bones sticking into view. Stop
bleeding. Ease limb into most comfy position. Splint to
support a break with rolled-up newspapers/
magazines/sticks — anything handy. And pad softly
with rags/clothes/leaves (never use metal in cold cli-
mate).
Tie firmly with makedo bandages —ties/belts/cloth
strips. And realize body makes best splint — arm to
body; leg to leg; jaw to jaw — and so on.
Don’t splint if possible. Wait for help.
Fractured skull (see page 69), broken spine (see Too
Fast page 226), smashed pelvis. . . all asking for horri-
ble trouble if you try moving unless absolutely neces-
sary — and you know the score.

Wounds
Slit/cut/rip any clothing carefully (so it can be sewn up
again if necessary). Be meticulous about not touching
wound with fingers/having dirty hands/rubbing muck
into sore. (See also Potassium Permanganate page 154.)
Sterilize tip of knife or needle with several matches
before poking out foreign objects with point. Ice cubes
anaesthetize skin.

Fig 19 Bandages and padding to immobilize broken limb

using body as splint

64
 Wash round wound with soap and water (always
smoothing away from edge of wound, never towards
it). Don’t pour iodine into the wound, though it can be
used to clean surrounding skin (let it dry in air before
dressing).
Swabbing wound with clean cloths and soap and
water okay when surrounding edges been cleaned.
Be scrupulously clean.
When wound punctured by nail/knife/stabber
squeeze wound to press out blood — and help cleanse.
Apply as clean a dressing as possible — not too tight.
Doctor needed: don’t forget lockjaw risk.
An ice cube held to cut helps stop bleeding (cold
restricts blood vessels under skin).

Dislocation
Wrenched/twisted/all-to-cock bone at joint. Unusual
shape tells of dislocation. Pain/power-loss/stiffness.
1. Don’t try to twist back into place.
2. Support in most comfortable position (pad where
necessary).
3. Forget about splints.

Sprains
Bruised swelling after wrist or ankle been in impact.
1. Rest/immobilize/elevate.
2. Apply wet cloths.
Wrist: make a simple sling to support arm against
body.
Ankle: wrap round bandage in firm figure-of-eight
round ankle and foot.
If swelling grows, untie, rewet and retie.

Chemical burns
(See Too Hot page 171.)

Black eye
Apply wet cloths or ice pack.

Human bites
Dangerous. Warrant a doctor. Swill immediately with
_ running water.

65
Snake bite
Rare death. Skip those old heroics where trusty com-
panion slashes bite site with knife and sucks out
venom. Someone kill snake if possible.
1. Don’t panic and rush/flap/run round.
2. Tell victim to lie dead still.
3. Apply firm bandage on heart side of bite (loosen it
for one minute every half hour).
4. Wash (not rub) surface of bite with water.
5. Treat for shock and give no drinks.
6. Carry to doctor/hospital (with dead snake to iden-
tify poison if possible) urgently.

Dog bite
1. Wash well with soapy water.
2. But wash saliva well away from wound.
3. Cover with dry clean dressing.
4. Keep part immobile (splint).
Get patient to hospital.

Donkey bite
Potentially dangerous. Give fast, soapy wash. Apply
clean dry dressing — and see doctor.

Weever fish
Standing on a fish barefoot burns. And can cause
delerium. Weevers are not fatal (though foot may
swell). Hospitals, reached quickly enough, have a
pain-killing injection.

Stingray
Similar to weever fish.

Portuguese Man O’War

If stung — don’t flap (it stimulates circulation). Stay
still. Call for help. Ask someone to phone. Though it
feels like a bad electric shock it is not usually fatal.

Fox/rat/bat/bites
More chance of rabies from these in Britain than from
dogs. Get bite under running water and wash well
with soap. Then dress.

66
 Ant/mosquito bites
Ease pain with baking soda+ water paste. Cover with
wet cloth when swelling.

Bee/wasp sting
Try to get sting out with tweezers or by prying careful-
ly with flame - sterilized tip of needle or knife. Run
cold water over. Piece of soap comforts bee sting;
vinegar or lemon wasp sting.
Best pain-reliever: moisten sting area and rub
enough soluble aspirin on to leave a coating. If pain
returns, wetting aspirin coating again will help relieve
it.
When swarm has stung in mass of stings soak in
bath with baking soda stirred in (cool).

Insect in ear
Tip head towards sun/bulb/candle flame so insect is
drawn by light. Avoid poking.

Heart attack
Symptoms: sudden clutching bar/desk/side. Short-
ness of breath; pain in upper abdomen or chest (with
pains shooting down arms or up into neck and head);
coughing up pink froth (perhaps).
Doctor quick.
Meanwhile. . .
1. Get injured as comfortable as can be (often semi-
lying down).
. Loosen clothing.
. Cover patient (but don’t overheat).
. Don’t carry or give drink.
. Tell to breathe deeply, slowly, blowing out
OP
WN
through mouth.
Give kiss of life (see Too Wet page 105) if breathing
stops.

Choking
Called ‘cafe coronary’ because it looks similar to a
heart attack, chokers on small pieces of food cannot
speak/clutch throat/turn blue/collapse.
There are three solutions: (1) if victim coughs let
_them get on with it (they’re making their own survival

67
efforts); (2) if they cannot cough or speak — slap hard
four times with heel of hand between shoulder blades
(keeping their head low); (3) as a last resort quickly try
abdominal pressure detailed as follows.
If sitting or standing:
. Stand behind and wrap arms round waist (and
around chair if in chair).
. Place thumb side of fist slightly above navel and
under rib cage.
. Grasp fist with other hand and press it into vic-
tim’s abdomen with quick upward thrust.
4. Repeat if necessary.
5 After food is dislodged, get them to doctor.
When collapsed and cannot be lifted:
. Lay on back.
. Face them and kneel down astride hips.
. With one hand on top of other, place heel of lower
hand on abdomen slightly above navel and under
rib cage.
. Press into rib cage with quick upward movements.
Repeat.
. Ifthey vomit, quickly turn on side and clear mouth
with finger to prevent drawing of vomit into
throat.
. Get to doctor.

Fig 20 Action when choking (after trying backslaps on

someone else to no avail)

68
Head injury
Violent blow (in car crash/boot-in melee/drunken fall)
on skull could = dazedness/coma/bleeding from
mouth, ears, nose. Headache, odd eye pupils.
Lie injured down. Cover up. Never let them strug-
gle up and stagger about. If spine not broken (see Too
Fast page 226) and face is flushed raise head on folded
jacket/coat/sweater. If pale do not raise head.
Turn body and head gently to one side (if no broken
back suspected) so blood/mucous/vomit drains out. Fit
light clean dressing on head if bleeding (don’t bind
hard to force bones into brain).
Remember — the aim is to lie quietly (even if con-
scious) until medical help at hand.

Emergency childbirth
Happens anytime. Don’t panic. Not unique situation.
Let Nature handle it with you helping it along.
PADOVE allie...
1. Don’t pull baby/its cord/afterbirth attached to
other end of cord.
2. Tie cord as soon as baby is delivered.
3. Cut cord only if no help likely. If help on way, tie
cord but leave afterbirth attached.
4. Keep baby warm: place between mother’s legs.
Signs are: uterus starting to contract inside each half
hour (very roughly). When pint of water pours out
things really moving.
Preparation: lie mother-to-be on something flat, and
spread with clean sheet/newspapers/plastic. Have hot
water at hand if possible. Wash hands carefully. Wear
hanky over mouth when helping. No messing — be
clean. Give loads of encouragement.
Boil scissors well first. Get three lengths of string
each about a handspan’s length (just over) for cord
ing.
a mother in best position — on back, knees up —
when bulge appears and birth imminent. Knees up,
back near edge of delivery table.
(If mother-to-be is not too weak, squatting rather
than lying down can be better position for delivery of
baby and placenta.)

69
 If bowels move wipe clean towards spine, away
from birth route.
As birth happens tell mother to pant and not bear
down. Baby’s head/bottom/foot/arm could come first —
don’t pull, but feed it out. Only interfere if membrane
is over baby’s face (tear it). Or if cord is round baby’s
neck (ease/loop/slide it free). If head comes last and
sticks pull gently 3 minutes after shoulders have come.
Be gentle. If cord is mistreated baby might bleed to
death.
Lay baby (frog-slippery — don’t drop) between
mother’s legs, cord not stretched, head downhill. And
care for it thus:
(a) Bind ankles with cloth.
(b) Hook your fingers under binding and hang upside
down. Let fluids drain from mouth and nose after
opening mouth and holding head back a bit.
(c) Wipe face and mouth very gently with clean piece
of cloth.
(d) When baby cries, put it immediately to mother’s
breast (she can always wean it later.) This helps
mother feel better/helps stop uterine bleeding/
keeps baby warm and happy. Also early fluid
from breast contains vital nutrients for baby.
(e) Ifnocrying nor gurgling/bubbling/breathing don’t
smack or forget and handle abrasively: give a very
gentle kiss of life in about two minutes.
Ten minutes later (approx.) afterbirth will come,
mother separating her legs and helping it out. (Note:
bleeding can be checked often by gently massaging
under the navel. Keep afterbirth intact in some con-
tainer.)
If medical help is distant let blood run out of cord
into baby before tying the cord. (Hospitals hold baby
below level of mother’s body until cord changes colour
from blue to white.)
Bathe mother. Give her hot drinks. Treat for shock.
Congratulate. Reassure. Keep check on breathing/
pulse. Let her sleep.

70
3 TooDry

Thirst bursts through every human need. Owed wa-

ter, the body is a debt collector ruthless enough to
force its demented owner to drink petrol/radiator
water/sea water in an effort to exact repayment.
A raging need in hot climates, thirst is more insi-
dious in cold: you may not feel the pangs until too late.
But 2 litres (4 pints) of water a day are essential to keep
you going efficiently in cool weather, and at least 4
litres (1 gallon) in hot. It is as ultimate as this.
The castaway can fight thirst by sucking a green leaf
(which doesn’t help physiologically) and controlling
his perspiration rate (which does). But in the short run
he must find water. And having found it, try to make it
fit to drink.

Staving off thirst

Suck something
Try it and see. You may feel risk of swallowing hard
object is too great. Choose something smooth and
non-absorbent and small: nut/pebble/leaf/gum. Prune
is excellent. So is piece of raw onion.
Sucking snow or ice is not recommended (makes
you more thirsty, and chills stomach.) If you do, hold
melt-water in mouth to take off chill before swallow-
ing. Take a little food at same time to attune stomach.
Cigarettes can help — but also dry mouth more than
ever.

Pace yourself
Main aim must be to sweat as little as possible. Water
lost through perspiration must be replaced. In a hot
climate move as if in slow motion. Your need for water
rises astronomically if you are very active in the heat.
Conserve precious body water with calculated action
when moving about.

72
Don’t rush/panic/run
Cold weather will demand hard work (making
shelter/collecting firewood/gathering ice or snow for
water) — even so, try to sweat as little as possible (see
Too Cold page 139).
Rest often. Sleep whenever possible. Work on rota if
jobs to be done so some are resting while minimum
number do their stint.

Regulate clothing
A hot climate calls for body-cover to check sweat
evaporation. Add clothes instead of subtracting them.
Button up collar/sleeves/coat. Cover legs. Make head-
dress (see Too Bright page 113). Spin out your body
moisture to best effect by keeping it in or at second best
on body.
Wear white in sunbright arena — white shirt over
black coat say. Uncomfortable, yes, but helps to reflect
heat rays that evaporate sweat.
You can only be comfortable in hot weather through
losing sweat quickly — i.e. by taking your clothes off.
And that, when body water is at a premium, is un-
affordable luxury.
Very cold weather can mean that sweat freezes. Cut
down sweat rate by loosening tight clothing/taking off
clothing layers, then replacing everything when you
stop (see Too Cold page 139).

Keep cool
Cool off in hot weather with damp pad soaked in sea
water/urine/alcohol and rub face, hands, neck.
On raft/lifeboat/dinghy soak clothes with sea water,
though don’t overdo this under raging sun. Unwise to
jump into sea (danger of sharks and you may be too
weak to get back easily).

Take shade
In hot sun you need twice as much water as in shade.
So use whatever shade available — vehicle/tree/rock/
dune. Shadow is the key to conserving sweat, and
alleviating thirst pangs which would rage more on the
move. If no shelter make one from any fabric or gear
you have, using lean-to or tent principles. Sleep.
In any shelter allow slits to let air circulate freely in

73
hot atmosphere. Also sit off the ground rather than
sprawl on it — it is several degrees cooler 30 cm (12 in)
above hot sand/soil/rock. Insulate from the ground
with anything available. (Note: it is cooler under the
surface too.)
Use the shade of night for main movement — walk-
ing and working, and get more miles per litre/pint of
water than in daytime where sun fries, frizzles, flails
and terrifies. You can almost double mileage at night if
you have to walk.

Don’t eat...
(a) Anything if water as meagre as 575 ml (1 pint) a
day.
(b) Proteins (eggs/milk/fish/cheese) if you have only
up to 5 litres/10 pints a day as these need water for
digestion. Eat fruit/sweets/biscuits. Plants.

Don’t Drink—-
Sea water
Whatever is advised here, the temptation will grow
and grow and grow. The castaway anguished with
thirst thinks that perhaps he is different and will be
able to take salt water without harm. That perhaps
there is some loophole and he’ll be all right. Then
vague recollections of people who survived by drink-
ing taboo fluids come pounding in. Then what the hell

And he drinks (perhaps pretending it to be

accidental). And at first seems the winner. The saline
refreshes, revives, assuages. It seems to last too, until
he presently is called on to sip again. And again. And
again. And againandagainandagainagainagain.
His thirst, whatever before, will balloon into fien-
dish proportions. And quite soon, with racing pulse,
sickness, obscene tongue, blue skin, glassy eyes, de-
luded and deaf, he will die in delirium.
Sea water can be used: for cooling hot body; chilling
eye compress when you are sunblind; swilling off
salt-encrusted tarpaulins/containers/decks when rain
shower is due and you don’t want solid salt in supply,
but never drink it.

74
Urine
Don’t drink, as salt content too high. You become
thirstier. Use to make damp cooling pad in burning
heat. Or to warm chilled skin in cold.

Alcohol
Consumption not advised. Could precipitate rash ac-
tions in survival situations.

Battery water
It might contain toxic amounts of lead.

Fish fluids
Don’t drink — even if you have the chance. Many have
been found harmful, though there are exceptions.

Glacier water
Rushing melt water from snow areas in mountains
contains pounded/powdered/crushed rock. However
alternative clear water supplies usually available on
hills.

Anything milky, salty, soapy

The exceptions (like coconut milk) are mentioned else-
where.

Handling Drinking Water

Existing supply
Drink whenever you are thirsty. Little and often is
useful to remember. Don’t follow the fallacy of ration-
ing the only litre of water into 50 eggcupfuls expecting
50 days of life. Without water in a 50°F temperature
you can last about 10 days. With 2 litres (4 pints) you
can do around 11 — if not using energy.
By the same token in a desert temperature of 45°C
(120°F) you can last about two days without water. But
you can still last only two days with 575 ml (1 pint) of
water. It is the same for 1.5 litres (3 pints). And for 2
litres (4 pints). Not until you have 4 litres (a gallon) can
you hope to survive longer — and then barely another
day in this terrific heat.
Drink whenever thirsty. It is the water inside you

7D
that is important. The only way to save water is to
control your sweating.
Don’t be afraid of over-drinking. You can sink nearly
2 litres (4 pints) at a time. In blistering desert condi-
tions the body sweats this out in two hours. Besides,
you use extra body water urinating/excreting/
vomiting.
Drink enough, especially in cool climate where you
may feel no need to. You still need water and, asin hot
weather, it is harmful to ration body’s needs when the
water it craves could well be available. You always
have to make up the water debt sooner or later.
Don’t drink water on the first day (unless injured) if
you want to feel you are saving water. And of course
water needs to be rationed so that everyone gets a fair
share.
Remember when drinking — moisten lips, mouth
and throat before swallowing. After sudden rain
shower drink slowly and deeply.
Never gulp down water when parched.

Additional supplies
When water supplies are renewed through rain/river/
oasis drink more than your fill before starting out
again. Saturate your body as if it is a bank and you are
filling your account to avoid being in the red for as long
as possible.
If travelling take as much water as humanly possible
in the desert — even at the expense of other gear
possibly (see Too Slow page 247). Carry it in covered
containers. A protective sheath holds 1 litre (2 pints) of
water.
Before starting, drink far more than you think you
will need. Then en route drink often and in small
doses.
The fact you were waterlogged to start with gives
you a head start when you run short later.

Questing for Water

Rain
Watch weather signs. Be ready for the rain. Clean dirty
containers. Most materials can be waterproofed by

76
rubbing with candle/butter/wax. Swill boat covers/
tarpaulins/sails in sea to dissolve off salt crust. Some
salt will still contaminate the rain water, but should
not harm you.
Spread out clothes to catch rain. Remember big tree
leaves/tree trunks holes/rock dimples will do the job
for you. If time dig hole in ground and line with
cloth/canvas/plastic. Or oiled paper or leaves. Any-
thing to stop rapid drainage into earth as thirsty as
you.
Rain water can be diverted from leaning trees and
branches by a long cloth wick (torn from any cloth)
leading into a container. Dam or divert dried up
stream bed into rock basin if possible.

Dew
Can fall in great quantities in deserts and barren
places.
Lay out potential dew traps: shiny surfaces like back
of ground sheet/hubcaps/aeroplane cowlings/tin cans.
Dig dew pit — floor it with canvas or cloth or plastic
and heap in cleaned stones dug from under desert
sand. Dew could collect on these and drip to floor.
Drain dew into containers. Mop dew up too. Re-
member it might collect on nearby plants and stones.
Get up early to check.
Snow
Don’t drink when soaked by sea spray. Don’t drink
unless (1) no fresh water available (2) no ice in vicinity.
Snow is uneconomical to heat, takes fuel and time fora
small amount of water produced. And you will need 2
litres (4 pints) per day per person.
(Snow can be melted in hand-held snowballs — at
risk of frostbite.)
Put snow into cooking pot/tin/can bit by bit — not in
one packed lump. Compress each bit firmly in. Best to
have a little water already in can before you start. And
when you finish drinking leave some water for next
brew-up. Pack snow tightly in. Tilt can or pot on fire.
Snow from underneath surface is better and more
compact for good water-yield than softer surface
snow.
Snow chunks can be melted on any dark cloth laid

77
out on rockin sunshine. Lap up water puddles or pour
into cooking pot. Best time for heating snow is when
cooking, then you use one fire for everything.

Ice
Good water producer. Don’t waste fuel though if
water available.
Distinguish old sea ice from new. And only use old
ice as it is less salty. Suck it and see if it tastes salty. Old
sea ice looks blue, shatters and has blunt corners. New
is angular, spikey and a grey-milky colour.
Iceberg ice is good, but it is a dicey way of getting ice
(bergs can capsize when even refrozen in a pack as ice
below melts underwater faster than above).
Pools on ice floes are usually okay — in old ice. But
could be salt-sprayed near water. Use common sense.
And taste.

Surface water
Plants don’t mean surface water. Look for other signs
too. Birds twittering in desert. Birds circling over
something. Use animals’ trails. Game trails. Trade
routes. Investigate holes (or hole) in ground — could be
a well or cistern. Stick by an oasis. They are usually
linked by trade routes.

Mud
Mop a cloth/hanky/sponge into mud, then squeeze it
out.

Plants
Cactus-type plants are worth trying — no matter how
leathery-looking. If no knife smash/cut top off/
squeeze. Try pounding on rock — you might get squel-
chy mush or liquid (don’t drink if milky).
Don’t waste energy scratching round desert scrub
for water-holding roots just under surface. They do
exist (perhaps radiating 15 m/50 ft out from some
water ‘trees’) but don’t depend on finding them. In-
vestigate by all means — a few feet from the ‘trees’.
Don’t lose a lot of sweat over it.
Plants in jungle can contain fresh water. Try every-
thing. Green bamboo sometimes holds quenching
liquid; if split and yellow it may hold rain water; cut

78
notch above each joint if swilling sounds inside. Bam-
boo makes a good water container.
Vines excellent. Reach as high as possible up thick-
est vine and cut. Then lop off bottom and point end.
Can be drunk straight or poured into cup (note: mouth
contact with vine could lead to skin irritation). But
don’t drink if a milky fluid leaks out.
Green coconuts can hold 1 litre (2 pints) of excellent
milk. To get into a green nut find the two ‘eyes’ at top
and drill into them with anything sharp, or smash
with sharp rock just below eyes (to remove husk —
exterior matting — from nut without a knife, sharpen
top of a strong stake stuck upright in the ground into
‘axe’ edge. Shove nut down on this so stake edge bites
between fibres — and keep twisting).
Climbing the palm trees (see Too Low page 190).

Underground
Don’t waste energy in a fruitless search for water that
might be underground in hot climates unless there is
some positive encouragement to go on. If you are a
water diviner, far enough. If not, save your sweat and
energy. Never dig wildly at random.
The following signs in the earth’s crust may give
chance of water, especially if stained, damp, moist.
(a) Caves -—in limestone country (see Too Low/Too High
pages 192 and 198). Cracks in rock. Springs. Moist
places. Stains.
(b) Cliffs — look at base of limestone faces. In lava
country cliffs looking like organ pipe columns
might seep with water.
(c) Valleys may contain springs/streams/seepages in
all kinds of instances — like valley crossing lava
band, or gorge in sandstone leaking water at
sides.
(d ~— Hillsides first give you a high vantage viewpoint.
Look down to lushest vegetation. If green dig a
ditch at base of lush area — and hope it will fill with
water. Vegetation on flat desert doesn’t mean
much, however.
(e) Dry stream beds offer best chance of water at
lowest point of the outside of any bend. Terraces
above dry river beds may yield water.
(f) Shale/sediment/clay areas are often productive if

79
 rod

you dig — especially under bluffs. If moist.

(g) Sand dunes at seaside: try at lowest point between
dunes on outer edge. If you hit moisture don’t dig
too deeply; you might reach salt water — stop and
let hole fill with fresh water. Dig a number of holes
(some just above high water mark).
(h ~— Dry desert islands often produce water in hole
dug in hollow about 100m (100 yards) beyond and
above high tide mark. Don’t dig too deep. About
30 cm (12 in) enough following signs of seepage.

Water Purifying
Treat all water as if polluted. Crystal-clear water could
be contaminated. Tap water polluted. Mountain
stream might be running from a high village or over a
dead sheep.
Risks of cholera, typhoid, dysentery, enteric fever
or schistosomiasis too great —- even though some survi-
vors have drunk foulest fluids unpurified and got
away with it.
Various methods to purify water — viz. when
trapped/exploring/using-as-H-Bomb-refuge an old
lead mine, good water sources are pools. But surface
of these invariably spoiled with skin of lead = lead
poisoning if drunk.
So. . . to purify: place finger in ear, collect wax, dip
finger in water for wax to break surface tension of lead
layer, and drink from small area of now lead-free
water (around when your finger was).
Basic steps in much more general use, however, are:
(a) Strain all water through cloth or folded hanky to
suspend grit/gravel/sand/rust/dust,
and
(b) Boil hard for two/three minutes (longer prefer-
ably) then let any sediment settle. Containers for
boiling can be made from length of bamboo/paper
box/inner birch bark pan (see Too Empty page 275),
or
(c) Add five drops of iodine to 1 litre/2 pints of water
(or 10 drops to cloudy water). Let stand for 30
minutes. Sterilize mouth of container with drop of
water and wait a little longer.
(d) Water purifying tablets (Puritabs/Portable Aqua)

80
 for which follow instructions on bottle.
(e) Survival straws are good for any water save brine.
The water sucked up filters through iodine and
activated carbon.
(f) Pinch of salt can improve taste, or pouring water
from can to can to can.
(See also Potassium Permanganate page 154.)
Note: water seeping through sand into hole will be
freshest on top, brackish underneath. Skim off top
layer with large shell (also useful for digging). But
brackish water won’t kill you when sipped in small
doses.

Survival still
Providing desert castaway has 2 m (6 ft) square of
plastic sheeting he can try to ‘milk’ the ground. It does
not work everywhere, but in many places could yield
575 m (1 pint) a day or more.
Dig hole in unshaded spot 1 m (3 ft) across, and deep
enough to contain water bucket (or other wide-
mouthed container) 5 cm (2 in) below the lowest point
of plastic sheet stretched over hole and weighted
down in centre with fist-sized rock. Taper the hole in
towards bucket (as shown).
Anchor plastic with soil and rocks and rim of hole.
Place rock in centre to weight sheet down. (If you

Fig 21 Survival still

81
 >
4

roughen undersurface of plastic with sand it helps

water droplets to drain more efficiently, but see it’s
clean.) Note: plastic or rubber tube from container to
surface lets you sip water without taking up the sheet.
Sun raises heat of air and soil under plastic to
furnace pitch. Forces vapourization of water present
in ground soil. When air under plastic becomes satu-
rate droplets form on plastic sheet, it being cooler than
damp air below it. Drips trickle into container. Works
at night as soil temperature is hot and plastic cool.
Ensure plastic does not touch the earth anywhere
and so lose moisture to the sand. Nor touch the
bucket. Vapour mist underneath sheet will show
when condensation is forming.
Patience is essential. You may get 575 ml (1 pint) in
24 hours, possibly 2 litres (a quart). Water is distilled
and may taste flat. Add salt or pour from one can to
another. Plastic catches rain too of course. And frogs,
snakes and small animals may craw] in and be unable
to escape — food.
Note: some sites yield more than others. One above
bed of rock could soon run out of moisture. But 575 ml
(1 pint) a day is possible even in a bad site. Good site
might give 2 litres (a quart) a day for a month. As
output decreases be ready to move still to new site.
One still is not enough for survival in burning heat,
but two or three would help to save you.

Solar stills
Secure these inflatable balls (which evaporate salt
water to produce fresh water) to life rafts and float out
on sea whenever sun is shining so that you get as
much drinking water as can be manufactured.

Desalting kits
If carried in your boat, use when you need water. Keep
them stored if you have solar stills working in sun-
light, or if it rains.

82
4 TooWet
Fisted by flood, shaken by surf, windmilled by weir —
even a strong swimmer can drown. Swept out to
sea/lake centre/mid-estuary, the average swimmer
may never return alive.
Out of his depth, the non-swimmer often dies out of
his mind with fear. Sobbing/gagging/bubbling, he
might take someone else with him (a panicking,
drowning man finds astounding strength).
There is no substitute for learning to swim and lifesave
under proper tuition. Even so, everyone can try to do
something in water and — starting with a deep breath —
possibly survive.

Before splash-down (if you have time)

Kick off wellingtons/waders/boots/shoes.
Rip off tight/heavy/woollen clothing.
Leave on shirt/trousers/blouse/dress/pyjamas.
Stuff clothing and pockets with any buoyant objects.
Buoyancy = balls, inflated protective sheaths, plastic
bottles, bags, boxes, etc.
Remember _ buckets/bins/wellingtons-upside-down
float.
Take any raft — plank/car seat/bench (spare car wheels
and tyres may not float).
Don’t miss any handy lifebelt or lifejacket.
Aim for anything floating on water.
(Taken-off clothing — e.g. raincoat — should be taken
with you if a swimmer so you can improvise buoyancy
with clothes — see later.)

If You Cannot Swim

1. Gasp in air before splash-down.
2. Grit teeth tight when sinking.
3. Fight off panic.
4. Make like a bottle not a battle.

84
5. Don’t thrash/splash/struggle.
6. Let natural buoyancy bring you up.
Blow-out and breathe-in when mouth breaks surface.
Don’t try to swim. Nor raise arms. You can attempt to
float like a corked bottle in any of three ways — so long as
you don’t panic.
(a) Face up: head back and out of water, body vertical.
Hold breath as long as able. Press palms down just
below surface when going for air, to make sure
mouth is out of water. Breathe out-and-in in close
succession — vigorously.
(b Face-down: back-of-head out of water, body tilted
—

diagonally. Bring face up to breathe with kick of

legs and hands press-down. Breathe out-and-in in
close succession. Duck face under and repeat.
(c) Knees-up: spine showing above water, head
underwater near knees. Hold knees to chest with
both hands. Lift head to breathe-out-and-in quick-
ly.
You must not panic. This is the crux. And it is very
likely the non-swimmer WILL panic unless he has
some floating object to hang on to.

If You Can Swim

Deal with hazards immediately:

Current carrying you out to sea

Don’t panic and flounder.
Try to attract attention — waving ripped-off trunks/
costume/clothing — and shouting (see Too Lonely page
15). Float, tread water or swim slowly.
Check if you are still in depth over long sloping
beach by treading water — then sinking. Worth trying
in various places even from an apparently long way
out.
Work out which way current is taking you. If on the
slant then swim with and across it to emerge further
along the shore. Swim your favourite stroke, resting
frequently when tired. Never battle current direct.
If on an airbed ... stay aboard in most non-
capsizable position. If narrow enough try swimming

85
with hands as you lie along centre. Don’t fight against
current, but tack diagonally after calculating how far
out and how fast you are being taken. And aim to
beach airbed further along coastline.
Never be lured into chasing beach balls/toy yachts/
air mattresses floating out to sea: better to lose a ball or
toy than a life. But if snared into this situation — use
whatever buoyancy support object offers for return
swim to help save energy.

Getting cramp
Don’t panic. Float on back using minimum effort.
(a) In foot: grasp toes and try to bend towards shin.
(b) In calf: straighten leg; try to bend toes towards
knee and force back foot towards shin — pressing
heel away.
(c) In thigh: bend knee and stretch thigh forward.
When cramp eases, knead with fingers until hard-
ness gone.
Important: stretching combats cramp. And cramp
twinges give advance warning of seizure-to-come.
When warned, stretch muscles immediately.

In water floating with ice

Swim violently for anything that will lift you out:
ladder/boat/solid ice. Bitterly cold water will knock
breath out of you, subtract any grip you have in the
fingers, and ‘curl’ you up with shock.
Life span is usually shorter than 30 minutes in icy
water. And can be a good deal less.
If water is cold but not cold enough to ‘curl’ you up
with chill-spasm conserve energy (unless a landing
nearby) by not removing clothing/swimming far/
struggling. Cling on to wreckage if possible.

Burning oil/oncoming boat/gunfire

Tread water. You will have to deflate a lifejacket first.
Kick hard and bob out of water. Point toes. Press legs
together. Straighten body. Sink below. When under-
water sweep hands (palm outwards) from thighs to
above head in outstretched motion. Double-up and
swim forward when deep enough.
Swim underwater slowly. Use breaststroke/dog
paddle/breaststroke-arm-and-crawl-leg action.

86
 Fig 22 Swimming down in a weir

But ics.
(a) Use exaggerated arm action with any of them.
(b) Following kick of feet, glide with arms to side
before next arm movement.
(Note: swimmers may prefer to dive head first in
clear or definitely deep water without risk of injury
from underwater obstacles: going sharply down from
hips then using breast stroke arm action to thrust
deeper and leg kick once feet are underwater.)
In burning oil swim into the wind using breast-
stroke. Try to splash flames away from head and arms.

Weirs
Swim down for riverbed.
Water rushes over sill into foaming currents which
circle round and backlash. Go for the top too soon and
you may be bounced like a ping pong ball on a jet of
water.
But at riverbed level current is released down-
stream. Follow this and surface lower down the river.

Whirlpools/falling debris/ship’s propellors

Rev away from danger with fast crawl/sidestroke/
breaststroke until free from crisis zone. But don’t miss
any buoyancy at hand (raft/wreckage/barrel) which
could help save you — and which is towable.
Swim down, as for Weirs, when in doubt.

87
Rapids
If with canoe — hang on to it (see page 96).
Otherwise swim down any clear tongue of water
(V-shaped with point arrowing downstream) among
white water. Break into deep water at far end or into
slack water behind rocks on way down.
Best way to track down deepest channel is from the
top of a rock: then you can look down on rapids round
ou.
: Haystack waves at end of ‘V’ tongue are usually
caused by fast current hitting slow, deep water — barge
through with hard determined swimming.

Tree overhanging fast water

Avoid at all costs. Swim/row/paddle hard to evade.
If canoe or rowing boat is snatched broadside in
willows, lean downstream so bottom of craft presents
its rounded bottom to pile-up of current — and not its
cockpit. Pull hand over hand along branches.

Surf
Don’t be anxious (especially at start or end of holiday)
to get into water without first checking if safe. Many
casualties where surf has been running. Can be fatal to
go in isolated surf. Instead bathe where marker system
(red and yellow flags) shows safe beach.
Note: crossed flags = don’t go in; when flags
planted apart = distance between is safe area (patrol-
led by beach patrol). There may be other systems
depending on beach. Look for notices — ask local
opinion.
Surf can be violent. Can turn angry in a matter of
moments. It can KO/hammer/exhaust unversed swim-
mer who thought it shallow and harmless. Children
often surf victims.
Never attempt to fight a battering from a heavy surf
or being dragged along by a racing current. Survival in
big surf needs skill.
Basically only chance for person who does go out in
heavy surf (or who gets knocked in off a jetty or
sandbank) is:
1. Try to surf on such incoming waves as possible.
2. Grab sand with fists to avoid backwash.

88
3. When clear of water scramble above high water
mark.
and if swept out in rip current (surf draining back to
sea):
1. Don’t battle against it.
2. Swim diagonally across it.
After a distance varying from a couple of metres/feet to
hundreds, swimmer is clear of rip and should be able
to regain shore (though perhaps a kilometre/mile or
more down the coast).
Raise arm for distress signal. Keep calm. Float or
tread water until help arrives from beachguard/strong
swimmer with reel-and-belt/lifesaver (see page 103).
If no help near, fight down panic. Swim with breast
or side stroke to save energy:
(a) Swim parallel to coast until you get back into the
breakers rolling shoreward.
(b) Ride in on back of small surf wave. Just before it
curls over and breaks — shallow dive through it.
(c) In big surf, swim shoreward in trough between
waves. When big wave approaches get down to
bottom and grab sand with fists to avoid being
swept off feet by undertow. Push off bottom and
swim on once it passes.
Surf livesaving — see page 103.

Landing on rocks
Aim for where water hisses up rocks. Avoid where
spray shoots up in explosions. Swim slowly in making
approach. Save strength for grasping rocks.
Head for destination behind big wave in the break-
ers. Face shore and ‘sit’ in water pulling up feet like
buffers. If rebuffed on first attempt swim with arms,
getting ready for next attempt. Repeat.
Seaweed can make water quieter in its lee. Don’t
swim over it as much as crawl, grasping the weeds to
pull you along by.
Swimming ashore from raft/dinghy/plane wear
shoes and at least one layer of clothing. Lifejacket is
No. 1 survival aid when facing rocky landing.

89
Trapped by sheer sea cliffs with no ledges
When trapped and forced to swim for safety through
rising tide — aim for rocks in the sea. Keep on layer of
clothing and shoes/boots/sandals (for landing).
Make a rope if possible from ripped-up towels/belts/
shirts. But it must be long enough to reach from rock to
rock. The ideal is a proper rope or line. Handle it as for
climbing (see Too Low page 182).
Strongest swimmer goes first towing rope tied
round his waist (with bowline). Person paying out
rope should be anchored to a rock so that if a wave
takes the swimmer he won’t be torn away too — and
can field the swimmer who is being swept away.
When first swimmer reaches a rock, he too anchors
himself before taking in the rope for the next swimmer
— round the small of his back, feet braced against
projection.

Flooded tunnel/cave/passage
When roof meets water — duck.
But only when: :
(a) You are certain that waterlogged limit is only brief
and caused by lowering of roof into water. And
that on other side there will be air space again.
(b) It is essential and only way of escape is to try to
wade (or possibly swim) through.
Strongest swimmer goes first — and is prepared to
turn back if no way through. Take deep breath. Feel
way.
1. Vent any buoyant clothing which could float you
to roof and jam you there.
2. Use rope of belts/ties/clothes to keep contact.
System of signalling with rope:
One pull: ‘I’m O.K.’
Two pulls: “Take in rope.’
Three pulls: ‘Pay out.’
Four pulls: ‘I’m there.’

Skin diving
Don’t go — without British Sub Aqua Club approved
training (which includes survival in emergencies).

90
Quicksands
Quicksands can never be charted. They can appear
overnight and vanish just as suddenly. Retreat fast on
any beach when the sand shows any sign of sinking.
Main risk: sand sinking so much under front foot
that before you realize it the back foot is following and
goes in even deeper as weight of your body is transfer-
red ... And in trying to check the back foot from
going on forward the original foot is driven all the
deeper.
Remedy...
1. Try to run — some quicksands are stable enough to
support weight of a running man which is trans-
ferred rapidly from one foot to other.
2. If running is impossible, try to relax — and lie
down on anything handy (coat/beach towel/
airbed) which can give suppett.
3. Try not to struggle (or you'll go down more quick-
ly).
4. Try to swim clear using breast or back stroke.

Swimming for Survival

Best energy-conserving strokes: breast/side/back
strokes.
Do them in whatever sequence suits. Swim strong-
ly, but never directly against tide/current/wind: prog-
ress diagonally across. Sidestroke possibly best for
choppy water (easier to breathe).
If swamped by waves, breathe deeply whenever
face is clear. Don’t shatter yourself with perpetual
swimming. Never give up. Keep going. Keep cool and
rest often: floating on back/face-down/treading water.
Float on back wherever possible.
Float face-down when water choppy (as earlier).
Body will tilt diagonally, back of head is out of water,
and by sculling with hands you raise head to breathe
out-then-in.
Tread water by letting it do most of work — just hold
mouth and nose out. Unless you have other prefer-
ence, use breast stroke leg kick and scull with hands
on or near surface.

91
 A lifejacket helps prolong time afloat (if wearing
CO2 inflated Mae West with two cartridges, fire only
one at first as inflation from both cramps swimming
movement).
Itis possible to stay afloat for hours without lifejack-
et — especially in salt water. And with air trapped in
clothing.

Clothing Inflation
Taken-off clothes can be ballooned with air so they
support you in water in many different ways. Such
make-do floats . .
(a) Need topping-up.
(b) Need careful handling as if dragged down too
hard into water they let out air faster through
material.
(c) Need competent swimming ability and ideally,
practice, to construct and inflate.
(Note: non-swimmer anticipating ducking and at wa-
ter’s edge could attempt to inflate raincoat/nylon shirt/
blouse in readiness, and in absence of anything more
solid available as buoyancy.)

Undressing
Get rid of heavy/tight/wide-meshed clothing.
If chance something might serve as float (raincoat
say) don’t jettison it straight away but keep it floating
on surface by trapping air in folds.
Kick off footwear but note — wellingtons held upside
down with arms are floats. Hat can be used similarly.
Ideal clothing for floats: shirts/blouses/dresses/
nightgowns/pyjamas of man-made fibres or linen or
cotton. When soaked they hold air the longest.
Remember not to strip off completely: it is a fallacy
everything must come off. Clothing helps combat
cold. Only undress from items which offer best air-
traps.
Undo zips/buttons/hooks. When disrobing take
deep breath after loosening everything and . .
(a) Take off unbuttoned shirt like a coat (not over the
head where danger is it can get wrapped round
face).

92
(b) Rip down shirt front which doesn’t button all the
way.
(c) Stretch shirt down past waist as alternative.
(d) Rip down shirt front which is buttoned but whose
buttons are slippery and hard to undo.
(e) Push down undone pants to knees and further;
take deep breath and dip head in as you peel them
off using flutter kick to free them.

Inflating
Knot clothes so that in each garment there is only one
air opening — i.e. knot both trouser legs of pants near
turn-up ends and zip or button up flies or side vents.
Knotting can be done direct in material or tied with
tie/belt/stockings/garters.
Inflation is done with fast movement through the
air, opening in clothing finishes up under water,
clothes balloon into buoyant sausages, and you hold
down opening under surface, possibly twisting tight.
Ways of inflating (from clothing floating on water)

(a) Open garment opening as if to catch butterfly and

scoop through air — either from behind back over-
head. Or in sidewinder move from side to side.
Hold opening with hands below surface.
Thentop up by. <=;
(b) Blowing up into downward-facing garment open-
ing (under the surface).
(c) Taking air below surface in cupped hand and
letting bubble fly up into garment opening.
(d) Splashing with a hand into garment opening.
(e) Pressing mouth against wet float and trying to
force air through.

Using floats
There are many variations by which you can use
buoyant clothing. If swimming, blow clothing up dur-
ing resting period, then carry through water tied
round waist when swimming until you need another
rest.

Examples:
Skirt Keep on, and float on back. Lift hem, pull
towards you then flick through air as if to cover knees.

93
Fig 23 Trousers and skirt Fig 24 Shirt/raincoat as
as floats float

Curl back hem underwater to hold in island of air.

Dress Slip off. Knot it to block off neck and armholes.
Fill. Grip with hands or possibly between legs.
Trousers Hold inflated like a catapult, chin resting in V
of sausaged legs, first gripping waistband which is
tied with belt down about stomach level.
Or slide arm through V of crutch and bring back
hand to screw-up waistband while swimming one-
armed.
Or put chest through what now becomes U of
crutch, and with each leg as a waterwing swim breast-
stroke.
Or float on back and grip leg sausages between your
own legs — meanwhile possibly inflating another gar-
ment.
Shirt Knot cuffs. Hold collar and shirt tail and balloon
into water to gather air. Quickly gather loose edges
and you have bag and two sausages of air (sleeves).
Raincoat Can be used (as shirt) to make big air sac.

Surviving Wrecks
Everything depends on not panicking. Even in fear-
struck chaos, it is possible to keep your head.

94
Shipwreck
1. Put on warm clothing plus lifejacket (cold water
can kill in minutes).
2. If you have to enter water, swim clear of ship and
then stay put.
3. Float in lifejacket unless you see rescue vessel or
land close enough to reach by swimming.
4. In really cold water never try to swim more than a
few metres without a lifejacket or some other
make-do support.
Lifeboat practice in passenger liners helps to this end.
Note where lifejackets are kept in stateroom; how life-
jackets are slipped over head and their ropes/tapes/
cords tied; where your lifeboat station is; the route-
markers to your lifeboat station — say, red arrows; how
many ship’s whistle blasts and gong strokes warn of
disaster.
If chaos with people jumping overboard, screaming
and panicking — check for floating wreckage before
and after jumping. Throw buoyant objects down first
into water and land by it/them. Then gather more if
possible to makeshift a raft (see Too Slow page 232).
Or you may be picked up by ship’s lifeboat.

Plane crash
Coming down over water, loosen collar and tie/take
off glasses/teeth/sharp or breakable items/high heeled
shoes. Get ready for impact (see Too Fast page 222).
Put on lifejacket when instructed by crew. Don’t
inflate in cabin, or you won’t be able to move. Hold
position of impact until aircraft has stopped — there
will be more than one terrific jolt.
(a) Release seat belt.
(b) Do as told by crew.
When outside, inflate lifejacket. Cartridge-inflated
lifejacket for child should be inflated before fitting
otherwise noise can terrify.
Staff allocate dinghy places for all passengers and
crew; take charge of dinghies; transmit radio distress
signals; check dinghies all contain emergency rations
and first-aid kits (see Too Slow page 233).

93
Canoe capsizal
Stay with canoe. Much more buoyant and visible than
you. Collect your paddle if you can.
Don’t climb on/roll on to/or try to right canoe. Swim
to one end. Tow or push to side and empty.
If danger from weir/rapids/rocks ahead, abandon it
in good time and swim to side fast.
Warnings: thundering sound/flying spray/silver
line across river (showing sill of weir). . . all indicating
danger well ahead.
If caught in rapids . .
(a) Hang on to upstream end of canoe and swim
down rapids, helping to swing it clear of rocks.
Don’t bother chasing paddle — someone else may
get it for you.
(b) Swim to side directly heading at 90° for bank even
though being swept downriver at same time.

Fig 25 Ifyour boat capsizes in a rough sea and you can’t get
a grip on the hull, duck underneath, grasp the seat, and
breathe air trapped inside the boat

96
Small boat capsizal
Stay with it. You are much more visible with boat.
Cling/hang on/climb astride it. But leave it in good
time if being swept to some worse fate: rocks/reefs/
pier. (See Too Low pages 187-8.)
If you can right a dinghy/raft/boat, fair enough. But
if not simply keep with it and signal for help.
Flat-bottomed emergency rafts — if capsized — can be
righted quickly with calm approach.
Squirm up on to bottom of raft, reach to far side,
grasp lifeline (which goes round edge of raft) and skid
back into water way you come - so flipping raft over.
Often a handle is attached to centre of raft bottom and
you can use this. (See page 188.)
If a righting line is floating from one side toss it
across bottom, move to that far side and, holding it,
bring feet up on to flotation tube and pull raft upright
until it flips over.
Righting line can be improvised from belt/tie/rope.
Climb in on belly, squirming over thick end of
one-man raft.
Have one man in water holding one side down of
bigger raft, as rest clamber in over opposite side. But if
on your own — climb in over end. Manoeuvre so wind
is behind you when climbing in.
Tie yourself to boat if possible by short line before
fingers get too stiff to tie knots.
If unable to cling to, or climb on, boat in rough
water, swim under upturned shell. Come up inside
and breathe air trapped inside boat as you cling on to
seat, until weather grows calmer.

Car under water

Cars (and their passengers) crash into water from river
banks/road verges/quaysides/quarry tops.
(Note: Always park alongside water or, if no option,
with brakes on and reverse gear engaged if facing. Seat
belt being used heightens chances of survival in wa-
ter.)
1. Car will stay afloat longer if windows closed.
2. It is tremendously hard to escape with water pour-
ing through windows. And door won't open be-

o7,
 cause of outside pressure of water until car is nearly
full.
However, if you can act before water is up to window
level (which is rare due to impact/fright/surprise) and
car is floating wheels down, wind down window and
squirm through in nick of time.
Usual course is that car plunges under too quickly
for this. Wait, and do as much of the following as your
presence of mind allows.
1. Close all windows.
2. Shut any open exterior ventilators.
3. Release seat belts.
4. Switch on all lights as SOS signal.
5. Don’t try to open doors.
6. Anticipate car tilting -motor end down and climb
over into back if resulting air bubble (in front-
engined car) forms there.
. Hold door handle.
oN. When interior water level stops rising (and water
pressure inside and out is equalized*) take deep
breath...
9. And open door or window.
10. Swim out and up.
* Let air bubble out from mouth as you rise (air in
lungs under pressure will expand as you rise).
Hold up children high in air pocket until time to go. If
door sticks, then try other doors/wind down window
and squeeze out, pushing with feet. Kick or club
through windscreen or window if no other way.
Passengers should try to leave car altogether — if 4
doors. If not possible make human chain — holding
hands/clothes/hair so that door can’t close and trap
someone.

River Crossings
Hundreds of drownings happen each year all over the
world when rivers have to be crossed by fording. Or
whenever water has to be waded. Always ask: need
this river be crossed? Isn’t there some way round?
When its ‘No’ take survival action. Especially when
emergency is forcing your hand.

98
When to cross
Will volume of river water get bigger or less? Very
dangerous if in flood. And if large debris is being
carried down. Don’t cross. Postpone it.
But if river is normal level and there are imminent
signs of rain to come, get across fast. (Note: short steep
rivers rise and fall quickly, and flat sluggish rivers
take much longer.)

Where to cross
Vital to study carefully. Most important safety factor of
all. Time spent is rarely wasted. Look for:
(a) Clear banks. This gives you plenty of room to
recover if you run into trouble.
(b) Firm smooth river bed without obstacles.
(c) Crossing free of logs, whirlpools, reefs, eddies,
and other hazards in particular downstream of
chosen place (which may appear excellent in it-
self).
(d Current should be weak as possible. So choose
~~

widest part. Or place where river splits into sever-

al streams. Walk upstream (uphill) for best bet.
(e) Depth is important: pick shallowest place. But you
may have to swim.

How to cross
Keep some clothes on to combat cold — so long as not
baggy. Wear boots for grip and protection against
boulders/sharp stones/holes. Carry rucksack (except
when you may have to swim). This adds stability and
balance through weight, and if packed well it can add
buoyancy ina fall. But loosen straps for quick-release if
you stumble and sack drags you under.
Improvise on these basic methods.
(a) Straightforward wading with short shuffling
steps. Move at right angles to bank. Face across
stream. Hold on to boulders above or just under
water (pocket watch). Avoid facing downstream
when strong water pressure from behind can fold
legs at knees.
(b) Repeat as above but with a strong pole acting as a
third leg. Place pole slightly ahead and upstream
on river bed then walk past it. And so on. Current
keeps pole pressed down.

99
 Fig 26 Supporting shattered person crossing river

(c) If there are inexperienced or weak persons in your

team, link arms in line up-and-down river. Weak
person goes in middle.
(d) Ideally use a long pole as a rail with linked arms
and weakest person in middle. Strongest person is
at upstream end. And you enter water to form a
line up and down stream, not across the river. If
weak person falls/stumbles/passes-out rest of
team can support him.
Only use a rope when needed. If as a handrail keep it
high so you can grasp it while negotiating boulders.
Don’t use in wide/flooded/deep river where it can sag
under surface.
If someone is trying to cross, he can tie bowline
round waist and be paid out (see Too Low page 183), but
make sure you have room at side of banks — if he falls
he will have to be paid out and brought in at right
angles not pulled back upstream (and underwater).

Lifesaving
Many lives are lost each year by brave people who try

100
to save lives but who have no technique. Lifesaving in
water means rapid judgment/sound knowledge/
considerable skill/swimming ability.
In many circumstances it is better not to go to help of
drowning person if would-be rescuer is not trained,
since two lives might be lost.
Non-swimmer can sometimes help by throwing or
holding a stick or some buoyant object which someone
in water can grab.
It is possible for a strong swimmer, although not
trained in lifesaving, to swim out with a stick or some
object by which the drowning person can be towed (so
long as he is able to hang on to it, and is not brought
into direct bodily contact with rescuer).
Fear is greatest enemy of people in difficulty, and
endows them with abnormal strength. Strong swim-
mer (unversed in lifesaving) who decides to go to the
rescue must keep away from drowning person’s reach
and tell victim they must grip the stick/pole/branch he
is offering.
Ways by which non-lifesavers might help:

Reach
Casualty may be within reach from water's edge. Fling
yourself flat and reach out with hand. Grip his wrist
and have him grasp yours. Or ifa little further out hold
pole/stick/plank/branch — anything for him to catch.

Throw
When further out throw rope or any object that floats.
Beach ball
Car seat
Planks
Spars
Fencing
Branch
Box
Wooden seat
Many things float. Cast around quickly for this
buoyancy, and hurl. But don’t go too far away — if
drowning person thinks rescuer is deserting him,
chances are he will panic and drown.

101
 Fig 27 Methods of lifesaving when you cannot swim

Wade
Wading out to drowning person where water is shal-
low is faster than swimming. Use pole you intend
rescuing with to help wading (see page 101).

Row
Boat/canoe/punt will be fastest method to someone far
from side if craft available. Sight of approaching boat
will also help drowning person to hang on longer and
stay on top.
Important: on reaching the drowning person don’t
approach from broadside-on position, or side of craft
will be clutched and you could capsize. Go in with
bows or stern, instruct him to hang on and then tow to
the side.

Swimming-out-to and towing-back for non-

experienced lifesavers
Strip off most clothes unless a short distance (and then
only abandon heavy or tight clothes). Speed is essen-
tial.
Jump in feet first (see Too High page 205) — unless you
know for certain the water is deep and clear and then
you may prefer to dive. Conserve strength when
swimming rather than race madly out to victim some
way out.
Straight line as seagull flies may not be quickest way

102
at all. You may have to run downstream of flowing
river to try to cut off victim as he comes past. On sand
there may be a sand spit which shortens swimming
distance. Remember — you must arrive with enough
energy.
Take pole or object to offer the drowning person. A
strong swimmer will know which strokes suit him
best, but sidestroke is strong and reliable for long-ish
distances (simple and relatively small energy output).
Arms can be changed. You can breathe in choppy
water. And face is protected.
Or, if the swimmer prefers, swim on the back —
again using non-towing arm to assist in swimming.
But make sure you stay out of reach when you
reach the victim and at any attempt to grab you.
Keep out of way or break the grip sharply. Only a
trained lifesaver should go into rescue at close
quarters.
If gripped (see Too Crowded page 40).

Mother saving child

Where child falls into water, and there is nothing to
reach with or throw, or child is baby/toddler/infant

(a) If mother cannot swim she should get in the water

and hold on to side, lying flat out in the water and
extending arms and legs to child.
(b) If mother can swim she should go to rescue, then
hold child’s head, one hand on either side of its
face, and swim on the back, supporting child on
the forearms and chest, keeping the child’s face
out of the water.

Surf lifesaving
If you are on a beach bordering surf, you may be asked
to handle the line and reel (attached to non-buoyant
belt worn by lifesaver) used by beachguards. If so, and
with help from others if possible . . .
1. Watch the beltman.
2. Pull in when he raises an arm (hand over hand).
3. Never pull in too fast and so submerge rescuer and
victim.

103
There may be no beachguard, but look for the red box
holding reel, line and belt. And a hand-wound siren
too.
If someone is in trouble and no expert help at hand

1. Sound the siren to attract attention.

2. Read instructions on box and under lid.
3. If you feel capable take box to water's edge.
Feeling capable and being so are very different. If not
trained to lifesave, beltman must realize the many
risks. He must be a strong swimmer/cool/know his
limits.
If someone decides to go, re-check instructions.
Make sure helpers on the line know the score too. If
beltman then you...
. Put on the belt.
. Swim out, diving under breaking waves.
. Don’t grab struggler but stand off and reassure.
. Tell conscious victim to turn back to you.
>
WI
A
ON. Grip from behind holding one of victim’s wrists to
his chest.
9. Raise one hand to be pulled in.
Or you may find it preferable after turning victim on
back to grip firmly above the elbows.
If pulled in too fast from the beach or line snags pull
safety pin of lanyard fitted to front of belt upwards.
Belt will come undone.
Start artificial respiration immediately if necessary
once out of surf.

Hazards
Drowning is the hazard; artificial respiration the
answer. Also vital for electric shock/gas fumes/
choking/suffocation and other victims whose brea-
thing has stopped.
Get injured to fresh air. And make sure any electric-
al contact is broken. Then apply . . .

104
Artificial Respiration
Kiss of life
1. Lay injured on back.
2. Seconds count — quickly clear mouth with a wipe
of finger.
3. Tilt head well back and push jaw up to open air
route (in ‘sword swallowing’ position) — vital.
4, Seal nostrils with your cheek or pincer with fin-
gers.
5. Take deep breath, open your mouth wide and seal
it tight round victim’s.
6. Blow into his lungs. Watch for chest to rise. Then
take your mouth away.
7. Watch chest fall while taking next deep breath
(and listen for return rush of air).

Fig 28 Kiss of life

If this doesn’t happen push injured’s head further

back and try again to get exchange of air needed.
8. Repeat process. Do first 6 inflations quickly. Then
at 10 a minute for an adult; 20 lighter breaths a
minute for a child.
Note: often possible to clear injured’s mouth after first
6 quick breaths quickly. Then carry on at rate specified
above.
9. If unable to open or use injured’s mouth — use
mouth to nose method by sealing injured’s mouth
and blowing through their nose instead (using
same procedure as mouth to mouth).

105
Fig 29 Silvester method (use when facial injuries make kiss
of life impossible)

106
If victim is injured about the face use...

Silvester method (revised)

Act Fast
1. Lay patient on back.
2. Pad under shoulders with coat/sweater/lifejacket.
3. Clear mouth quickly of debris. Check head is
hanging back and down.
4. Kneel astride head, gripping wrists.
5. Cross them over lower part of chest.
6. Keep your arms straight and rock down on chest.
7. Swing back and sweep injured’s arms up and out
to full span (which takes pressure of chest and
invites intake of air into patient’s lungs).
8. Repeat about 12 times a minute.
Note: it is well worth practising these methods on
uninjured people so that you will be prepared in an
emergency.

107
5 Too Bright

Dazzle is a fireball to the eyeball whether from bomb,

zooming headlights, throbbing sun, forked lightning,
flaming petrol, glaring snow or electric arc.
Flash comes under/over/sideways — through. It is a
red curtain. Yellow stars. Pink pain. Orange ball.
Thick green light. Black band. Gritty tears. Unless you
can help your eyes filter a paroxysm of light you may
be blinded (see Too Dark page 131).
As subtle as a cosh, glare often advertises its coming
— from banner headline proclaiming nuclear war to
storm clouds heralding lightning; from repeated car
lights dazzle to persistent sunflash from snow. Be
ready.

Stopping Glare
Huge flash
This usually signals a kicking explosion either to come
almost simultaneously or to follow.
Throw yourself flat on ground. Pull down children/
old people/companions with you. If shade immediate-
ly available dive and roll into it - under window/in
ditch/behind tree. Shout that others stay on ground.
Blink reflex will help you: eyes screw shut/head
jerks away/hands mask eyes. Keep eyes shut tight.
Prepare for potentially tremendous bang by grasping
base of skull with interlocked fingers. Wrists squeez-
ing ears. And open the mouth.
Dig elbows into floor. Keep eyes closed. Lock fin-
gers together hard. Force head down. Count 100 slow-
ly before opening eyes behind fingers of one hand
made into slits (H-Bomb flash lasts 20 seconds and
could fade before blast comes up to 60 seconds later) —
keep other hand pressing on neck.
If driving car reflex actions will be to stab brakes/
close eyes/fling hand to face. If after flash-shock you
have not crashed and are still in one piece keep head

110
down, eyes slitted and make for side as non-
skiddingly as possible. Duck below windows and wait
for bang.
Blindness from gigantic glare may not be perma-
nent: from several seconds to days of darkness is an
estimate, but could last longer if flash happens in the
dark.

Strong glare
Screen eyes as shown to combat sunlight reflecting
from snow/water/sand. Use these protective measures
even when sky is overcast as harmful rays can still
penetrate and hurt your eyes.
People differ in reaction to strong glare. Even
though you may not seem troubled always wear eye
protection in arenas of brightness. Penalties for not
doing: you will be unable to see far; judgment may
falter; night vision could be affected.
Following methods of making eye shades have
proved effective — try to use (a) and (b) in conjunction
with any one of the others for maximum safety.
(a) Peer from under pulled-down cap peak/hat brim/
helmet rim/eye shade.
(b) Rub bootpolish/mud/grease/burnt cork/anything
blackening on upper cheeks and round eyes to cut
down sunray reflections.
(c) Make goggles from paper/cardboard/camera film/
leather/wood/plastic by cutting slits in material to
peer through. Tie round head with string or laces,
tape or bit of elastic from underpants.
(d Hair, leaves, grass, reeds or moss can be held over
—

eyes by clamping to brow with broad ‘tape’ tied

round head.
(e) A face mask of thin material (say hanky) has saved
eyes.
(f) Dark or smoked glasses have disadvantages — they
let light in at sides and from below; they can break;
they mist (smear with soap) or frost up.
Tie down any eye shade which flaps — like hanky
over face — with tape/string/cord. This will stop sun-
rays reflecting from snow/water/sand — most acute
light bounce of all.
Keep using eye protection once your eyes have
suffered from sunblindness and recovered. They will

i
 soot or dirt

grass,moss or leaves handkerchief

Fig 30 Eye shades

be sensitive to normal bright light as well as glare, and

should be screened even on dull days.
Remember too ultra-violet rays will attack the skin
in bright light (before you have chance to become
sun-tanned) if you are suddenly pitched into a sta-
dium of glare. Shield body instead of stripping off by:
(a) Buttoning down sleeves and wearing pants over
all of legs.
(b) Turning up shirt collar and buttoning up neck.
(c) Making headgear as near to that of Arabs as possi-
ble.
Expose body to sun for five minutes a day until you
become tanned. Even then only bare skin to sun for
short periods each day.

Intermittent dazzle
Possible sources: headlights/mirror/torch. Sudden
dazzle from any of these could hypnotize and draw
you towards them in moment of glare.
Look beyond and to one side (e.g. driver on British
road should look leftwards; jogger on right-hand side,
rightwards).

112
 Fig 31 Arab headgear

When Warned of Glare

The Bomb
Theories as to what will actually happen in the event of
nuclear attack change all the time but the survival
measures described below and on pages 169 and 256
may influence the odds in your favour.
Warning Radio/TV/newspaper reports of mount-
ing tension; official warning system starting with RED
warning (sirens rising and falling to show danger of
imminent nuclear attack. Later GREY and BLACK
warnings — see Too Full page 257).
Flash is first onslaught of exploded nuclear bomb
followed by blast then radiation (see Too Full page 257).
Coupled simultaneously with heat (see Too Hot page 169
for firefighting) the flash-heat wave throbs from a
miniature sun to assault those outside immediate de-
vastation area under this fireball.
Sudden huge flash action already treated.
If warned of fantastic light-heat spasm ahead by
rising-falling sirens . . . rush home unless more than
five minutes away. Otherwise find shelter. Give any-
one shelter if you are already indoors and stay there. If
outside seek shelter in any shade offered. Priorities
are:
1. Any solid object cover

113
2. Ditch/trench/gutter
3. Furrow/dip/fold
4, Flat on ground
Cover exposed skin on hands/head/neck with any-
thing available. If nothing, use coat as head-and-
hands-hood, and pin down with elbows as you lie. If
no flash after several minutes and better cover avail-
able dash to that.
If sirens rise and fall as you are driving, pull off road
or along kerb — if possible - away from any bottleneck
or obstacle that could obstruct fire engine/civil defence
transport. Jump out and hurl body into available cov-
er
Indoors Use anything solid as flash-fire shield; run
under strong table/down into cellar/under staircase;
crouch below or between windows on flash-side if
room bare. Stay until blast past.
If news is bad, advance preparation against nuclear
attack: follow advice given at time in newspapers/over
radio/on TV. At time of writing, these precautions
help if you are given some time (see Too Full page 257
for advance preparations against blast and fall-out.
Also Too Hot page 169):
(a) Check under roof for chinks in slates which could
let in flash rays — which are also heat rays. Stop
them up with non-inflammable material.
(b) Clear away any potential source of fire under
roofs/in attics/by ventilators/near windows: piles
of papers, magazines, letters, old rubbish.
(c) Whitewash all windows thoroughly, especially at
top of house to bounce back flash-heat waves.
And to reflect rather than absorb light (later blast
will shatter glass but you may have stopped flash
blindness/fires/scorching).
(d) Have firefighting aids ready (see Too Hot page 170).
(e) Fireproof all burnable material in house (see Too
Hot page 170). Consider staying elsewhere if house
is bungalow/single storey prefabricated house/
caravan/or top flat in multi-storey flat. (Best floors
in multi-storey offices are middle ones, unless
block only four storeys or less high when ground
floor probably best.)

114
 Fig 32 Lightning squat

Lightning
Warning Obvious storm signs; hair crackling/
standing on end/sparking; metal on ice axes/spades/
golf clubs/shotguns/scissors singing.
Lightning is one of most unpredictable forces in the
universe. It can frizzle you to nothing in a field or club
down a house and leave you unharmed. Perhaps 30
km (20 miles) long, a flash of lightning can strike
repeatedly in same place (e.g. Empire State Building
struck several times each year).
Around 20,000,000 thunderstorms strike the earth
each year. Chances of being hit? — about 2,750,000 to
one. These points may help you heighten the odds.
Indoors Unplug TV. Put away knives and scissors.
Never stand in front of windows. Close all windows
(glass is bad conductor of lightning). Sit towards mid-
dle of room — virtually 100 per cent safe. Car is one of
safest places to be.
Outdoors Keep away from skylines/vertical faces/
underground openings (say caves where ionization of
air could attract lightning flash). Don’t go blithely into
rock face cracks/caves/fissures as lightning could still
get through. Any wet surface (cracks in rocks) height-
ens the risk. Don’t get under rock/snow/earth over-

115
hangs as lightning can spark from lip of overhang to
the ground and fry you in the gap of a ready-made
sparking plug.
Trees are generally dangerous — especially lone
pines/redwoods/whatever. Solitary trees are poten-
tially lethal. The tip of one tall tree can draw lightning
even when surrounded by forest.
Old barns fairly safe to shelter. But out in centre of
open field best. Or any flat ground rather than steeply-
angled — even small ledge/terrace/etc. Squat on balls of
feet if rubber soles, head down. Don’t double contact
and destroy insulation by steadying yourself with
hand on scree/moor/meadow. Poise.
On open/flat/vulnerable terrain lie flat on the
ground.

Driving
Warning Whenever you take a walk/car/bike on to
roads at night, in daytime fog or snow —remember that
dazzle from headlights is dangerous. It takes eyes
about four seconds longer to recover from strong glare.
At 65 k.p.h. (40 m.p.h.) a car will travel the length of
nearly 40 coffins during this time of blind driving.
Reduce speed when dazzled. If really blinded, stop.
Don’t declare war on the roads. Amount you are
dazzled depends partly on amount you dazzle others
with your lights.
Don’t provoke retaliation from cars/lorries/coaches
(possibly with much greater lighting power than your
vehicle) by:
(a) Retaliating with full beam against cars you think
not dipped.
(b) Driving behind cars with headlights ‘up’, and so
perhaps provoking a feud.
(c) Driving with headlights on full beam continually.
(d) By having your headlights misaligned so they
dazzle others without your realizing it.
Check handbook for makers instructions on angles
of dip and sideways deflection to see if they differ and
follow accordingly; align flanges on fluted glass fronts
— to spread light — vertically.
If adjustment is needed, car manual gives direc-
tions. Or go to garage which has right equipment.

116
Flash Hazards
Blindness
Atomic flash-caused blindness is usually only tempor-
ary — as is sunblindness. (See Too Dark page 132.)

Flash burns
High-voltage electricity jumping can blacken skin to
alarming degree. Cleaned off, much of skin could well
be found intact and nowhere as bad as feared (see Too
Hot page 171.)

Lightning flash
Can shred off clothing with bizarre effects/scorching/
breaking bones/lacerating/stopping breathing — de-
pending where person is and what holding (e.g. rod/
gardening fork/camera). Treat accordingly. (Shock,
lacerations and fractures — pages 33, 62-5; burns — Too
Hot page 171; stoppage of breath — Too Wet page 105.)

Sunburn
Ultra-violet rays redden burn and blister skin before it
tans. Can cause pain/fainting/shock. Limit skin expo-
sure to sun in dazzling brightness to five minutes a
day. Then cover as described earlier. Also prevent
with sunburn ointment. Coconut oil helps.
Treat with shade/rest/coolness. Lots to drink. Fan.
Don’t smooth on greasy ointments. Don’t re-expose
until completely healed. No stimulants.
Best treatment — give aspirin and apply ice-water
compresses for anything between 7 and 11 hours.

Mirage
Water/snow/sand can shimmer with frequent images:
lapping wavelets on hot sand; cities in sky; marching
soldiers from shrubs; fleet of sailing ships from birds
on water. Don’t let mirages rob your judgement or
balance.
View from different heights and angles to see them
change shape and/or vanish.

117
6 Too Dark
What do you do when the light goes out? How do you
grope, paw, feel, claw, fumble and stumble out from
the darkness? How do you fight paralyzing fear?
Blinded by snowglare/bombflash/acid splash, blink-
ered by pepper/fumes/smoke, shuttered by shattered
bulbs/milky windscreen/powercut, or blacked-out by
the night .. . there are few things more overwhel-
mingly terrifying.
More so when other predicaments crowd around:
freezing cold, fast car, strange room, open sea, cla-
mouring forest, burning bingo hall, groaning ice.

When the Light Goes Out

Get safe
Stay where you are if secure. If not crawl/grope/feel to
nearest safest point using memory if possible to avoid
rubble collapse, live wires, deep water, spilled chemic-
als, weakened flooring or other hazards not possible to
check safely once you are in the dark.
If driving, stop as non-skiddingly as possible. Re-
flexes should automatically steer you away from any
head-on collision — except you may then collide with
road edge hazard. Don’t cram on brakes when road is
open (eye could retain image of what’s ahead for about
20th of a second). Brace for crash (see Too Fast page 215)
if at all possible.

Take stock
Check pockets/handbag/immediate surroundings for
sources of light. Memorize. Listen. Smell. Only move
if you have to — if forced to shift through fire or flood. If
chances of rescue good or of light returning stay and
make yourself comfortable. If no immediate chance of
aid plan action to help yourself. Try to evaluate best
way to signal for help. Think out best escape route:
emergency exit/porthole/window or fissure in rock.

120
_ Keep together
Don’t stray apart. Stay within touching distance of
next person. If one person has to go ahead keep
contact with them by a rope made from anything
handy -— belts/ties/towels.

Keep your nerve

(See also Too Lonely.)
Don’t get rattled — tremendously easy thing to do.
Be ready for anything to unnerve you. Phosphores-
cent objects (like logs in jungle). Spiders’ eyes glow in
torch light. Dripping water. Bats flying. Wind moan.
Shadows. Water gurgle (lapping cave water can sound
like voices). Owl/cat/bird cries. Animal screams. Rus-
tle of grass. Cisterns filling. Arctic emptiness.
Noise is psychologically more unnerving than the
dark itself. In long periods of darkness combat eeri-
ness by taking/shouting/playing radio/praying.

Moving in the Dark

Use senses in a rough order of priority: (1) sight where
possible, (2) touch, (3) memory, (4) sound, (5) smell.
Circumstances could change this order: sight might be
useless in thick smoke and touch would take over.
Sometimes sound can be the initial radar — by throw-
ing sticks/stones/coins to determine dangerous areas
ahead.

1 Sight
Light fire (see Too Cold page 147). Scrape sparks with
boot nails. Use camera flashbulbs and their gun. Em-
ploy any battery-powered light (slide viewer/toy
spaceship/flashing robot). Any source of light is
morale-boosting — even a quartz digital wristwatch
night light.
Use as little light as necessary, e.g. only moon and
starlight if walking on terrain known to be safe. Tor-
chlight spends batteries, bulbs and ‘blinds’ your night
vision. Get eyes used to dark, pupils wide-open
scavenging for any stray light rays. Other senses too
will get more acute. Ration lighting as morale-charger
and energy-booster.
Save light when using it. Don’t chain-light precious

121
matches/lighter/torch by continually striking, flicking
or keeping batteries switched-on. Instead conserve at
all costs by...
(a) Using paper mini-spills to eke out matches. Make
from 5 cm (2 in) wide strips of paper which, witha
little practice, can be rolled as tight as stiff wire.
Start by wetting thumb and forefinger of left hand
and rub back and forwards at one corner of paper
strip. Suddenly it will roll diagonally and very
tightly when done properly. Light spill as match
flame is about to die.
(b) Burn match/lighter/torch in short spells and use
image-retaining powers of eye. (1) Light match,
(2) look round, (3) travel several metres/yards
immediately light goes out. You improve with
practice.
(c) Torch battery lasts longer in short bursts. Keep
batteries next to your body when not using, as
warmth restores even a spent battery.
(d) Watch with illuminated liquid crystal display
(LCD) sometimes gives enough light to read small
print (telephone number/address on envelope/
words when jotting message). Can also be used as
a marker for any strategic point in dark room — by
fireplace/ventilator/window.
Never trust eyesight wholeheartedly in limited light.
There is danger of all manner of deception: the 130 m
(400 ft) cliff which from above looks like a 3 m (10 ft)
step; the deep pit underground which resembles a
puddle; the carriage door of train which reflects toilet
door.

2. Touch
Use hands as antennae. Arms should sweep as wide
an area as possible. Raise hands in front to feel for
obstructions. Don’t clutch with fingers — and risk
involuntarily gripping live electric wires. Instead —
(a) Use back of hand
or
(b) Clench fist extending one knuckle. Circle fist
when probing so any live wire would probably
graze knuckle first. And save you.
Go on hands and knees only as last resort. Prefer
feeling round walls of wherever you are — standing up.

122
Faster, safer, more energy-saving. Go low to cooler,
clearer air in smoke or fumes, however. Orif floor very
uneven.
Keep in touch with everyone else. Hold hands,
waists or heels (if crawling). Keep hand on wall.
Use pole/billiard cue/branch as feeler to jab ahead in
pitch blackness. But extra care is needed if chance of
lives wires anywhere around.
Don’t rush from place to place in darkened room.
Feel round the walls until you find a door or window.
Move methodically. Remember your watch can be asa
luminous marker for any strategic spot.

3. Memory
Don’t trust it, but there are times when it is useful.
Moving from landmark to landmark, each approx-
imately remembered, is main memory application.
Remember . . . bearings you know like the back of
your hand go haywire in darkness/mist/smoke. And it
is almost impossible not to overestimate distance in
the dark. Counting double paces helps you gauge
distance for return trip — count for one leg only.

4. Sound
Noise is deceptive as well as helpful. It is not selective
as are the eyes. Approaching car/train/rockfall could
be followed almost simultaneously by another (either
following or coming in opposite direction) — but noise
sounds as all one. The noisier a place the harder to
move when using sound as an aid. The ear has no
discrimination.
Some sounds are invaluable. Surf/rapids/weirs
thunder a warning. Continual bird cries indicate
possible roosting place on land. And so on.
Keep quiet yourself when moving in darkness.
Don’t shout, yell or bawl to fortify spirits (which it
does do) when moving but make least noise so you can
listen for any guiding or warning noise. Or cries of
help from anyone else.
Use echoes to help you — they can give general
indication of surroundings. For instance . .
(a) Don’t ignore the ‘sixth sense’ of the blind which
many claim is sound-bounce from nearby objects
or empty space (note that this cannot be used

123
 below the waist — you cannot sense steps/pits/gaps
in the ground).
(b — Check any sixth sense you ‘feel’ by chucking
stones/coins/debris in the necessary direction.
Forget about trying to estimate depth of any hole
by counting seconds until your missile hits, the
bottom. You will know if it’s more than a few
metres/feet deep.
When an escape route is found — say door of smoke-
filled room — wait by it if other people not at hand and
repeatedly call and whistle so they are guided out to
you.

5. Smell
Only a very general guide. Hazards identifiable by
odour — scorching/gas/sewerage. Some smells — like
burning — carry for miles. Just musty odour of mud
flats/mangrove swamps/rotting vegetation or ozone
can guide you to some extent.

Aspects of Darkness
Searching rooms
Search dark or smoke-ruined room to a definite plan if
anyone could be trapped inside. Make complete cir-
cuit round the walls from the door feeling especially
in/under/on beds, tables, cupboards where people
might have sheltered/flaked-out/be trapped. Finally
cross to room centre diagonally from the door to check
no one is lying there. But take great care in burning
building as centre of floor is weakest point and may
collapse.

Handling fireworks/rockets/signal flares

Use available light to read instructions — vital. Don’t
crouch over when lighting but keep at arms length.
Keep face clear. Much better to carry pyrotechnics in
box than in pockets — and take out one at a time.

On water
If you don’t have to land on a strange coast from
raft/dinghy/boat in the dark — don’t. Wait until morn-
ing.

124
 Eason

Fig 33 Searching dark room

Out on the sea land can be reflected by clouds: -

dark-grey shades could mean open sea or land under-
neath; whiteness might mean ice and snow under-
neath. Listen for cries of birds coming from one direc-
tion — possibly roosting place on sea edge. Listen for
far-off sounds of water pounding on rocks/reefs/
beach.

On mountains
Wait until morning on unknown or dangerous terrain.
Take shelter (see Too Cold page 140). Don’t try to follow
water downhill — very risky: think — this could entail
waterfalls. Never judge ground by shadows. Avoid
having to climb down rock steps in darkness - it is
impossible to gauge their real height.
If crossing streams — a real crisis tactic in pitch
darkness — listen. Noisy ones are usually narrower and
shallower. Silent ones are usually broad and deep (still
waters run deep).

On snow
Overcast sky means a drastic lack of contrast on snow-
plastered ground. It becomes impossible to judge

125
nature of terrain at all. Don’t move about in a white-
out. You could walk over cliffs, into crevasses,
through cornices. It can be hard to stand up straight.
No horizon/depth/dimension. Discarded soup cans
might look like steel oil drums and vice verse.
If you must move, toss snowballs ahead. Where
they land tells you which way terrain slopes. If they
vanish you are on the brink of a cliff.
Wait as calmly as possible until settings resume
shape and structure (see Too Cold page 140).
If you are sure of your position (as you should be)
and can confidently navigate to safer ground, a white-
out need not be threatening.

In jungle/forest/wood
Any woodland seems extensive at night. Extensive
woodland is frightening. Foliage canopy clamps down
blackness. Creepers/vines/branches look like snakes.
Creaks and groans add to movement of trees. Animal
and bird noises are magnified. Light fire if possible
(contain it against any forest fire risk). Building a fence
round your camp may help to give feeling of security.

In cave/mine/sewer
Keep up morale from the start. Be ready for water-
echo: dripping / booming / gurgling. Subterranean
sounds can become oppressive. Keep together. Pause
on threshold of darkness to let eyes become accus-
tomed to gloom. Don’t shout when moving — though it
can be a good vent to feelings when resting.
Rest torches and lights frequently. Keep looking
back. Many ways to signpost your route — cardboard
arrows pointing back, drips of candle wax on floor,
length of string, thread or rope. Avoid (in scenic
limestone caves) blazing a trail of soot marks,
smashing stalactite formations, or scratching on rock —
use if possible a method that doesn’t desecrate beauty.
Never rush when wading along underground
waterways and be prepared to swim if floor suddenly
disappears. Shallow pools could turn out to be deep.

Direction in the dark

Stars always give direction.
Northern Hemisphere The North Star is always

126
 A ladamelicle
|X

Fig 34 Great Bear and Fig 35 Southern Cross

North Star
within one degree of true north. Locate the Great Bear
(or Big Dipper) which appears like a large saucepan
with the two stars on the side furthest from the handle
pointing to the bright Polaris or North Star.
Southern Hemisphere North Star is invisible, but
the Southern Cross indicates south. Find its four
bright stars in a closely-knit cross (don’t pick the False
Cross to its right and with dimmer stars set further
apart), and spot the two bright stars set together on its
left. A line bisecting these two at right-angles points
directly south. Also, the line straight down the South-
ern Cross points south — approximately. Where the
two lines intersect is exact south (in a very starless
sector of sky known as the Coal Sack).
When steering a course by sun (see Too Slow page 236)
and clouds obscure it, you can sometimes still find the
sun. Hold knife blade/nail file/plastic credit card verti-
cally on thumb nail (or anything glossy), and slowly
rotate. Unless day is very dark, sun can cast faint
shadow. Midday gives poor results. So does standing
under trees.

127
Darkness on the Roads
Many more accidents happen at night than in day-
light. Road disasters pile up and up in fog/snow/rain.
Hazards double-up when Too Dark page 120. When
dark and wet expect the worst. Gloom plays such a
factor in accidents it has been reckoned pedestrians
are twice as safe during a full moon.
Danger times: around 1700 hours each week day.
And after closing time each night, especially about
2300 hours on Saturday evenings.

Walking
If no pavement walk on right-hand side of road. Wear
white — down to a hanky worn round neck or tucked
into belt. Shine torch when traffic approaching — from
either side.
Crisis point . . .on open road when sandwiched in
lights of approaching vehicle and one coming from
behind. Scramble up onto verge and keep into side
until they pass. Remember — vehicle speed is an illu-
sion at night; you can never be sure.
When crossing in built-up areas: use crossings and
islands (or subways or overbridges); don’t step on to
crossing until vehicles have stopped (see fig of girl
jumping on to bonnet in Too Low page 186); listen and
don’t dive out.

Driving
Check you have no blind spots. Try this quick test.
Press back against a wall, arms outstretched like
wings. Stare straight ahead. Stick your thumbs up.
And move both fists forward levelly for 15 cm (6 in).
But keep looking ahead. Are you conscious of both
thumbs? Especially the right one? If not make allo-
wances when pulling out into (or back into) traffic
stream. If blind spot is very accentuated it would be a
grand idea to see an optician.
Wide sidepieces on spectacles might cause blind
spots. Also — clean your glasses thoroughly in any
dark-driving conditions.
Ensure car has fewest blind spots : clean windows.
Wipe all lights, reflectors and windows frequently —
especially the windscreen (both sides to clear off

128
cigarette smoke and diesel fumes fall-out). Damp cloth
best, but screwed-up newspaper makes do.
Back of a comb will clean off ice/frost/snow.
Clean windscreen wipers at same time. Keep wind-
screen washer water unfrozen by adding meths or a
little washing powder (to lower freezing point of wa-
ter). If wiper motor fails in bad weather, disconnect
wipers from motor, tie to a long loop of string, thread
in through both side windows, and employ passenger
working this endless belt (and wipers) until you reach
a garage. Rub screen with cut potato when wipers
broken or missing. Or half an onion.
If windscreen is hit by a flying stone and crazes into
a milky blindfold, resist temptation to let fly with fist.
There is usually just enough visibility to allow a con-
trolled stop.
Push screen out on to newspaper/sack/coat on bon-
net with padded hand. Pack up glass after leaving a
‘porthole’ big enough to see you to a garage.
If a rear light glass is smashed in dark/fog/snow
smear lipstick over bulb to keep it red/legal/safe.
When crisis demands tricky reversing and no re-
versing lamp, use rear flashers to see by on crucial
side.
In emergency (puncture/accident/wheel in ditch)
reflect light back from headlights to crucial spot with
wiped-clean hubcap.
There are three very vulnerable positions when
conditions are Too Dark:
(a) Instances like big agricultural lorry reversing into
a field in dusk or fog with rear lights concealed in
the gateway, and whole vehicle presenting a wall
of steel across country road.
Remedy Post a look-out at worst bend or blind brow
nearby to wave down oncoming traffic. In any case
. . Switch on full headlights, blow horn and best of
all, place luminous-type triangle (sold in garages) on
road about 50 m (50 yards) in front of the car.
(b) Any vehicle making a right-hand turn off main
road in thick fog.
Remedy Flash headlights as well as indicators, and
blow horn when making manoeuvre . . . but listen
first with engine off for approaching traffic.

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(c) Car driver who loses bearings in thick smog and
veers out on to wrong side of road completely lost.
Remedy Switch all lights on. Blow horn. Ease back
left with flashers working.
Driving in fog Hunch over steering wheel (you
won't be going fast enough to be thrown through it if
you have to stop quickly). Always used dipped head-
lights whether day or night. Sidelights alone are use-
less on their own. And full beam headlights throw a
dazzling white-out ahead.
(Note: proper fog lamps are the real answer fitted
under the bumper. But they must be in pairs and used
only in fog or falling snow.)
Stick to busy roads. Keep behind a big lorry—butata
distance (so his tail lights are just visible). Truck driver
will have best view of road ahead. His vehicle’s bulk
will stir up fog.
Don’t try to overtake him in a clear patch: there is a
grave danger that you will run smack into wall of fog
while passing — cause of many pile-ups.
Curb yourself. Notice any landmarks on route to
give you bearings. Keep wiping, cleaning, washing
the windscreen — and keep your glasses cleaned.
Driving at night If coming out of bright-lit building
shut eyes as you take the driver’s seat and let eyes
adjust to darkness.
Most vulnerable times of a long drive are: when trip
is taken during period driver would usually be asleep;
60 minutes following a heavy meal; conversely some
time after the last meal (blood sugar level is low); and
after fifth or sixth hour at the wheel (even when rests
have been taken en route).
Don’t exceed 80 k.p.h. (50 m.p.h) with headlights
on full beam even on clear, fine night with no oncom-
ing headlights (ideal conditions); nor go over 62 k.p.h
(38 m.p.h) with dipped headlights in these perfect
settings. These are the maximum safe speeds on
ordinary roads (not motorways). Even less than half
these speeds could still be unsafe when there is head-
light glare from opposite direction, rain and fog-
patches. Reduce speed drastically in poor conditions.
Stay awake on long night drive by: changing seat

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positioning adjustment; having companion chat (but
don’t pick up hitchhiker: see Too Crowded page 47);
playing radio; stopping in layby and sleeping or taking
short walk; pulling in at transport cafe or motorway
services; opening window, spitting in hand, smearing
saliva over eyes — and being stung awake by icy effect
of draught on wet eye surrounds.
Don’t drive longer than two hours at a stretch.
Signs of falling asleep at car wheel (cause of many
motorway deaths) are:
Muscle spasms
Jerking reflexes
Straightening legs
Suddenly talking in louder voice
Yanking at steering wheel
Stabbing at brake pedal
Nodding
Yawning
Blinking
Increased bursts of speed for no reason
Nervous tapping on steering column/wheel/facia
Driver on own must be ready for these signs. Passen-
ger with driver displaying these signs should make
him stop. But what if in middle of a motorway stretch?
Pull in to side and stop for a moment.
How you can wake up enough to get to a safe
parking spot. . . Roll head round three times slowly in
each direction. Take several deep breaths. Exhale in
short bursts through clenched teeth and tight-drawn
lips. It works for a short period as does splashing cold
water on the face/hair/wrists.

When Eyesight Fails

Sunblindness
Caused by sun flashing off snow/water/sand or just
direct. And through your not wearing eye protection
(see Too Bright page 111). Eyes hurt, water, see red and
black, burn, swell, discharge and feel full of grit.
Treat with wet cloth to soothe (but only if tempera-
ture is above freezing). Keep changing compresses
when warm. Don’t use eye drops or ointment. But
then eyes become as sensitive as a fast camera film —

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keep them shaded/screened/protected. Time is cure. j
Flash blindness
Flash dazzle is usually fairly short-lived. If not possible
to get to hospital, cover eyes with clean dry dressing —
any clean cloth and hope for the best. Both eyes
usually affected by a huge flash so, if only one eye
cannot see, it could be something in the eye from
flying fragments.

Something in the eye

Don’t rub. Blink instead. Many many times. If on own,
try to see with a mirror. If not too painful could be
under lower lid. If not visible here pull upper lid down
over lower, hold for tears to wash. Blow nose vigor-
ously closing nostril on opposite side. Wet twisted
corner of a handkerchief to get the particle.
Helping someone else Stand behind seated patient
in good light — positioning head back. Tell them to look
up and pull lower lid gently downwards. Then tell to
look down and draw upper lid up, rolling it over a
matchstick firmly and gently. Never move an object
embedded into centre of eye, but only when on eyelid
or on ‘white’ of the eye and when it comes away easily.
Clean with clean water.
If object too tricky to remove, cover with clean
dressing and get to medical aid as soon as possible.

Blindness after acid/pepper/chemical splash

Act fast. . . sluice eyes with any available water that is
clean: tap/firebucket/stream. Dip head under and
rinse out eyes — holding them open and blinking at
intervals. Flush for several minutes. Protect an un-
affected eye with any handy cloth while doing this.
Speed is crucial.

Guiding the Blind

Don’t despair by any means if someone is blinded
(whether temporarily or permanently) and you have
to get them to safety too. The following points may
help:
1. Never manhandle or propel a blind person unless

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 vital. Let them take your arm or place a hand on
your rucksack/elbow/ankle (if crawling).
2. Always spell out movement directions in every
detail. Miss nothing out. Though you may think it
hardly worth mentioning — it is.
3. Always address a blind person by name.
4. Success will depend on your tone of reassurance
and competence.
5. Don’t startle by your sudden presence when blind
person thinks he is on his own.
6. Avoid changing layout of camp/room/cave with-
out first telling blind person every detail of the
change.
Blinded people have rock climbed/potholed/canoed.
They have cycled and ski-ied in tough conditions.
Remember this when faced with guiding the sightless
in survival settings.
Don’t forget the blind dread movement. Especially
the newly-blind — the kind you are very likely to be
helping. Give every help and don’t neglect. Keep
shutting your own eyes to ‘feel’ their predicament.
If you become blinded (by temporary flash-
blindness say) in known surroundings and you have to
move .. use a long stick as a probe when on your
own. Rather than shuffling head down and crouched,
try walking erect, timing each step with the touch-
ahead of the stick. Tip explores zone where foot will go
before it gets there, right foot steps forward on to it,
meanwhile cane switches to where left foot will go. If
stick reports sudden step/drop/obstacle your body —
with practice — stops upright in balance.
Keep trying this. And place ball of foot first rather
than the heel.

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7 TooCold
Cold that kills is not confined to Siberia. Each British
winter sees over half the population exposed to chill-
risks normally only associated with arctic explorers/
astronauts/Everest climbers.
Blizzards can kill or maim those who have to ven-
ture out: postmen, vets, GPO linesmen, farmers, rail-
waymen, motorists. Freezing cold can cause the death
of the baby in pram/man-trapped-in-big-fridge/old-
age pensioner in icy bedroom. . . What is the answer?
Awareness of the danger undoubtedly is most of the
battle. Even without preparation to beat the cold,
knowing its tactics will spur you (at sign of warning
shivers and teeth-rattle) into body-warming activity
which helps defeat exposure and frostbite.

Keep Moving
Don’t wait until you start shivering in coldly hostile
country (shivering is normal). Move! and keep moving
as much as surroundings allow.
Stamp. Jump. Slap arms across chest. Blow on
hands. Stuff hands under clothing (inside pants or
under armpits.) Wriggle toes. Arch feet. Bend ankles.
Pull faces. Pummel. Cup hands on face. Button-up
clothing. Shout. Loosen off tight clothing. Pull ears,
nose, lips. Clench fists. Bend and unbend fingers and
toes. Exercise shoulders and buttock muscles when
cramped. Hold toes up for minute or two when
cramped — say on a raft. Huddle together.
Beware of wind and/or rain — they greatly increase
chill risk.
A fall into snow-rimmed water can mean exposure.
Roll over and over in snow. Jump up and bang off
snow. Roll in it again. Repeat until warm all over and
snow has mopped out moisture.
Don’t spill petrol on bare skin. Don’t touch bare
metal in freezing cold. Don’t shove snow-clad gloves

136
 Fig 36 Pull faces (and combat frostbite)

into pockets. Do sit on something else other than

snow. Don’t chafe or rub sore skin.
Once you are warm keep moving by working. Keep
working until warm and sheltered. And then keep
aware.

Adjust Clothing
Make best of what you have
Wrap in as many layers of clothing as possible.
Newspapers make invaluable dead-air space when
insulating round trunk/over body/under you — keep
them as dry as possible (under clothing if necessary). If
doubtful, remember — newspaper keeps fish and chips
warm and windscreens clear in frosty weather.
Paper bags can help when worn on hands when
resting. Big paper bag on head (with slits for eyes)
keeps in vital body warmth. Anything, like a car jack
sack can also hood the head —
heat leakage point No. 1.
_ Wear polythene bags over socks in bitter cold-wet.

137
 Ring changes of clothing if needed: long college
scarf = stomach/kidney/neck warmer-in-one when
wound round these parts of body.
Socks = mittens: mittens = socks: short scarf = head
protector: balacalva = baby’s exposure suit: open front
cardigan = can be worn front to back: trouser turn-ups
= turn downs (tie round ankles with cord): wool
sweater = best vest (wool next to skin).
Best pre-heated gloves if losing grip in intense cold
= deepest part inside dead animal. Slit down the
front.
Head/fingers/wrists/knees/ankles are all extremities
which lose great deal of body heat. Keep covered-—e.g.
pad the knees (if down on them shovelling, lighting
fire, treating casualty).
But don’t throttle circulation when you tie. Keep
checking that no part of clothing — say waistband — is
tight. Hindered circulation means accelerated cold
risk. :
Waistband accommodating, shove sweaters, waist-
coat and cardigan inside — so this clothing is not
disarrayed when working and bares stomach. If waist-
band too tight wear as many layers inside it as comfort-
able, and leave others outside.
If possible when clothing wet wring out underclo-
thing leaving outer clothing to freeze and protect you
in its armour. Don’t stand around to do it. Move!
Feet: good circulation vital. Too many socks throt-
tling blood flow in tight boots worse than no socks at
all. Keep laces loose-ish. Check feet continually for
signs of numbness.
For long periods in wet and cold keep feet as dry as
possible, always drying socks each night. If shoes
falling to bits or feet continually wet and cold (and no
dry change of socks for camp) improvise footwear.
Any strong canvas/parachute/sacking can be wrap-
ped in layers round feet. Insulate layers with dry
grass, kapok from vehicle cushions or anything else
that might work. Keep fluffing out insulation when
possible (see Too Slow page 231).
If water in shoes and it is extremely cold keep them
on until you reach shelter. So long as you are moving
and so long as it is only water (not ice) you should be
safe from frostbite.

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 An extreme step to make shoes watertight is — dip
each foot in icy water until thin film of ice formed on
outside (wriggling toes and arching foot as you do it).
No more water can now penetrate shoe until ice has
melted.

Control sweating
It is vital not to sweat (destroys clothes-insulation/
condenses on skin/can freeze). Don’t put on all clo-
thing when working — unless frantically digging-in ina
blizzard.
Loosen belt, laces, draw cords, cuff, collar. Take off
a top layer of clothing —- and perhaps another layer.
Sometimes just opening collar, taking off headgear
and loosening shirt cuffs enough. Keep cool instead of
hot.
When you stop, put all these clothes back on — and
more if you feel cold. A tremendous nuisance, but
essential for efficiency and fighting frostbite and expo-
sure.
Pace yourself. Unless digging against time for shel-
ter, work slowly/surely/efficiently. Take a five-minute
break every 30 minutes.

Care
Clothing should not be jettisoned. It may not seem too
cold or serious at time but clothing is never in the way
(uses — bedding/foot protection/signalling).
Clean clothes are best insulators. Dirty, matted,
holed clothing lets out body heat, lets in cold.
Mend torn clothing —- no matter how makeshift.
Stitch rents, sew on buttons, patch with any impro-
vised thread and needle (see fishhook principle in Too
Empty page 272).
Dry shoes away from hot fire. Stuff with grass or
clothing or twigs. Turn soles upwards.
When possible beat clothes with stick to remove
snow/dirt/sweat. Fluff out all clothing. Shake/rub/
scrape especially before going into warmer shelter.
Possibly leave frozen outer clothing outside in intense
cold as it will thaw inside and become wet. And frozen
dry clothes better than wet.
Dry wet clothing when possible. Hang it high in
shelters where warm air can reach it. If dry outside, lay

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clothing out in open, let perspiration condense and
freeze again, then brush it out with branches, twigs
etc. Fire in very cold weather won't have great drying
power — don’t hold clothes too near and scorch.

Finding Shelter
Find cover as quickly as possible. Take into account
your state of health/tools available/surroundings. You
must have shelter, whether plastic bag or stone walls.
Get shelter before dark; before you are panic-
stricken; before exhaustion sets in. If lost, marooned,
or trapped, wrest shelter from your very surround-
ings. You can get it almost anywhere.
These hints may help.
(a) In blizzard you won't be able to think straight. If
no cover of trees/boulders/car, dig into snowdrift
like a mole: keep a hole to breathe and gradually
enlarge space round you. Wait until blizzard
abates.
Given longer:
(b) Check shelter isn’t in lee of bottom of cliffs and
slopes where drifts may form. Nor below hillside
cornices (snow overhangs), avalanche-prone
slopes or in rockfall zones down mountainsides.
(c) Don’t camp right on valley floor if potential flood-
ing. Also risk of temperature inversion: mist sink-
ing on to cold valley floor while warmer air rises.
(d ee If on sea ice go for thickest ice or biggest floe —
away from thin ice and pressure ridges joining
two floes.
(e Nearer you are to timber and water the better.
—

They seldom go together, so compromise. Pick

timber as first choice for site. If no timber reinforce
exposed shelter with windbreak built from any-
thing handy - rocks/ice slabs/aircraft parts.

Shelters
See your shelter is made safe in two important ways.
(a) Ventilate it so exhaust fumes/fire smoke/stove
vapour cannot asphyxiate you (carbon monoxide

140
 poisoning is common in cold weather camps).
One ventilation hole is not enough. You need one
in roof and one at door to provide through-
draught.
(b —
Insulate cold striking from floor by every means.
Car floor mats, car back seat, plastic car seat cov-
ers, rucksack, climbing rope, potholing ladders,
sacking, clothes, inverted dinghy, lifejacket, pine
boughs, moss, pine boughs, branches.
Keep fluffling out this floor insulation. Make as
thick as possible. Never sleep directly on damp
earth/slush/cold earth.

When no cover for miles

Keep moving. Build some form of windbreak no mat-
ter how meagre in lee of dip in ground or slope. Such
areas of utter barrenness rare. Make windbreak shelter
of stones. Fill chinks with earth. Roof with any avail-
able cover — long rocks, slabs, sticks. Insulate yourself
from ground by any means possible — even to sitting in
or on rucksack. Keep moving parts of body when
sitting it out.

Natural holes
(See also Too Bright: storm cover risks page 115.)
Ditches/rock overhangs/caves can all be used if shel-
tered from elements. Reinforce warmth wherever
possible with extra windbreak, roof, floor insulation.
Shelter under and in lee of large undercut boulders —
excellent. Build a ‘howff’ using big rock as main wall
with additional windbreaks. Add _ boughs/plastic
sheet/gas cape as insulator. Fill chinks with soil/mud/
snow.

Snow
Ready-made insulation. Take into account that wet
snow in Britain is quite different from very cold dry
arctic snow. Roofs of snow holes will thaw and col-
lapse before morning unless temperature below freez-
ing point.
Don’t try to build snow houses or igloos — they are
too complicated architecturally.
Simplest shelters are best and remember: smaller
shelter keeps warmer longer than big one and takes

141
less sweat to make. And you will need something to
use as a shovel/spade.

Cold trench

Fig 37 Snow hole and snow-drift shelter

Entrance only frags

Partially __.
3 da drainage
blocked. -*~~

510ing eran
Fig 38 Snow cave

Take off outer clothes when working — so you don’t

get wet with snow and water.
(a) Drifts formed round large boulders or trees pre-
sent ready-made scoops and hollows. Crawl into
and dig bigger. Make a roof with any other cover
you may have — branches/cape/groundsheet, say.
It is essential to have something to sit on.
(b) Snow pit. Just dig hole down into snow (can be
expanded later into tunnels/chambers/recesses if
you wish). Cover with snow blocks, or large
snowballs rolled flat-ish to keep in warmth. Make
a seat.

142
(c) Snow trench is very economical in effort. Just dig a
slit trench with any tool available in surface snow:
flat stone/ice axe/hub cap. Roof with canvas/gas
cape/plastic — adding snow on top as lid.
In very cold climate where footprints hardly
show (snow is so compact), roof with ‘tent’ of
snow slabs 45 cm X 50cm X 15cm (18 in x 20 in x
6 in). Wrest them from rectangular space (as big
as you) you first rough out. Dig down to 1.2m
(4ft) liftingout slabs. Then lean against each
other (offset so you can handle one at a time). If
snow isn’t 1.2m (4ft) deep — build walls to make
the height.
(Note: bottom of roof slabs rest on two 15cm X
15cm (6in x 6in) L-shaped ledges cut along trench
edges.)
(d) Snow cave is a bigger job but can be carved within
3 hours for 3-4 people. More if needed. Check
walls and roof are at least 60cm (2ft) thick, and it is
freezing hard. Channel into snowbank burrowing
wide tunnel upwards. Snow can be scraped out or
lifted away in blocks. Shape/smooth/slope cham-
ber roof to make non-drip. Chop sleeping bench at
height of top of entrance passage and near roof
(where air is warmest).
Make cave small enough. Leave a stick sticking
through roof for ventilation. Don’t completely
block the entrance.
Keep everything dry inside the cave. Vital. Restrict
trips outside. Mark both top of cave (so people don’t
walk on it) and entrance (so you don’t lose it in
blizzard).
Tramp floor of cave flat. Insulate sleeping ledge with
anything going - _ branches/rucksack/newspapers
(greased if possible as they get soggy). Smack small
piece of snow on to any dripping part of roof to stop it.
Clothing might be dried by your body heat. Don’t let
boots freeze — wrap up in clothing or plastic bag. And
keep them in your sleeping area.
Limit cooking (steam doesn’t help). Keep ventila-
tion hole clear. Only use torch for light. And always
keep digging tool, whether hub cap orice axe, ready to
dig out in emergencies — like roof falling in.

143
Ice
Out among sea ice, all you are likely to have are
snow/ice/raft/aircraft gear/parachute. Use whatever
best on past principles to make shelter and roof it.
Snow blocks, ice slabs, wood or metal panels —all help.
Be ready to move at once if ice starts to break up.

Trees
Many opportunities for shelters here. Use overhang-
ing branches as roof of snow pit/hole/cave. Remove
snow from under tree limbs, or gouge out a bigger hole
in drifts round tree trunk, burrowing away from the
trunk.
When digging collect firewood: twigs, branches,
cones, dry pine needles.
Lean-to shelters are easiest to make — with a fire
fanned back towards shelter opening by log or rock
reflector. Many variations. Ski sticks-and-ski frame-
work shown is only one. Any sticks/branches/boughs
can be jammed and tied into position.
Don’t make too elaborate shelter for first night if
little time. Better to reinforce on second day. Build
facing downwind or cross-wind. Use any fabric from
parachute to spare clothing as canopy on the
framework. When thatching with foliage, leaves, fir
branches start from bottom to give overlapping effect.

“AN Sev willow

mY)
RAY Bige

brushwood es

Fig 39 Shelters

144
Tents
Gas cape/plastic bag/oilskin sheet/parachute/sacking.
All can be made into tents, whether pup-type,
bivouac, wigwam or ridge. Use whichever best for
your purposes.
Shapes shown in diagram can be used for whatever
you have. The paratepee houses several and a fire
burning inside too — which makes distress beacon.
Hooped willow tent is shaped like specialist Hima-
layan climbers’ tent. Drape with several thicknesses of
parachute material.
Lean-to or ridge-type bivouacs made from a square
of cloth, plastic, oilskin, polythene are standbys any-
where. They can be built on flat ground without a
means of support except stones. These pull the shelter
taut (as shown). Tie rocks to bottom edges of sheet
with string/cord/laces — which are first secured to sheet
by knotting pebbles into fabric (as shown).
Stones/sticks/rucksacks — anything rigid — make the
bivouac ‘pillars’ at each end of shelter. You don’t need
trees, walls or boulders.
Block ends of shelters with snow, rocks, foliage.
Build these shelters in lee of any available (and safe)
windbreak. It is worth building a windbreak in very
exposed areas.

Buildings
Wilderness country the world over holds many build-
ings — shacks, huts, cabins, shooting boxes, grouse
butts, sheepfolds, encampments, crofts, mine work-
ings, ghost towns in way-out areas.
Up creeks, along canyons, by rivers, behind bluffs,
in clearings, along game trails, in basins. All offer
extended life to survivor who forces way in (if in
obvious use, don’t carve up place and leave ruined).

Survival bags
A heavy-duty orange-coloured polythene envelope —
folds up small, weighs little and totally encloses you —
is invaluable life-saving cocoon if you are marooned
out in the open. Keep in rucksack/boat/car just in
case...

145
 —_
Ay ie
(DF Si

to sheet with string tying pebbles into edge of sheet.)

Below: Goretex survival bag

Car
Stay in the car for safety — although not as warm as ina
snow cave (metal conducts heat out radiator-fashion) —
when stuck in blizzard. If stuck for several days it will
pay to make snow holes too, but this not likely in
Britain.
You will soon be rescued if you stay put. Fatalities in
this situation happen when driver panics in snow-
storm and abandons car to walk for help. This could be
several kilometres (miles) away — a very long way in
blizzarding snow. And beaten back — you lose your
car.
If next day is fine, the car almost swallowed in drifts,
then the driver can consider following the road (even if
only visible by telegraph posts) and walking out (see
Too Slow page 228). But stay put in blizzard and at night.
If no fuel for running engine and heater, keep

146
 moving inside the car. Wrap in whatever extra clo-
thing possible.
Run engine when it still works, and there is petrol.
But make sure exhaust pipe end is clear. It also pays to
cover radiator up. Wait until the heater works. Then
switch off engine for as long as possible.
(a) Never run engine if remotest chance of exhaust
fumes, either leaked or from tail pipe, being pul-
led into the car. At slightest signs of drowsiness
stop engine and open window.
(b) Warmth and comfort, after period of cold and
boredom, are likely to result in sleepiness. Take
great care not to go to sleep with engine running.
If lock of boot (or any other door lock) is frozen,
thaw out lock.
Hold match or lighter flame under lock. Or (easier
on your car-finish) warm key with flame and try it
then. If still no joy hold lighter under whole key
sticking out from lock. Grip with hanky to turn. If no
lighter see later for help from car battery.
If you ever leave car to go short distance in blizzard
or bad visibility — as with any other shelter— signpost it
with some form of flag on a long stick so you can find it
again.

Plane
Crash-landed plane in arctic cold regions is not a
shelter but an ice box. Its metal is a superb conductor
of heat in really cold regions so. . . go outside.
If no nearby and superior cover, build snow blocks
up under wing or tailplane forming snow house with
metal roof. Or make a tent with parachute draped over
wing or tailplane and held down with rocks/gear/snow
blocks.
In cold, but less cruel, climates (deserts at night),
stay in plane. Best to cook outside, though, to avoid
carbon monoxide poisoning.

Firestarters
It is tremendous to get a fire going. Hot food. Hot
drink. Dry clothes. Warmth. Signalling. Morale boos-
ter. The mind boggles.
_ Be ready for disappointments. You may fail. And

147
most probably will in poor conditions. Even succeed in
very cold weather, and the heat could be so pitiful you
have to crouch over it — and scorch clothing.
Patience is essential. So is judgment. Don’t try
lighting fires in rough weather unless absolutely
essential.
Collect available tinder and kindling ingredients
which can be warmed next to body.
These tips may help.
(a) Think in terms of building two, three or four small
fires and hunching among them (much more
warmth) than in one massive fire.
(b) Choose site, especially of first fire, carefully. Not
under snow-plastered trees. Not under dripping
rock overhang. Not dangerously near car. And so
on.
(c) Build fire on rocks/logs/scraped-earth-in-ground —
not just on natural earth’s surface. Metal parts
from plane useful both as fire foundation and
reflector shield. Hubcaps are great.
(d Don’t build fire too big = wasteful (unless chance
—

of its being seen or chance to dry clothes). Even

then, remember quantity of successive fires better
than quality of one.
(e) Make walls round cooking fires to concentrate
heat. Or cook in a hole. Pots can rest on side
placed rocks/green logs/metal parts.
(f) Reflector of rocks, logs or branches will bend fire
outside lean-to shelter in towards you.
(g) Always try to light a fire before dark.
There are many other sensible points: don’t build
unnecessary fires. And conserve tinder/kindling/fuel
and matches. Never waste matches trying to light
badly-laid fire, nor use matches trying to light
cigarettes when you have lens and sun or sparks from
a battery. (When you have a fire, practise fire-friction
or other methods in case matches run out before
rescue and you have to resort to rubbing pieces of
wood together.)
Collect masses of kindling and fuel first. This in-
cludes very wet wood which can be dried by any fire
you raise.

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Tinder
Carry this frailest fuel in tins/bottle/wallet. Bring out in
sun to dry whenever possible. Or any other warmth
source. Aim for dust as dry as snuff — bone dry.
Ingredients: woodworm dust/lint threads/cotton
threads/dry wood powder/shredded bark/unravelled
string/gauze bandage threads/wool fuzz/birds feath-
ers/pocket fluff/bits of bird nests/any dust/dry splin-
ters pounded between two rocks/dry shredded bark/
fat pine.
Add a drop or two of petrol.
Tinder is half a substitute for matches (other half
being spark or heat). Keep adding to your tinder
supply. Take great care of it. And keep your tinder
dry
Kindling
Collect anywhere. Store. Warm. Keep dry. Consider
anything.
Pound notes. Dollar bills. Family photographs.
Identity cards. Tiny twigs. Resinous shrubs. Bits of
food not wanted for eating. Oily wood/paper/rags.
Wood shaving. Split dry bark. Feathers. Dry glass
hanks. Fuzz stick = twig shaved by knife down sides
to look bit like badminton shuttle, bark curling out-
wards. Paper spills.
Use roots. Innards of branches, wet on outside.
Drained-off motor oil (drained straight off into ground
before it freezes in arctic cold and you have no contain-
er). Birds nests. Dry ferns. Bracken. Palm leaves.
Note: never use all kindling for one fire. Leave some
for next morning.

Birch Bark
Even wet birch bark catches fire. Burns with dense oily
smoke. Peel away fine strips and store large amounts
for firelighting.

Fuel
Collect a terrific supply of anything that burns.
Tree limbs/trunk insides/dwarf trees/scrub. Dung.
Peat. Driftwood. Sea-coal on beaches. Bones. Dead-
wood. Wooden parts of vehicles. Plants (like arctic
cassiope with small white flower, tiny green leaves

149
and about 30cm/12in high).
Upright dead wood which can be pushed over/
knocked down/split up (by driving in sharp stone
wedge, or clubbing to bits) is better than lying-on-
ground dead wood (wet/soggy/frozen). Green wood
will burn on very hot fire. Reduce all fuel to as small-
size as convenient.
Try everything for fuel. Use in small quantities. See
if it burns. Then use it continually.

Fire Booster
Spill petrol on fuel before lighting it. Sprinkle it on
kindling. Use a drop or two on tinder. But never throw
it on fire already burning.
Two cupfuls of petrol can start a bonfire immediate-
ly from a huge pile of dry twigs/branches/bark if
loosely heaped to about 1.5m (5ft) high.
Paraffin and oil are excellent fire primers too.

Fire lighters
Use whatever method of lighting applicable — save
matches or cigarette lighter if sun is shining and you
have lens. Use paper/glass/faggot-of-twigs to make
most of each match or lighter flame. A candle is ideal.

Fig 41 Striking match against wind

Matches
Strike into wind (as shown). Tilt match head down into
palms to make flame run back up stick if any draught
gets through. If matches damp, dry them by rubbing
in hair, or holding between palms (head just showing
at side) and rub briskly.

150
 Fig 42 Left: Fire froma large magnifying glass ina Silva or
Suunto compass
Right: Starting a fire from a concave shaving mirror or
headlight reflector

Car/table/pocket lighter
Save for fires. Use sun or fire for lighting cigarettes.

Lens
Try to set tinder smouldering with a convex lens.
Direct lens so sun’s rays converge through it ina sharp
point on the tinder. Keep trying new positions until
tinder starts to smoulder. Then glow. Blow gently to
encourage flame.
A lens works equally well either way round.
(a) Two wristwatch glasses sealed together with clay/
chewing gum/tree sap, enclosed space being filled
with water, is theoretically sound. One watch
glass is not.
(b) Any single spectacle lens can be tried. It is not true
that four spectacle lenses are better than one.
(c) Gunsight lenses work.
(d) The magnifying glass on a Silva or Suunto com-
pass, used for map reading, could work.
(e) Binocular lenses are excellent. Remove from
_ binoculars.

151
(f) Camera with back open is best (wider effective
aperture than most optical instrument lenses).
Open iris diaphragm to widest aperture. Let sun
shine through back where film would be so rays
emerge through lens front.

Concave mirrors
Mirrors in car headlamps/plane landing lights/shaving
mirrors are good. The larger the better. Sun’s rays
focus to a point approximately midway between cen-
tre of curvature and centre of mirror as shown.

Flint and Steel

Strike sparks from any hard rock (flint, quartz) which
doesn’t snap or scratch easily — with back of penknife
blade/screwdriver/other hard piece of steel. Difficul-
ties: in finding right stone, and then in catching
sparks. It takes practice.
Best to try on principle of lighting match in windy
weather. Cup hands. Hold ‘flint’ between left thumb
and forefinger, and tinder in palm of that hand. And
flick with steel. If sparks catch blow them into flame.
(Note: best tinder here is strip torn from cotton shirt,
wound like paper spill so fuzzy edges overlap and
spark can be struck into the centre core.)

Say
\ Tie

Fig 43 Camera firelighter

May
 THE TOOLS Bd bearing-block 2 tsp of potassium
permanganate crystals +

base-board sich eit

blunt bow
produces
glowing
coal

groove cut

drill LE bearing-block

BS

cord or thong
round drill
blunt end =
of drill

loop at end of cord

or tnong to slip
Over bow

(gs USING THE SET

hold bearing-block in place

and press lightly

ek (c Ml pm
aay we (trea oS bg
% seer!
z oe SDae (lin,Px Ves,
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support for base-board “tinder omouideringin groove
and on base-board

Fig 44 Fire bow and drill using potasstum permanganate

and sugar

153
Friction
Very tough technique. Virtually impossible for most
people as (1) they don’t have practice, (2) they don’t
have the right wood, (3) conditions far from good.
Natives/hunters/explorers using this method carry
fire-friction kits with them — like box of matches.
Fire drill is shown. Wood dust is produced and
starts to smoulder on top of tinder underneath which,
when blown, becomes a glowing mass. Saw bow back
and forth to make drill of hard wood spin faster into
the soft, seasoned, nonresinous wood base. Note: drill
point spins in notch at very edge of wood base so
wood dust spills on to tinder below.

Potassium permanganate and fire bow

Mix approximately half a teaspoon of potassium per-
manganate crystals with one teaspoon of sugar. Pour
carefully into fire bow wood base notch. Blunt your
drill point a little. Can produce glowing coal which
flames among blown-on tinder.
Potassium permanganate and sugar can also be
ignited by rotating stick end into it using palms-of-the-
hands power.
Potassium permanganate crystals also make an
antiseptic (dissolve a few grains in water); stains
snow a vivid red (sprinkle on and stir) for distress
signal; sterilize water (add a few grains per litre and
wait 30 minutes) — pale crimson colour is not harm-
ful.
Car battery
Use battery in preference to other possible car-electrics
methods if no cigarette lighter on car dashboard. Take
care: burnt hands, flat batteries and sparks in the
engine are not good things. Cover up engine with
anything from floormats to coat. Make a good job of it
— petrol vapour hovers near.
Two methods are possible: either by touching two
spanners (or anything similar) across battery terminals
to produce sparks. Or (preferable) any wire (like
barbed wire off fence) twisted to terminals, then
hooped clear of car body so sparks can be produced
outside.
Don’t overdo this method and flatten battery. It can

154
be effective but don’t waste it.
Sparks can be captured on hanky with a little petrol
dropped on it. Hanky is captured in coil of wire
formed in spirals. It should be stiff so it can’t droop
running flame up your sleeve. Have kindling nearby.

; ee
ae
SCE
Fig45 Car battery firelighter and spark-catcher made from
petrol-spotted handkerchief held in wire

Motor cycle/scooter/motorboat battery

Same applies.

Firearm
Little powder mixed with tinder may prove effective.
To try for flame, cut cartridge or bullet leaving a very
few grains of powder in shell. Insert a little dry cotton
(coat lining) with torn and fuzzy edge. Pack loosely.
Fire into air. Cloth may float down — burning. Grab
and light tinder with it.

Lighting the fire

Vital! Have everything at hand like a surgeon. Never
win a flame only to have to run for fuel.
Build kindling into half-pyramid. Leave chinks for
draught. Apply your match-fed canale/paper spill/
twig faggot to lower windy side of kindling where you
have left an opening (the cut-off part of pyramid) and
shield from wind as you do so. Flames should be able
to lick from one twig to another.
If lighting by tinder the glowing mass should be

155
placed in the kindling opening with readily burnable
stuff surrounding it loosely — greasy paper, etc.
One way to flare up tinder in calm settings is to drop
it (once alight) into ball of dry grass/paper/oily rags
tied to a piece of string. Whirl this round the head to
try to make a fireball.
Add smallest pieces of fuel to flaming kindling. Add
larger pieces only when fire is strong enough not to be
crushed. Don’t jam wood so tight that draught is cut
off. Blow gently. And shield all the time in early stage
from being blown out by too strong draught.
Place sticks in large fire in parallel layers. Make each
layer-strata at right angles to next layer to give mesh
effect for flames slipping through.
Lean sticks radially for smaller fire, feeding them
into fire as they burn so that any length does — you
don’t have to break into short pieces.
Stockpile fuel, especially when wet, next to fire.
And keep in overnight by constant re-fuelling, or
covering with logs or ashes or leave with soil on top.
Take off next morning, add kindling and blow.

Making a Stove
A tin can and heat source is all you need (as shown).
Bend, rive, bash, and cut tin roughly into shape of
either of these designs. Use tools available (rocks/
knife/piton).
Heat source: candle (in this case don’t bother to cut
tin up but make a few holes); sand/soil/gravel satu-
rated with oil, petrol, or paraffin; plain oil with wick of
sphagnum moss/rag/parachute harness (supported
with any improvised holder from wire, stone or met-
al); animal fat poised over lit wick (wick melts fat
which drips back on to wick); rubber/wax/electrical
insulation which burns best in stoves.
Don’t add petrol to stove already going. Initial
petrol-stove lighting is risky enough. Let match burn
large in fingers then toss it into can turning away and
stepping back.

Making pressure stove work

If you lose parts of a Primus or similar stove improvise.
Here are some examples.

156
 Fig 46 Left: Stove with oil-soaked sand. Right: Stove with
wire-supported wick.

(a) Lost flame spreader can be substituted by two

stove prickers bent as cross-pieces over top of
burner top. Or small piece of stone or metal.
(b) Worn and cracked pump washer should be rub-
bed with butter/grease/oil and re-fitted carefully.
(c) Missing leg for holding tins over flame can be
improvised with build-up of stone, on that side of
cooker. This also shields flame when you light
meths in the first place.
(d —
When meths supply runs out, wrap twist of paper
round burner tube in meths cup (ina tight circular
spill). Close stove valve. Pump. Paraffin will foun-
tain out soaking paper. Light this and wait, releas-
ing valve until you re-pump at priming tempera-
ture.

Cold Hazards
Exposure/Hypothermia
Cause Sharp drop in body temperature, especially
when wet and exhausted as well as cold. Exposure hits
normally robust climber/sailor/potholer or baby in
pram or old age pensioner living sparsely in cold
house. It is deadly.
Signs Skin is icy; shivering; paleness; lethargy;
~ complaints/unexpected behaviour/sudden bursts of

157
 q
energy (and bad language); stumbling and falling.
Slurring speech. Worsening eyesight. Looks drunk.
Treatment Stop. And get to nearest shelter (whether
behind boulder/wall/hollow). Do not press on travell-
ing. Do not try to stimulate return of warmth by hot
water bottles/fire/friction.
Insulate patient so remaining body heat doesn’t leak
easily away. Get him into a sleeping bag. Or on to thick
layer of clothing on the ground. Build windbreak/
shelter/tent around. Add warmth with human bodies
under/alongside/over (getting inside sleeping bag
with the sufferer is very effective).
Use all clothing available (but ensure helpers don’t
become exposure cases as well). Insulate victim's feet/
buttocks/shoulders with extra clothing.
Sugar in condensed milk or warm drink is OK for
casualty. Helpers should eat and drink too.
Resistance to cold varies greatly. Old people and
young (including teenagers) succumb soonest. Baby
in pram has a chance — if mother carries out these
principles: i.e. holds infant close to body, covers with
coat and blanket, stops loss of further body heat, and
doctor is called.
Help Someone should fetch stretcher team im-
mediately. If not possible improvise stretcher (see Too
Slow page 240). Keep patient well covered during carry
to safety. In some circumstances he may have to walk
assisted. But usually — don’t let him.
Prevention Eat good breakfast; eat chocolate/sugar/
raisins through day. Don’t plan ambitious route in bad
conditions. If someone shows trace of exposure go
down mountain/to the shore/out of cave. Don’t wait
around in leaky inefficient shelter hoping it will pass.
Move while you can.
Wear anti-exposure clothing. Wear several layers of
clothing to provide insulation. Wool is still the best
material but is not essential. Windproof pants that
don’t let heat from knees escape. Windproof jacket
which covers wrists (another heat leakage point) and
has an effective hood, preferably wired. Wear gloves
and balaclava or woollen hat. Scarf and layers of
clothing. Anything to trap air (from thermal under-
wear to pyjamas worn under pants) vital in very cold
conditions. And start out in dry clothes. Note: too

158
much clothing = exhaustion in certain conditions (see
Too Slow page 232).

Frostbite
Causes Often neglect. Not protecting extremities from
frost nip. And then not taking action when frostbitten.
Touching bare metal. Tight clothing. Uncovered
hands/face/ears. Broken limbs very vulnerable to frost-
bite.
Signs Slight prickling feeling as skin freezes or
perhaps no feeling at all; first appears as small patch of
waxy numb skin. Feels stiff. If not treated eventually
feels like pebbles sunk in flesh. Pain rages. Swelling/
reddening/blisters/ulcers. And then numbness . .
with blackened, deadened and dropped-off parts.
Treatment Act at frostnip signs. Watch companions
face/faces for waxy spots. Have him/her/them watch
yours. Use mirror if on own. Keep pulling faces to
avert frostpinch (see page 137).
If frostnipped, thaw out immediately with human
body warmth. Warm bare hands over face/nose/ears.
Push frostbitten fingers down inside trousers to warm
on your crotch (or shove under armpits). Frost-
attacked feet are best warmed on stomach of trailmate
— but keep covered with clothing when warming.
Animal slit down front is good foot or hand warmer.
Force limb into deepest part of dead animal.
Never rub/chafe/pummel the part. Nor apply hot
water bottles/hot rocks in cloth/hot fire. Nor treat with
snow, ice, petrol or oil (all will aggravate condition).
However immersion in warm water may help.
Warm drinks too. Keep part covered with dry clothing
when thawing out.
Superficial frostnip can be treated so that you can
press on to destination. Otherwise (when part is hard
and numb) you become a stretcher case. And need a
doctor.
When stripping frozen mitts/helmet/shoes thaw out
first in lukewarm water — don’t pull roughly causing
pain and tearing blisters (frostbite devitalizes skin). If
pain becomes too severe it might be sign your warmth
treatment is too hot and further damage is happening.
Keep patient resting.

159
Trench foot
Caused by having wet, cold (not frozen) feet for long
periods. Can lead to amputation. Feet and toes are
pale/stiff/numb in early stages.
Keep feet as dry as possible. Clean and dry socks at
every chance. Towel feet gently and quickly after
walking wet-footed. Comfort feet with warm bare
hands, put on dry socks.
When you have wet feet all time, keep bending
ankles/arching foot/wiggling toes. Don’t lace up shoes
or boots tightly. Sleep with feet dried in warm cover-
ing, and raised.
If swelling severe, rest. Protect foot from injury. Lie
horizontally and raise foot. Don’t rub/chafe/apply
warmth. Wait for swelling to go down.

Carbon monoxide poisoning

(See also Too Wet page 105.)
Caused through fire or stove burning in unventi-
lated space. Gas is colourless. Keep stove burning
with blue flame. Yellow flame = danger. Get outside
at once. And keep shelter ventilated in future. Be alert
to this danger — especially by not falling asleep in
heated shelter.
Getting someone from carbon monoxide-filled
Spacesos
1. Breathe in deeply, out, in — and hold breath.
2. Get victim.
3. If impossible immediately switch off gas source.
4. Open doors/windows/ventilators. (Never follow 4.
when place is on fire as draught will create inferno
see Too Hot page 164.)
Once outside again lay out victim and treat as
stretcher case — for hospital. Treat for shock. If brea-
thing stops (or has stopped) — apply artificial respira-
tion.

Insomnia
Caused by cold.
Keep eating through day — especially before lying
down. Turn sleeping bag inside out each day. If drying
by a fire — don’t scorch it. If no fire — take outside when
fine, let perspiration on it condense, freeze again and

160
beat it out with stick/twigs/belt. Fluff out the bag for
better insulation. Note: sleeping bags with synthetic
fillings retain ‘loft’ and thus warmth when wet much
better than down bags.
Don’t wear wet clothing in sleeping bag. Sleep in
minimum clothing inside. Turn over with sleeping bag
rather than im it. Don’t trap head inside if very cold,
but it can help to put face in top opening. Keep head
covered with a hat or clothing.
Lie huddled together head to toe. Put weakest/old
people/children in centre. If everyone in similar shat-
tered state, keep swapping end positions (like pen-
guins). Arrange any dry clothing under, and around
hips and shoulders.

Snow blindness
(See Too Dark page 131.)

Snow dazzle
(See Too Bright page 111.)

Insects
(See Too Crowded page 59.)

Hygiene
Clean up regularly all-round. Use lavatory well clear of
water or camp — and in lee.
Cut (don’t shave) hair and beards fairly short: frost-
catchers which have to be thawed. Don’t wash when
very cold weather, but wipe down if possible with dry
or warm damp cloth to uncrust sweat.
Attend to any tender skin. Clean teeth with rag or
feathers (soot or salt = toothpaste but don’t scour
hard).
Combat disease with hygiene, and by conserving
energy in very cold weather by getting as much sleep
as possible. Keep eating — and drink plenty.

161
8 TooHot

Intense heat can spark off a human urge to leap from

impossible heights, fling open doors of burning
rooms, hurl water on to flaming oil — and make other
errors.
So strong is the fear of fire that the untutored
survivor relies completely on his blind instinct of
self-preservation. Often the instinct is wrong and
means exhaustion/asphyxiation/cremation.
Whether from crackling flames or fierce climate,
heat can be kept at bay long enough for escape or
rescue — or even while you attack it. But you must keep
cool, and deal with first things first.

Before Fire Gets Too Hot

1. Get everyone outside the burning room...
2. And then outside the building.
3. Shut all windows and doors.
4. Call the Fire Service.
go . Try to put fire out if possible.
Approach
Try to estimate where an indoor fire is burning.
If a trail of smoke leads to a closed door, take great
care. The fire behind could be small or serious.
Do not fling the door open. Nor open nor smash
windows. Any draught quickly fans fire into serious
proportions. Open doors also allow flames and smoke
to spread.
Where you suspect fire in a room, use the door as a
fire shield and inch it open.
Beware if the handle is warm. Crouch when open-
ing so that hot gases and flames will escape overhead.
Keep one foot against a door opening towards you.
Always close this door on the fire as quickly as
possible.

164
Getting everyone outside
Shout ‘Fire!’
Sound fire alarm if there is one.
Try to escape at ground-level rather than have to
remain or be forced upstairs — escape through a
ground-floor window if the doors are cut off.

Shutting doors and windows

Close as many doors and windows as possible
throughout a burning building (to help stifle the fire
through lack of air).
Never throw stones from the outside through the
windows of burning houses/trains/factories.

Calling the Fire Service

Call 999 or shout for someone to telephone immediate-
ly if you are trapped.
If miles away from a telephone (in forest, say) run to
the nearest house and borrow a bike or car to help you
reach one.
Always call the Fire Service, even when the fire
seems too small to be worth it. Remember — all fires
start small.

Try to put it outif possible

Act immediately
1. Throw mat/rug/coat over the blaze.
2. Switch off electricity and/or gas at the mains.
3. Drench with water unless burning oil/fat/liquid.
4. Use pan lid or damp cloth or woollen or asbestos
blanket to smother burning oil/fat/liquid.
ol. Never pick up a pan of burning fat and try to take
outside.
6. Wet surroundings of fire to stop spreading.
An electrical appliance (TV/washing machine/iron)
fire will die down once the current is switched off. If
fire still persists after switching off, douse with water.
Portable oil heaters can be cooled off with water.
Take the bucket or fire extinguisher to a safe distance,
then aim and drench the metal container and sur-
rounding fire. A spray is better for this than a jet.
(Remember: when going back and forth to fill a
bucket of water close the door each time.)

165
Fire Fighting Hints
If you live in a lonely rural area, you may be able to
extinguish the fire before the Fire Service arrives.
These points can help.
Act swiftly. Don’t panic. Half-measures are hope-
less. Fight fire with a determined concentrated attack
at the seat of the flames.

Quench
Water is the standby. Wherever you are, always know
where the nearest water is available.
Use buckets/basins/hats — anything in which to carry
it. A garden or car-wash hosepipe is best of all. A
garden syringe is efficient.
Use any furniture/wet mat/wood panel as a fire-
shield from behind which you can direct water at close
range into the heart of the fire.
Press thumb down on end of the hosepipe or exting-
uisher to produce a spray, and play this round out-
skirts of the fire to damp and restrain. Quickly return
full jet back at any hotspots.
A non-stop bucket chain of people from tap or
stream is effective. But it is dangerous if the fire has
caught hold, and cannot be closely approached.
Don’t direct water where there may be a risk of
hitting live wires which you haven’t been able to cut by
switch.
Keep jets of water away from burning oil/fat/liquid.
However, these can be cooled by a fine spray of water
which blankets rather than explodes the conflagra-
tion.
Keep water away from burning car engine — impact
will dash bits of fire about (and petrol floats on the
water).

Smother
Take off your largest coat, throw it on the fire, and
stamp or press it down (say on burning car engine). Or
use a mat/blanket/heavy curtain.
Act quickly while the fire is still small. A timid
attempt will mean the material can catch fire.
Wet the cloth when possible (under tap/in pool/with
snow).

166
 A damp cloth can snuff out burning oil in a contain-
er, stop a small forest fire at birth, and smother flying
particles of fat from a blazing frying pan.
Sand, soil and dirt are alternative smothering
agents.
Foam and dry powder extinguishers are fine if you
have them.

Beat
When a fire is too big to smother, yet not out of
possible control, beating it may produce results.
Improvise a beater from anything handy: coat/mat/
branch. Really flatten the fire. Use your feet as well to
kick and trample.

Restrict
Bundle a burning carpet into the centre of a room with
stone floor — so the fire cannot spread. Move furniture
and fabrics out of reach of flames.
Never underestimate the speed of a forest/heath/
moorland fire. It can move faster than a running man
when driven by a strong wind. Rather than attempting
to fight this type of fire in its path—run. Try to outflank
the fire and move upwind. Beware of sudden wind
change. Attack fire with wind behind you.

Overestimate
Always overrate the fire you are fighting.
Check thoroughly once it seems to be extinguished.
Pull away charred debris, turn it over and look for red
embers. Try to scrape it down with anything sharp —
knife/stone/metal-edge/axe.
Charred woodwork is always suspect — even when
not glowing red.
Feel and probe hidden corners, ledges, skirting
boards, recesses and shelves. Soak finally with water
to kill lurking flame.
Warning Staircases and floors are weak after fire.
Move carefully round the edges.

When Clothing Catches Fire

1. Roll over and over on the ground.

167
2. Try to roll up inside a rug/blanket/coat with head
outside.
If you stay upright you become a human torch with
flames running past your face. You also inhale fumes.
Anyone nearby catching fire should be thrown to
the ground by the nearest person, and wrapped in any
handy blanket/rug/coat. Or helper should lie on top of
the burning person.
Anyone burned must be treated for shock im-
mediately, and taken to hospital (see page 33).

Moving in Smoke
Thick smoke is a risk to life. You don’t know what
poisonous gases (like carbon monoxide) it contains.
A wet cloth, held in front of the mouth and nose,
helps. It filters carbon particles in the smoke and
prevents coughing. Don’t be fooled by this false sense
of security. It does not stop dangerous fumes passing
through.
Keep in touch with the edges of rooms and stair-
cases (see also Too Dark page 122) when groping in
smoke. Go down on hands and knees to avoid dense
fumes and keep your mouth low. There is always a
5cm (2in) layer of clearer air above the floor.
If attempting to rescue someone from a burning
building try to find a partner to help.
You may have to dash through flames. Wet your
clothing to prevent it catching fire. Re-wet if it looks
like drying out.
Beware of becoming trapped yourself.

If Trapped by Fire
Don’t panic.
Gather the family as far from the fire as possible, and
in the best place where you can call for help. Do not
jump through windows unless on the ground floor (see
Too High page 204).
1. Close all doors between self and fire.
2. Seal bottom of your room door with rug or bed-
clothes.

168
3. Open the window and stand by it.
4. Call for help.
A closed door offers at least 20-30 minutes resistance
to flames. Remember — the fire may by-pass it and not
attack it immediately.
Someone should stay by window so that people
outside realize the urgency of calling the Fire Service
immediately.
Anyone weakening from the heat, fumes and fear
should be restrained from jumping. He should be told
to lie on the floor while you wait by the window.
Consider alternative action if help cannot reach you
in time (see Too High page 203), and prepare for it by
knotting sheets together or throwing down mattresses
in preparation for jumping on them.
On no account throw, lower, jump or climb down
steep walls from several storeys up until there is
absolutely no other alternative. For instance, the
flames may force you out of the window, yet there
could still be a ledge/balcony/pillar to cling on to.
A little patience and coolness can save life and
injury.
You may be several storeys high when help arrives —
up 33m (100ft) ladder. Don’t panic. Wait for the fire-
men to guide you to safety down the ladder. Rely on
them completely.

When Warned of H-Bomb Attack

Take precautions in advance when warned by Press,
TV and radio during a period of mounting tension.
Follow the publicized instructions.
Heat-light flash is the first effect from the Bomb’s
fireball (see Too Bright page 113).
Besides whitewashing windows, clearing away
burnable materials (say piles of paper in an attic) from
places where heat rays can strike (chinks in tiles), the
following fire precautions are necessary.
Flame-proof fabrics with:
9 litres (2 gallons) of water
565g (1¥%lbs) of borax
450g (1lb) of boric acid

169
 attract help from open window. Travel to safety on floor
in smoke

Fig 47 Trapped-by-Fire drill

Re-treat any materials with this solution after

washing. The material also needs re-proofing at regu-
lar intervals, as the treatment deteriorates.
When treating fabrics, dry them naturally hanging
up wet.
This treatment would not work with upholstery, but
a flame-proofed blanket draped over the piece of
furniture would help.
Prepare to fight at once any fire resulting from flash.
Gather as many receptacles (from buckets and basins
to filling the bath) full of water on all floors — with most
on the top floor.
A garden syringe or stirrup pump are ideal for fire
fighting immediately fire starts. Mains water supplies
are likely to be cut when you need them for aids like
hoses.

170
Chimney fires
Place wire spark guard in front of gate to prevent hot
soot overflowing into room. Pour cupful of soapy
water over fire to put it out. Detergent clings to coal
best. Call fire brigade to check fire hasn’t penetrated
flue cracks.

Heat Hazards
Burns
First thing: stop flames and cool tissues.
Rip away glowing clothing (peel where cloth intact).
Reassure like hell. Vital. Remember — untreated shock
kills.
. Cool burns with cold water.
N
= . Keep burns dry and clean with anything handy
(hanky).
3. Don’t use ointments/grease/lotions.
4. Don’t prick blisters.
5. Take off circulation restrictors (tie/belt/shoes).
Dry burnt clothing has been sterilized by fire (if still on
patient afterwards) — leave. Remove wet clothing.

Corrosive chemical burns

Swill/drench/sluice with running water when burnt by
acids like sulphuric/hydrochloric/nitric.
Take off acid-saturated clothing (but don’t burn
yourself). Let water drain off burn.
Treat as a wound. (See Too Crowded page 64.)

Electric shock burns

First thing: get away from live wire.
Pull mains switch. Yank out plug.
If outdoors the keyword is dry
Dry pole/stick/branch to push victim off wire.
or

Dry sack/rope/coat folded extra thick at the points

where hands grasp.
and
Dry newspapers/rubber/wood to stand on while
rescuing.

171
Fig 48 Electrocution drill (using a thick pile of newspapers
for insulation and brush to push)

As desperate last resort . . . try vigorous flying rugby

tackle so you are completely off the ground at moment
of grab (and current flowing through victim is harm-
less to an airborne you).
If no breathing from patient apply resuscitation (see
Too Wet page 105).
No heroics, please, if high voltage wires involved.
Never climb pylons/poles/towers to help. Or rush to
cranes, sand yachts, or other high structures which
have fouled overhead power lines. Above tactics (for
domestic supply current) suicidal when dealing with
400,000 volts.
Telephone 999. Keep onlookers 30m (30yds) back.
Only when officially informed that wires are dead by
electricity authorities can the shocked-one be
approached.

Heat exhaustion
Kills —- and a much more likely foe in jungle, say, than
attack from crazed gorilla.
Caused by frying under hot temperatures with loss
of body fluids and salt. Signs — cramps in muscles;
shallow breathing; vomiting; dizziness.

172
 Treatment: give two teaspoonfuls of salt in 575ml (1
pint) of water every 15 minutes in first hour, then
every half hour until patient refuses to drink. Rest and
shade extremely essential.
If short on salt reduce it to minimum — ¥2 teaspoon-
ful of salt to 575ml (1 pint). Ration it out. Important
thing is to increase salt content in body.

Sunstroke/heatstroke
Instant action — fan to cool.
Don’t mess about when a sudden collapse (in day or
night) is heralded by feebleness/giddiness/dry throat/
cold clammy skin/rapid pulse. And it has been hot.
You must stop temperature bounding up and up.
1. Strip victim.
2. Wrap in wet sheet/towel/tent.
3. Fan, fan, fan with anything handy (shirt).
Fanning will cool by evaporation if done long enough.
Only stop if patient vomits. On recovery wrap in dry
sheet.

175
9 TooLow

Anywhere is much too low when your life depends on

your clawing a way upwards to safety —- whether from
angry bull, burning office block or rushing tide.
And whether it is a mad scramble up on to speeding
car bonnet, back on top of river ice, up into rowing
boat, out along tree branches or to tiny ledge above
swirling water, the big question is.. .
How do you, possibly paunchy or pregnant, in suit
or housecoat (and possibly with crying children),
grant your own heartfelt wish: that you would give
anything to be higher and safer?

Before Climbing
If time allows:
Take off long coat which could trip knees.
Take off jacket that is tight under armpits.
Pocket watch.
Pocket spectacles (if you can see without them).
Hitch tight pants up over knees.
Hitch skirts up to waist.
Keep trouser side pockets empty.
Kick/scrape/rub mud off shoe soles.
Climb in stockinged feet if wet/greasy/frosty/icy.
Stick adhesive plasters to leather soles.
Wear wool gloves if handgrips are snowcapped.
(Taken-off clothing can be carried up knotted round
your waist. Stick not-wanted shoes in jacket pockets.)

Climbing
(Spacecraft mnemonics may help stress key points.)
1. Imagine footholds are spacecraft launching pad.
2. Use feet and legs like rocket motors thrusting you
up.
3. Don’t reach for moon when using handgrips.

176
Reaching too high spreadeagles body against face/
houseside/wall. Stepping up on feet first, wherever
possible, avoids this and is the answer.
Keep looking at feet (but no further down); use
knees as little as possible; lower arms when conve-
nient to keep blood circulating; if leg shakes/twitches/
trembles take it off foothold for moment or two.
Clean small, dirty footholds with fingers, nail file,
comb edge, chunk of stone or handkerchief.
Slap handgrips first with hand. Listen. If they don’t
sound rotten/cracked/loose — use carefully by pulling
down not outwards.
Shout Below! if you knock anything down. Anyone
underneath should cross skull with arms and cower
into side.

Using handgrips
Feel over edges (as using ladder rungs).
Feel under edges (as pulling slot-machine tray).
Feel round edges (as pulling back sliding door).
Press down with heel of hand.
Feel inside any narrow opening with hand then
clench fist (ape the greedy monkey snatching for nuts
through wire netting who cannot withdraw hand
when clenching nuts in fist because opening is now
too small).

Fig 49 Handgrips

T77,
Using footholds
Use anything that supports edge of shoes — rivets/
bricks/brackets/barnacles/roughnesses.
Slot toes in vertical slits by twisting ankle sideways
first, easing in shoe, then straightening ankle. Release
by doing opposite.
Footloop (knotted belt/tie/shoelaces) hung on small
projection is sometimes useful.

Back and footing

Place back on one wall and lift feet on to opposite wall
of any narrow passage, corridor, alley, fissure or shaft
and... push.
Press both hands on wall by buttocks to lever body
off wall and wriggle higher. Shuffle feet upwards at
same time to keep pace with trunk.
(Bring alternate feet to press on wall below and
behind you — for more efficient upwards thrust.)
If walls close in (narrowing gap) use knees instead of
feet. If walls open out climb whichever looks easiest.

Fig 50 Chimneying

Getting old people and children higher

Old people should only undertake a climb if absolute-
ly essential — and then only to minimum safety height
by people pulling from above, shoving from below. At
nearest resting point where they are safe they should

178
Fig 51_ Fire escape — by climbing (being driven up building
walls more likely in flood than fire)

179
be made comfortable to await rescue while others,
possibly, are able to climb still higher.
Use everything to assist: belts for foot and hand
loops (helpers will need these too); manhandling by
sheer effort. Old people are likely to let go altogether and
slump into helpers’ hands — a dead-weight.
People below Hold/guide/place old person’s feet,
shoving all the time. Hold their legs too. Support
weight on your own head and shoulders. Ensure you
have something solid to clutch too.
People above Haul/hoist/heave with hands to old
person’s wrists, then elbows, then under armpits.
Make doubly sure you cannot be pulled off by the
dead-weight. Strongest pulling grip is wrist-to-wrist.
As height is won helpers below must try to keep
climbing so being able to push all the way.
Once aged person is at chest height to a ledge prop
their elbows on it and hold them there. Try to grab an
ankle next (perhaps lassooing with looped belts) and
heave that end up too so the old person can be rolled
horizontally on to resting place.
Ensure that ifold person lets go and falls he doesn’t take
you with him.
When ledge is gained, secure the old person (prob-
ably too shocked to realize position) with belt or strap
to some projecting anchor so they cannot roll off. Treat
for shock (see Too Lonely page 33).
Children are easier to get higher.
Basket someone small by arms (hands using hand-
grips), chest, pelvis and thighs (legs thrusting from
footholds). Child can use handgrips while adult keeps
knee underneath. Or child can be hoisted up ahead
while adult below (braced on good footholds) sup-
ports youngster by bracing an arm between child’s
crutch — hand gripping handgrips when possible.
Children can be swung up quickly from above. And
boosted up without great effort from below.
If no other way, place child’s feet on good ledge,
check child has handgrips, then tell child to stay
standing there while you climb up alongside to a better
position.
Keep calm. Enthuse over progress. Don’t sound panicky
(even if you feel it).
If child is too weak/young/frightened turn him (or

180
 Fig 52 Child carrying

her) face-in to you and wrap arms round your neck.

Support with hip and thighs of your bent legs while
climbing. But this way is so awkward it can only be
done for very short steps.
Instead, if child small enough...
Carry infants and small children papoose-fashion
across back in coat, shawl, blanket, bag, cushion cover
—any handy carrier that can be adapted quickly. Check
child can breathe/is not crushed/cannot fall out. And
check the knots.

Climbing Aids
Ropes
It is 100 to 1 against your finding a proper climbing
rope. Makeshift ones will have to do. _
Plastic-covered or ordinary clothes line/church altar
rail ropes/parachute shroud lines/hay bailing rope/gar-
age air line piping/sashcords/wire flex/beach tow-
els/belts/strips torn from blankets/curtains.
All help if they don’t have to stand heavy or repe-
ated straining . . . then there is no guarantee.
Test knots by standing on rope or line and tugging
knots. Reef knots good for general use. Reinforce with
half hitches.

181
 Ropes are best tied with fisherman’s knot (if you can
remember it). Very easy to tie. More on knots later.
If line has to rub on rough edge pad with anything
soft. Chafing reduces rope strength.

Ladders
Lash short ones together firmly with whatever line
available. Two 2.5m (8ft) ladders = 4m (13ft) ladder
(capable of reaching many first floor windows or into
basements).
Tie overlap of about 1m (3ft). Two people needed to
handle ladder most efficiently. Head of ladder may
need tying. Always check foot of ladder is firm and
anchored/jammed/tied in place. Don’t drop.

Fig53_ ReeflFisherman’s/Figure of Eight/Bowline (and two

half hitches knots)

Using a Rope to Get You Higher

Mountaineering ropework can help in tide-forcing-
you-up-sea-cliffs situations — if you have the rope. If
you have climbable heights. If you forget about the
Eiger and stick to basics.

182
 1 Fe ae with bowline around waist . |
2 Knot 2 doubled length of rope around tree
with half hitches
3 Take in rope around waist...

pree
stand ght behind, it - then
Snaps you are Safe y

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& th eee Sw RNTIZZ yl.
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Fig 54 Taking in rope

Someone best qualified (strongest/most agile/

leader/toughest/clearest-headed) should climb first,
towing the make-do rope behind, and tied round his
waist by bowline.
At first possible resting place (especially if out of
danger) he should search for an anchor (door knob/
window/rock spike/tree branch/railings) and loop rope
from his waist round it (as shown). If rope is not long
enough to make anchor knot and reach people below it
is possible to make an extra anchor loop with belt,
strap or similar.
Down below, next person to follow ties to other end
of rope with bowline, either round chest or waist. As
he climbs, the top man takes in rope round small of his
back as though towelling it.
This back-rubbing method ensures:
(a) Rope or line is kept taut throughout on climber
who uses footholds and handgrips like first man
up did.
(b) Better chances of line holding if person climbing
falls — line handled round human body is given
shock absorber as some of strain is absorbed by
top man.

183
(c) Noone falls on rope suddenly after drop of several
metres/feet clear — which would snap rope.
(d) Someone in difficulty can be p-u-l-l-e-d con-
tinuously.
(e) People don’t use rope foolishly by trying to climb
up it hand over hand.
When second person joins first on ledge, the line can
be lowered (still with bowline loop at end) for next
person (who like the second did, will wriggle into
loop, adjust it round chest or waist, and then climb).
Note: if rope can be lowered at outset by someone
from a higher position it should — as here — already be
tied into bowline loop at the dangling end. And then
rescuer should bring up survivor/s — running rope
round waist.
(Old people should be manhandled higher with
rope tied round chest. Tie firmly so they can’t slip out.
Older children should also be roped round chest.
Infants best carried papoose-style by adult who is
roped round chest or waist.)
It is vital knot stays tied. As bowline is quite tricky
and can turn into slipknot, tie rope into any strong
knot (over-and-over-and-under-and-through type-of-
thing) if you are not sure of bowline. Your own strong
knot will look horrible and be hard to undo, but no one
will fall out of it.
Such climbing — say on mountain/sea cliff/building —
might mean first man climbing more than one short
section, each time bringing survivors up to his level.
This means:
(a) First man always aims for a ledge or step big
enough to accommodate everyone. This resting
place is determined by length of line — it must reach
people below when he gets there.
(b) If no anchor ona ledge (to tie himself to) first man
must try to brace tug-o-war style behind rock/
window sill/tree/boulder/fencepost/heels dug in.
(c) As first man climbs he must keep checking that
rope he trails doesn’t snag round corners, under
peoples’ feet, on projections — and yank him back-
wards.
(d — If rope is strong, first man could have reliable
person paying it out to him as he climbs (round
that person’s back with that person tied to an
anchor too).
184
This means a falling first man might be fielded by man
handling his rope below - especially if handler’s
anchorage is not torn away.
But . . . (a) This method needs the rope to be paid
out by rope handler so that first man is never dragged
backwards when climbing (b) it needs constant readi-
ness for worst by rope handler who is in for a terrific
pull if first man does fall.
If this happens, and line doesn’t break, dangling
man must seize handgrips and footholds and scramble
back up to ledge (rope handler taking in line).
(If rope handler below is not tied to an anchor and
is in poor/small/sloping/cramped position so that
first man falling could drag him down too. . . He
should not tie to rope nor pay it out round his back,
but merely pay it through fingers to ensure it does
not snag and pull first man backwards.)
If first man does fall he doesn’t take anyone else with
him this way . . . and if he does reach the top then,
because of the rope he has been towing, the day is on
way to being saved for those below.
Note: When handling rope round back pull sleeves
down over hands (to stop hand scorching).
When someone falls, push both hands holding rope
in towards pit of stomach to increase friction.
When throwing rope up or across:
Coil clockwise in left hand. Hold coil’s bulk in this
hand. Take 3 loose coils in right hand. Aim and toss
loose coils underarm — letting line run off left hand.
(Never use these last-resort rope methods on spur of
moment to climb that nice bit of sea cliff for fun - more
rock face rescues happen above beaches than on
mountains.)

Aspects of Getting Higher

Leaving ground ina hurry
(a) Vault on to car bonnet about to knock you down.
Pedestrian crossings likely places for this. Can only
be done when car braking. Stop legs being crushed/
you being run down/run over by . .
Leaping for bonnet. Law of chaos prevails (see Too

185
Fast page 214). Do it quickly. Fast reaction is all.
Scissors kick good (uses your bottom to land; one of
nature’s shields). Head and knees vulnerable points
Onmece
Hands on bonnet (as shown) slews you round from
front of car — legs splayed.

Fig 55 Pedestrian crossing jump survival

(b) Jump on to footholds when obstacle is solid. Don’t

reach directly for top of wall rimmed with broken
glass/barbed wire/spikes (unless you can grip
spikes) — but get fingergrips just below and work
feet high. Plant one foot flat on top and balance up,
fingers pressing down between jagged objects.

186
 If you think fence or wire on wall is electrified test
thus:
Are dead animals below?
Are there insulator pots on wire?
Does wire flash in a storm?
Then shave wire with one knuckle protruding from
fist. If live wire you will only get a slight shock.
(c) Leap for handgrips when no footholds available.
Scamper feet up until you r-e-a-c-h up again.
(d) Ifno grips or holds for several feet — and if seconds
to spare — build ladder from driftwood/stones/
coal/mangolds/scrap iron/furniture/hymn books.

Climbing out of water

Take deep breath. Bob up and down in water vigor-
ously, then give strong breast stroke leg kick to shoot
you up. Grab handgrip or get elbows over side, and
get knee up before heaving on to side.
Docks/pier/quayside with slimy masonry need
quick inspection from water. Go for iron staples/wharf
timbers/dangling ropes/ladders to help you up.
Steep muddy banks: bob, kick and plunge fingers of
one hand high in bank; force down with other hand in
mud at waist height and kick again; stab toes into side
for purchase; keep reaching with one hand, pushing
down with other.
Trailing tree branches: grab whatever in reach, kick
and work hands along to thickest limbs. If only tips of
foliage reachable keep kicking, pull down branch into
water and work hands along it from there.

Climbing up into canoe

Don’t (see Too Wet page 96).

Climbing up into rowing boat

(a) Swim to stern, hang on, bob and kick hard until
chest is over edge, then ease into craft, or (b) remove
rudder, tie loop in boat’s painter and use this as foot
loop to climb up. People in boat should move towards
bows to counterbalance. (See page 97.)

Climbing up into rubber dinghy

Climb in at thick end (most buoyant). Hold sides with

187
hands, kick, heave belly on to dinghy. Crawl and
wriggle on.

Lifting exhausted person on bank/jetty/raft

Pull their hands on to bank placing one on top of other
while you find best place to stand. Grip their left wrist
with your left hand, their right wrist with your right
hand. Bounce exhausted person up and down in
water (bending your own knees as for any lifting),
then heave out quickly, spinning round so they land
sitting (and facing water).
If you are not strong enough pull person until at
chest level to side. Prop elbows on side. Then swing
tired person’s legs over on to side.
Use cross-arm-and-spin lift to get light person into a
boat. Otherwise pull up until arms over gunwhale.
Pad with anything soft under armpits and hoist over
(catching a leg as it comes).

Climbing back on to river/lake/canal/pond ice

As soon as you goin...
1. Kick hard.

188
2. Try to bob out before clothes all soggy.
3. Spread arms wide on top.
4. Slide out.
Once ice starts breaking further and you are in for
good — don’t panic.
Chances of survival decrease further out from side
you are. Grip edge of ice. Kick hard with feet. Extend
arms over ice to spread load. Try to squirm out. Don’t
give up if ice collapses again. Keep kicking and shoot
arms out again. Near side people have ploughed way
back to safety.
Rescue action Don’t go out on ice near victim. Shout
directions. Try reaching with pole/branch/ladder or
slide skate or stone tied to line (knotted scarves etc.).
Try crocodile of helpers prone on ice, each hanging
on to pair of ankles in front until front person can offer
belt (looped) to survivor and squirm back. Beware
when ice starts groaning/creaking/cracking/splitting.

Climbing trees
Problem - to grasp first branches not always in reach.
(a) Climb trunk. Possible if riven/whorled/diseased
with growths/rough barked/leaning/ivy-grown.

Fig57 Bicycle/Pole/Rope rescue on ice. Pole is being used to

prod the bike on well ahead of rescuer

189
(b) Build makeshift ladder against trunk.
(c) Take a running jump for branch. If successful
swing hand over hand until feet can pad up trunk
and hook (by ankles) over your branch. Next —
wriggle over on top of branch.
If you need to climb further: pick thickest forks and
branches; grip branches at their trunk end; watch feet
don’t stick fast in sharp forks; check for rotten bran-
ches.

Reaching coconuts
(See also Too Empty page 277.)
Coconuts grow at top so watch heads. Slim slippery
trunks hard to climb. Try lobbing rocks at nuts in
range. Or pick small sloping trunked tree and shin up.
For bigger trees use climbing bandage — loop of
rope/belt/cloth just slightly bigger than and round
trunk. Slide it up trunk to waist height, then step on it
with both feet. It won’t slip.
1. Stand on loop and reach high for handholds.
2. Hook toes under loop, double knees and pull up
on arms.
3. Stand on loop again, and reach once more.
4. Hook toes under loop etc., etc.
And so on upwards to coconuts.

Rope shinning
Many find this impossible. Knack is to reach high with
both hands and grip rope between feet too (or feet and
ankles), then straighten legs and reach again with
hands.
Weak person might manage very short rope climb if
good rope climber underneath — running fists up
underneath weak person’s feet, so making footholds.
All weak climber has to do is: bend and straighten legs
(supported by helper’s fists round rope below) and
reach higher.
If rope is against wall/rock/tree trunk climb hand
over hand and get purchase with feet on obstacle.
Belt/cord/electric flex loops knotted to rope with
friction knots can support a person: friction knot won’t
slip down under tension but can be slid up rope when

190
 WILL JUST
HAVE TO ACCEPT
/M GOING TO
SPIN ROUND!

Fig 58 Rope climbing

not loaded. Three loops needed — two for feet, one for
round person’s body. An exhausting last resort
method. (Knots are called Prusik knots.)

Climbing Ladders
Rigid ladders Grip rungs not sides. Have someone at
bottom if possible.
Rope ladders Cross hands behind ladder and grip
side ropes (rungs might snap). Step on rungs as con-
ventional ladder. Fold arms behind to rest.
Wire ladders Grip rungs behind, palms facing you.
If hanging in space alternate legs go behind with heels
placed over rungs. But if ladder rests against wall place
toes in orthodox ladder style (to toe rungs away from
side).

Scaling girders/pylons/scaffolding
Much in common with ladders, but steeper. Rivets/
brackets/flanges make useful footholds as well as ob-
vious struts/cross pieces/angles.

191
Up buildings
(a) Open windows by smashing glass with shoe/
handbag/fist (see Too Lonely page 21). Punch
straight. Other hand and elbow props you on
window sill.
(b Climb drainpipes hugging with knees, slotting
—

toes in behind. Pull down not out. Test-shake each

pipe section first.
(c) Lightning conductors: test-pull; use toes on build-
ing footholds; don’t pull outwards.
(d) Roof tiles are best negotiated in socks. ‘Sit’ on one
leg, foot tucked up behind you and press down
with hands. Thigh below you spreads and grips
like a tyre. But sit up straight.
Make for any handgrips: roof edge/TV aerial
cable/holes. Last resort — rip off tiles and you may
find support underneath.
(e) Shin up on to ledges/sills/balustrades by pulling
on arms, throwing elbows on, scurrying feet up
masonry, pressing down with hands, throwing
knee or foot on — and straightening up.
(Beware of stonework cracking/crumbling/
powdering/snapping when you put weight on it.
Take weight on feet when possible.)

Up mountainside
Pick easiest-looking way to by-pass precipices/snow
slopes / ice walls / shale fans / waterfalls / very steep
ground (see also Too Slow page 238).
When forced to climb with hands as well as feet — and
there is definitely no other way — follow principles
used so far. And these extra points...
(a) Climb rock faces where obviously easy-angled/
ledgey/possible. Aim for zones with ledges, ter-
races, platforms and a visible way to top. Gullies/
rifts/chimneys give most enclosed, secure-feeling
route but there could be nasty bits hidden in their
confines.
Use judgement. If you get gripped come back
down (see Too High page 198) and try elsewhere.
Use rope methods mentioned earlier.
(b Climb steep shale by punching with toes then
—

digging with fingers. Stand straight. Always have

three points of contact with the slope while fourth

192
 (hand or foot) is digging or punching. .
(c) Climb snow slopes similarly.
(Avoid avalanche risk — see also Too Fast page 223 — on
any hillside by steering clear of gullies in heavy snow
conditions. Innocent-looking slopes over 14° can slip
when lying new or thawing on old/hard snow/ice. Test
risk by tossing rocks on slope. Snowballs rolling down
is bad sign.)
More . . . keep off ground below snow cornices —
overhangs — on hillside skylines which can thunder
down without warning in thaw conditions.
Climb snow by punching in with toes. Let weight of
leg kicking do work. Don’t make footsteps too big.
Stand straight. Always have three points of contact.
Balance with hands (wrapped in anthing warm).
When slope feels steep kick steps in zigzags. Kick
steps close together. Kick extra big steps at corners of
zig Zags.
Make stabber in lieu of ice axe out of anything sharp
— stone/spike/tool/knife. This helps hack out grips and
holds, ledges and pockets. It is essential as a brake if
you fall. (See Too High page 202.)
(d) Keep off ice slopes. Ice skin on rocks, if only for a
few feet, can be chipped off with lump of rock —
then climb over in stockinged feet.
But don’t drop footgear — have it passed by hand,
or carry it tied to you by laces. And remember
frostbite risk (see Too Cold page 159). Weigh the
priorities.
(e) Anchorage usually non-existent on snow/ice.
Only use rope if some form of anchor available —
boulders/long poles/ice axes. But everyone should
carry some form of stabber.

Crevasse Rescue
One man can raise companion by simple technique if
fallen is roped/conscious/able to help/can be reached
with another rope or other end of rope to which he is
already tied/if anchors available for rope (ice axes/
rocks/poles/ice bollards). Two anchors a must.
(a) Anchor rope from fallen (or both ropes if he is tied
in middle of a threesome).
(b) Top man takes up tug-o-war position by 2nd near-
by anchor.

193
(c) Lowers rope with loop tied at end.
(d) Fallen slips foot in this and bends knee.
(e) Top man pulls in foot-loop rope and anchors it.
(f) Then he moves to waist rope and takes inas...
(g) Fallen straightens leg in footloop.
And so on, with top man alternately pulling up and
anchoring each rope in turn, and fallen bending and
straightening leg attached to footloop. With more than
one top man process becomes easier — but for fallen it is
exhausting task.
Important — lower footloop to fallen as soon as
possible to relieve his waist of strangulation strain. If
fallen is unconscious or unable to reach footloop go for
help (if at all possible).
It is possible to shin up single rope using loops and
Prusik knot method (see page 190). Definitely a very last
resort.
The baboon hang is a way to relieve stress on waist
of hanging in space ona rope (after only a few minutes
thus you asphyxiate). Check knot is in front of sto-
mach. With a jerk, tip yourself upside down — bending
legs over ever further to maintain position.
Prevention Only cross glaciers/crevassed regions
when no way round. Keep eyes open for crevasse
threats. Probe ahead with poles or throw rocks. Go
well round potential crevasse if doubtful. Blue tint
sometimes signposts big rift below. . .

Underground
(See also Too Dark page 126.)
Clamber to safety on high ledge above water level
when sudden flooding risk in cave/pothole/sewer/
subway/Meétro/London tube/mine/tunnel. Or when
marooned underground with injured person or lost —
and water level might rise before rescue arrives.
Use climbing principles. Take extra care because of
darkness and subterranean slime on stone. Stalactite
deposit in caves = ultra slippery. Clean wet stocking-
ed feet better than rubber soles if you have to climb.
Big stalagmites (stalactites which grow up) make
good rope anchors/handgrips/foot pedestals.

194
Subterranean safety
Keep pace of everyone to that of slowest/weakest/feeblest.
Don't stray apart.
Keep bunched in single file.
Keep looking behind to memorize rear view.
Leave arrows (cardboard/soot/scratched) pointing back.
Leave candle/arrow where you enter big chamber.
Move as though roofs/walls/floor booby-trapped.
Strongest swimmer probes first when way is waterlogged.
Follow through wading.
Only skirt water ifeasy traverse alongside.

Accident procedure
Especially in caves and potholes. When someone is
injured or has collapsed...
1. Make sure everyone in party is safe.
2 Get casualty to safest place even if you have to lift
or lower — unless spine injury suspected (see Too
Fast page 226).
. Keep casualty warm and as comfortable as possi-
ble and render first-aid. Sacrifice your own clo-
thing.
. Messengers go for help (see Too Lonely page 25).
io . Remaining companions keep cheerful/build bet-
ter casualty base/help keep warm/comfort/combat
dark.
Prevention When going to explore caves/potholes/old
mines — join caving club.
Always take food/warm clothing/helmets/boots
with commando soles/good lights/spare candles/spare
matches/spare bulbs/spare batteries.
Leave word with others where you are going. Ex-
plore caves in fours (at least). Check chances of heavy
rainfall. Don’t be over-ambitious. Don’t underrate
danger.

195
10 Too High
Leaping from a railway bridge on to a rocketing train
roof may be the prerogative of the film stunt man, and
whizzing down a rope from a helicopter the speciality
of a Marine Commando — but you can master their
basic principles of descent.
Keep cool when too high for comfort — on sinking
ship/burning housetop/sagging bridge/stuck-fast Big
Wheel/seized-up ski lift. If there is no question of
staying put for rescue look at choice of ways down.
You may be hundreds of feet up, yet only need to
descend a short way to find an easier way of escape.
Remember, too, that gravity is on your side and can be
tamed/harnessed/tapped/controlled.

How to Get Down

Climb
(See Too Low page 176.)
Weakest person goes down first, strongest last —
psychologically best order.
1. Select low-down handgrips.
2. Don’t look past feet.
3. Face outward or sideways descending slopes.
4. Turn inwards when going steepens/view scares/
grips get smaller/footholds may snap (flame-
licked staircase say).
Use make-do rope if available. Strongest man pays it
out from top for each person down with the back-
rubbing method (opposite sequence to climbing up). Then
he follows down by...
(a) Climbing solo without any aid.
or

(b) Has someone below taking in his rope (tied round

his waist by bowline) round that person’s back, so
that if he does fall on his way down the bottom

198
 man will field him if there is still a lot of space
below (presuming bottom man is well anchored
and using back-towelling method).
or

(c) Slides down rope (tied to solid anchor at top) if

rope is not going to be needed any more.
(Climbing down is to be preferred to sliding when
rope is weak. Rope can be used instead as safety line.)

Slide
Weakest person goes first, strongest last. Make sure
any improvised line is tied securely — and reaches.
Use: ropes/torn sheets/blankets/curtains/creepers/
vines/parachute shroud lines/lightning con-
ductor cables/ships cables/bannisters/tree
trunks/poles/posts/masts/wire/hawsers (see
Too Low page 181).
. Grip with hands.
. Hug with arms and elbows.
. Hug with thighs/knees/calves/ankles/feet.
Come down hand over hand when possible.
. Rest whenever feet can stop (say on knots).
. Don’t speed.
PWNe
AT

A 10m (30ft) slide down knotted sheets is exhausting —

so are most forms of sliding. Enlist help of friction as
much as possible, rather than using sheer muscle
strength.
Extra aids in building-up friction when faced with
sliding down:
Rope Grip hard with inner edges of shoes. If strong
enough to hold on with hands alone, do this and cross
feet so rope is jammed between a heel and an instep.
Once feet frictioning on rope, come down hand over
hand. Do not speed (and scorch hands).
Knotted lines Take weight on knots when reaching
them and stand second or two on them. Passing
knotted sheets/curtains/blankets through your trouser
belt at top helps — allows you to stop at knots (if big
enough) and then ease stomach in and continue. Be
careful not to get stuck.
Diagonal/wire/rope Get astride. Lie on top. Grip
with both hands. Hang one foot down straight with toe

199
 ee right "ES 20
leg Lor bed
and ee
toe.»
hee pace:

Fig 59 Sliding down diagonal rope

pointing at ground as counterweight. Put other foot up

behind and hook toe over wire. Slide slowly hand over
hand. Point toe at ground all way (it helps to pad
chest/stomach/crutch with sweaters and stop rope
burn). This works on horizontal ropes, too.
Poles/tree trunks/posts/pipes Bear-hug with arms
and elbows. Wrap knees round. Bring ankles and toes
back on your side. You can generate more braking
friction than seems possible when diameter not too
thick.
Long strong rope If rope long enough to reach safety
doubled, use as shown (known as abseil to moun-
taineers; Indian Rope Trick to U.S. Marines).
Place looped end of doubled rope round strong
anchor (bed/boulder/tree). Tie loose ends with an
overhand knot and lower to ground/ledge/platform/
balcony. Check it reaches.
Pass doubled rope between legs and round right leg
(as if towelling back of thigh) then up across chest and
over left shoulder and down into right hand (as though
towelling left shoulder). Grasp rope in front with left
hand. Left-handers should go other way round.
(Note: right hand brakes your progress when you
move it and rope into centre of body.)

200
 lean nght back.
and Keep rope on
left Shoulder

Fig 60 Abseil

Walk backwards down face leaning out. Plant feet

flat on surface. Keep legs apart. You will have to push
down against friction from rope. Don’t try to hold/
grip/brake all in one go by tightening that left hand —
the right one is the checking hand.
Let friction do the work. Literally harness it.
When at bottom and no one else to come pull one
end of rope s-t-e-a-d-i-l-y so it all comes down and you
can use again (if need be). Undo knot first.
(Note: anyone can use this method safely if they
have time to practise putting rope on and walking
backwards first on flat ground. Trickiest/riskiest
partis first few feet off the ledge. Everyone should
encourage and help slider to lean away from side
in those few feet.)
Remember (mnemonically) . . .
1. Keep towelling back of right thigh.
2. And towel top of left shoulder.
3. And brake with right hand.

201
Climb-and-slide
Snow slope descent often starts with climbing — and
ends by sliding.
Start by climbing down easy-angled/softish snow
facing out with legs straight — goosestepping. Plunge
heels in. If slope feels too steep, face in to it and
kick/hack/scrape handgrips and foosteps in zig-zags.
(Whichever way you start down grasp a stabber-cum-ice pick
improvised from keys/rock/wheel brace/hammer/screwdriver/
branch/stick ready for a fall).
When sliding down snow —
1. Roll over on to face.
2. Bring stabber up to chest.
3. Force it into snow gradually with weight of body.
Thus, the family man struggling up moorland ravine’s
Eiger-like face after his car has slid off road in midwin-
ter can safety himself to top with wheelbrace.

Fig 61 How a climber or hill walker uses an ice axe to

self-arrest a fall down steep snow — the position to go for
with any make-do snow stabber

(Avoid avalanche dangers — see Too Fast page 223.

Avoid hard snow/ice. Take tremendous care if you
must come down a snow slope you have never seen
before. It could hide hidden drops. Sliding down at
speed is equivalent to rushing downstairs in a ruined
building in pitch dark.)

202
Jump
Leap only when flames are licking/roof is falling/deck
is disappearing/sands are running out. And then don’t
hesitate — take deep breath and go.
Weakest jumps first, strongest last.
You can do much to lessen impact before jumping.
Forget about parachute rolls/cannoball _ rolls/
breakfalls. Paunchy/past-it/paralytic you can take
much more realistic measures.
If you cannot avoid jumping...
1. Try to shorten jump.
2. Try to soften landing.
3. Try to cage skull.
Example: you are in a bedroom 10m (30ft) from
ground. Leap from window and you roar into the deck
at about 48 k.p.h. (30 m.p.h.) — a horrifying speed.
Shorten jump by tying the two sheets in room
together. Tie on pillow case too. (Note: you have no
more material to lengthen this safety line.) Anchor
one end to bed and drop sheets out of window.
They should reach about half way to ground.
Soften landing by dropping mattress/cushions/
carpet directly where you should land. Just a few
inches of softness might save your life.
Cage skull with turban-like construction of woolly
jumper/vest/toilet-bag-filled-with-sponges. Or best
of all motor cycle crash hat.
Now. . . slide down sheets hang at arm’s stretch from
bottom (lessens drop by 2m/7ft approx.) and bale out
for the bottom. Land in a crumpled heap ~ as likely —
and you can get away with it this way.
Always weigh up your landing — vital if you have
nothing to throw down first to break the fall.
Car roof is excellent — has saved people, jumping
from top storeys of flats. Excellent shock absorber.
Lawns/gravel paths/gardens/shrubs/trees/snow all
better than a landing on flat concrete or cobbles or
tarmac which can kill even 5m (15ft) distance fallers.
When soft landing still eludes, look for sloping
ground which will help transfer vertical force of jump
into a horizontal one — and so absorb energy. Remem-

203
Fig 62 6m (20ft) drop on to slope (the steeper the better)

204
ber: parachutist about to land is often moving side-
ways as well as down — a more favourable situation
than a straight-down drop.
If you jump on toa slope. .
1. Lower body to full arm’s stretch on handgrips
(lessens drop by 2m/7ft or so).
. Pick spot to land.
. Push away with outside edge of a foot.
. Turn and jump.
. Let knees buckle on landing. Go down...
WN
Or
. . .Somersault down slope, tucking head well in,
going limp.
(Note: 6m/20ft is a long way. People falling only
3m/10ft clear have flattened foot arches. A 6m/20ft
drop can be lethal.)

If the deck is flat and rock/stone/concrete hard, a

breakfall may prevent you totally creasing yourself.
The fall is same as shown except for. . .
1. Hold arms on each side of head (don’t clasp
hands).
. Bend knees slightly flexing ankles together.
. Bend knees stiffly on impact.
. Pitch over on one side — thigh/side of body/arm.
oO. Roll over to other side on your back, legs up, arms
PWN
saving head.
By distributing shock over big area rather than specific
impact point you have greater chance.
Don’t die jumping from burning buildings by
leaping too soon (as many have). Wait until very
last second for rescue (see Too Hot page 169). And
check if no other possible way down.
Tell people not to jump when they are crying out in panic
and are too high. Implore them not to until they have no
choice (which is rare).

Jumping into water

(See also Too Wet page 102.)
Feet first is simplest/safest/best way of jumping
from height — weakest person first.
1. Pick splash point.

205
 wpe,
WIE

Fig 63 High jump into shallow water

206
 . Gaze straight ahead, taking deep breath.
. Stride out with one foot over water.
. Quickly join it with other foot.
. Fall at attention.
. Enter water like toy soldier.
AvP
WN

Avoid circling/spinning/somersaulting in mid-air by

never leaning. Try to hit water vertically with feet
together, hands on thighs.
But if water could be shallow . . .
(a) Step well out from side.
(b) Quick breast stroke leg action kick when water
comes to waist checks plunge.
(c) Or jump with one leg forwards, one backwards,
arms out at side. And kick legs together hard when
water up to waist.
(d) Or tuck knees to chest with both hands just before
impact (flat feet and bottom taking shock).

Falling
(See also Too Fast page 226.)
Fantastic falls (some hundreds of metres) have been
survived when fallers —
(a) were drunk/unconscious/dazed.
(b) fell on snow/tree tops/marsh/sloping ground/
water.
(c) made sudden clutch at passing tree/ledge/rope/
chain.
(d) jumped when they realized fall was inevitable.
Life doesn’t flash back in front of eyes as you drop.
You have time to think maybe a chance, and to
relax/grab/black-out.

Lowering someone else

Only lower injured/aged/young/scared-stiff/uncon-
scious if such evacuation is necessary.
1. Check you have somewhere better to lower them
to.
2. That you already have help there.
Methods vary and depend on how strong are ropes/
how many helpers to lower/in what state they are/
what kind of person is to be let down.

207
 SS
eS

<KAD vi

Ni
Wares

C a
a

Ca L—\/
tM

ir

Fig 64 Rope ladder and triple bowline

Tie rope firmly round chest with bowline when only

short distance and helpers can manhandle en route.
Remember previous advice on tying your own knot
if bowline not recollected. Make it a good strong one. If
you know the bowline, triple bowline could prove
useful — say when victim has crushed ribs and cannot
be attached by rope round chest.
Use triple bowline knot by tying an ordinary bow-
line at looped end of a doubled rope (easier to remem-
ber than more efficient ‘chair’ knot) and use the three
loops thus produced round person’s waist and legs.
Adjust for size. So lowered person will not turn upside
down loop belt or line under armpits and tie to lower-
ing rope with friction knot. Or thread lowering rope
up inside person’s buttoned-up coat. Manhandle
where possible, on the way.

208
 (Important —don’t try lowering more than needed.
Risks of losing people too great through limita-
tions of make-do ropes/improvised techniques/
human element/precariousness of position.)
Look for best way to lower away. Don’t launch
unconscious person out of window of burning build-
ing when you could drag downstairs thus:
1. Roll person on to back on floor.
2. Tie wrists with handkerchiefs/tie/shoelaces.
3. Kneel astride and loop bound wrists over your
neck.
4. Crawl to top of stairs.
5. Dump person’s head at edge of top step.
Now wriggle clear of bound wrists. Back down stairs
gripping your load under armpits, head resting in
bend of your arm.
Prevent crashing through fire-weakened stair treads
in burning house by not stepping down centre of
stairs/keeping to the sides/feeling each tread below
with foot first before committing yourself to it.
Remember — handrail could be weakened/too hot to
touch/partly missing.

When to Stay Put

When there are plenty of chances of getting help —
even though not immediately obvious. On seaside cliff
ledge at Bank Holiday. By window with inferno still
three floors below. (See Too Hot page 169.) ...
Example: you are ona stuck-fast ski chairlift (reason-
ably rare predicament). Help is obviously near (lift
operators within sight). So don’t meddle/fiddle/fidget
or jump. This causes danger — anything that bounces
cable will lead to general panic (whiplash effect jolts all
chairs violently).
Sit still, swear if you must, but keep cool (which
wont be hard to do over snow slopes — see Too Cold page
136).
Many other situations can be saved, when you have
time, by the same thing — thought.
Meanwhile — be thinking/checking/probing avenues of
escape for when all else fails.

209
Height Hazards
Vertigo
Few people suffer dizziness/giddiness/fear of heights/
urge to chuck themselves off to the extent they think.
1. Encourage and reassure such people (unless hys-
terical, in which case appear indifferent and not
sympathetic).
2. Only slap face of hysteria-struck as last resort.
And for people so afflicted —
1. Don’t look down (have companions position your
feet).
2. Take deep breaths.
3. Get on with it.
Bend head of someone suffering uncontrollably from
whirling/tilting/fainting vertigo down between knees
for short spell. Cold air and water-splashing helps
stop fainting.
Vertigo-faint case should be laid on back with feet
higher than head (never sitting). Loosen clothing.
Spatter face/chest with cold water. Rub limbs towards
heart. Keep warm on recovery.
Loop or strap victim to some anchor on small ledge
so he cannot roll/slip/fling himself off.

Falls
(See Too Fast page 226.)

Suicide
High up is best place would-be suicide can draw
attention to his predicament. That person out on edge
of space and threatening to fall is mentally very dis-
tressed. He may appear withdrawn or hostile.
Telephone 999. If not possible don’t make sudden
act to precipitate person to jump. Sympathetic hand-
ling may get response. Don’t be manoeuvred into a
position (from where you hope to help) where you
could be taken down too if person jumps.
Remember — survival is saving your own skin. Play
the egg-shoving cuckoo by all means, but don’t let
anyone bring you down too.

210
Altitude sickness
Caused by lack of oxygen at heights in unacclimatized
victim — say at 3,000m (10,000ft) on mountain.
Breathlessness/headache/sickness. Acclimatization is
answer. Go down. After a day or two’s rest victim may
be able to ascend gradually.

Phlebitis
Blood can clot at high altitude. Signs: pain and swell-
ing in lower legs and abdomen. Danger: clot could
break loose and lodge in lung. Prevention: beware of
inactivity which can make blood sludge in veins of leg
or lower abdomen — when resting raise painful leg
frequently, exercise all leg muscles vigorously, rotate
ankles once an hour.

Mountain Emergencies
Get down into valleys when lost/exhausted/bad weath-
er coming/night drawing in. Don’t make bones about
it — get down.
If too dark and/or terrain is too rugged to descend,
then bivouac for night (see Too Cold page 140).

Finding way off

(a) Don’t follow water downhill nor the gorges/
ravines/waterfalls/canyons/ghylls it carves.
(b) Don’t enter gully fissures between rock faces.
(c) Don’t rush downhill = many unseen dangers.
Sudden cliff drops
Treacherous shale slopes
Slippery grass
Boulder fields
(d) Beware of cornices (snow overhangs). Invisible
when walking above them on mountain skyline,
you might tread on them and burst through (hav-
ing led others into same trap).
Prevention: always walk well to windward side of
mountain ridge/skyline/horizon/edge rather than
towards sheltered side.
When an accident happens
1. Make sure everyone in party is safe.

21)
2. Get casualty to safest place even if you have to
carry unless you suspect spine injury (see Too Fast
page 226).
. Keep warm and render first-aid.
. Messengers go for help (see Too Lonely page 25).
WwW
oF . Remaining companions build shelter/keep up
casualty’s warmth and morale/signal help.
Prevention When going mountain climbing, join
climbing club in your district — address from library.
Always take warm clothing/spare food/properly
soled boots/torch/compass/map/whistle/spare swea-
ters.
Leave word with others where you are going. But
check chances of bad weather first. Don’t be over-
ambitious. Never underrate danger.

212
11 Too Fast

Any speed is fast enough to kill when the unexpected

happens. Mesmerized as you approach collision-point
— whether at 15 or 150 k.p.h. (10 or 100 m.p.h.) — what
you should do to survive and actually do do are very
different things.
Careering across central reservation of motorway or
tumbling in an avalanche only chaos prevails: those
without an earthly sometimes escape while someone
else with every chance dies. And vice versa.
There is no set law — save anticipating things going
too fast with you on board by (1) preparing ahead by
always wearing a seat belt and (2) knowing the best
you can do when totally unprotected (given presence
of mind to act in time).

Car Crash
Fitting seat belts —and wearing them —is now compulsory by
law in Britain and in many other countries. Yet it is still
possible that you might have to travel in a belt-less car.
Or some similar vehicle. Anywhere. Any time. Poss-
ibly at speed.
Given time to think, fast reactions you can do some-
thing as crash approaches a second or two away. Car
driver braced so savagely on steering wheel in 130
k.p.h. (80 m.p.h.) crash (in expensive car) that his grip
twisted steering wheel — and he escaped: girl driver
leaped into back of sports car as crash loomed ahead —
and lived. Such instances are very much exceptions to
the general rule — that a car crash = virtually inevitable
injury or death.
It is impossible to be dogmatic about beltless crash
survival. But following points may help you survive as
they have others (and are backed up by motoring
authorities as scientifically realistic).

Pre-collision action when not strapped in for head-on

crash

214
1. Do opposite of natural instinct to push away from
crash.
. Fling yourself towards point of impact...
. Wrapping arms round head . .
me
ON. Twisting sideways and lying across front with
flank.
If driving, hold steering wheel tightly. Aim to get car
out of as much trouble as possible. Moving head
against steering wheel at crash moment has worked
(but controversial measure in view of those steering
columns which ‘always’ spear straight back towards
rear window in old-fashioned vehicle).
Back seat passengers lie (as above) against back of
front seats.
This is very much a last-stand tactic. Usually there is
no time to think. But with two or three seconds
warning, quick reaction and knowing right thing to do
you can take advantage this way of energy-absorbing
capability of car as bonnet crumples in head-on crash.
Never sit back and try to brace from oncoming
crunch. No matter how well braced you are, first the
car will stop (say at 50 k.p.h./ 30 m.p.h. to zero in
60cm/2ft). And then you, still travelling at pre-accident
speed, will have second collision with car’s
windscreen/rail/scuttle/door surrounds/dash/steering
column/seats in front.
Going with car from very beginning heightens your
chances. Technically — object of surviving crash once it
is determined to happen, is to get passengers to lose
their speed over greatest possible distance and hence
reduce to absolute minimum the deceleration to which
they are subjected.
Non-technically: go with it (most serious impact
accidents happen at combined speeds of less than 65
k.p.h. (40 m.p.h.).

When driver is drunk/suicidal/tearaway

If very good chance car is soon going to crash, and
driver is acting fantastically irresponsibly, protect
yourself.
1. Feign sickness and vomiting all over car interior to
make him stop then whip out ignition key.

215
linia joy here,» =
2. Lie on floor in back of car if possible.
3. Or lie braced against front of car.
(Note: climbing into back from front seat so you can
get down on floor might distract and make drunk or
suicidal driver lose control.)
Switching off and pulling out ignition key while car
is travelling has worked — obviously last resort.
Dangerous.
Make sure you have clear/straight/wide road
stretch. Take a firm grip of wheel (after noting where
handbrake is) as you reach across to turn and pull out
key. Easier to do this — by virtue of key position — in
some cars than in others.
Important: realize that steering car with hand on
steering wheel while seated in passenger seat is very
very tricky. And a last resort.

When brakes go
Change down. Pull on handbrake. If still no use. . .
Drive off road. Keep repeating if you bounce out
until stopped.
If not possible to drive straight off road, brush
against side of road (walls/banks/buildings, to give
slowing effect). Don’t think about ruining vehicle —
think about surviving.
Brace as best you can if crash comes.

Action when skidding

Driver should try to reduce the steering angle of car.
If front wheels have lost their grip, a smaller steering
angle can help regain control by completing a wider
turn than was intended. Trying to sharpen the turn
will aggravate the skid more — so will braking.
If back wheels slide, say to left, and car starts
spinning to the right, turn steering wheel to left very
briefly. This is natural way, but it must be instant and
not violent.
Over-correction of skids is common — due to steer-
ing wheel being yanked too far over and for too long.
Only way to cope with skiddy surfaces is slow down
and drive steadily.

216
 When taxed to your limit on a bend watch outside
verge for only true indication of its sharpness.

Preventing skidding
Basically when roads are not dry:
1. Brake on straight, not on bends.
2. Drive much slower than on dry roads.
3. Leave extra room between you and vehicle ahead.
4. Brake gently. Don’t steer forcefully.
Special hazards are: fog, strong winds, rain; darkness
as well as conditions on the road surface. For example,
overtaking lorry in clear patch on misty road could run
you head-on into wall of fog again during passing-
time, with real skid-risk on damp surface.
Cutting speed on wet road — especially with worn
tyres — necessary. At 80 k.p.h. (50 m.p.h.) in rain your
car surfs along with tyres off the road on a wedge of
water. Even with reasonable tyre tread, car is partly
out of contact with road for same reason at 95 k.p.h.
(60 m.p.h.)
Slow down well ahead of hazard points:
Roundabouts
Bends
Steep hills
Junctions
Obstacles/diversions/emergency signs.
Read road surfaces between the lines — certain skiddy
surfaces are not always obvious. Rough/gravelly/
knobbly surface could prove skiddiest of any. Summer
roads after rain shower often more skiddy than same
road after rain in winter.
Lightness in steering is good warning sign general-
ly.
eriave your steering and brakes garage-tested all
round frequently. Inspect tyres often. There must be
at least Imm of tread for three-quarters of the width of
the tyre, the remaining quarter of the tyre having a
visible pattern. Check with a 5p coin. If the inner edge
of the raised rim of the coin is still in view when
inserted into the tread it is time to renew the tyre.
(Note: fast motoring is made safer by increasing tyre
pressure as makers recommend.)

217
 in

Overtaking safely
Overtaking means speed. And risk of escalating
chaos. Think hard before you judge whether to pull
out and increase speed, or stay put.
1. Don’t close up on car in front.
2. Don’t worry about anyone jumping into that gap.
3. Assess any hazards ahead from your superior road
position.
Keeping your distance behind vehicle to be overtaken
means you don’t blind/mask/shade your vital view
ahead. Keep two car lengths behind at 40 k.p.h. (25
m.p.h.) and eight lengths at 95 k.p.h (60 m.p.h). This
gives adequate sight of road ahead, bends, junctions,
corners, obstructions forcing vehicle in front to pull
out suddenly, oncoming traffic.
Check in rear mirror for queue jumper coming up
behind, but don’t let this force you to close that gap
between you and vehicle in front. When ready to
overtake you will be the one to go first.
When it is time to pass . . . in quick succession:
4, Check rear mirror.
5. Pull out and accelerate in gear which will let you
pass fast without having to change gear.
6. Touch horn.
7. If other car accelerates, drop back.
A car in front doing 95 k.p.h. (60 m.p.h.) needs your
doing 110 k.p.h. (70 m.p.h.) to pass — and you must
ensure you don’t have to cut in immediately after-
wards. Drop back if this looks probable.

Seat Belts for Survival

Seat belts definitely reduce risk of death or maiming by
as much as 70%. Examples of ways seat belts save. . .
(a) Stop you being thrown from car, almost certain
cause of death or injury (locking doors often fails
as crash distorts bodywork and door flies open).
(b) Stop head being done in on screen rail/scuttle/
door surrounds.
(c) Stop face being cut on bits of broken windscreen.
(d) Stop chest and intestines being smashed on dash

218
 or scuttle or (usually) steering column for driver.
Always wear a seat belt even for short journeys.

Saving children
Buy seat and harness for child under 36kg (80lbs). Fit
to back seat. If over 36kg (80Ibs) child can use adult
harness on back seat.
Children should always sit in the back (whether
strapped in or not). Doors should have child-proof
locks. Ways to get them to wear the harness: tell them
car won’t start until they do/they’re astronauts going
to moon/they’d better hurry up, or else.
Never allow:
Children to sit on front passenger's seat.
Child to sit on mother’s knee in front.
Child to be tucked between mother and her seat belt.
Carricots are best placed on floor in the back be-
tween back seat and front seats. If no room place it on
back seat and secure with strong net.

After the Crash

Control other road-users by signalling (get help from
other motorists and onlookers). In fog, darkness, rain
and twisty road especially, light flare (oily rags burn-
ing inside levered-off hub caps) placed some way from
wreck to warn others.
Only move someone badly hurt if danger of fire
from spilled petrol (no one should smoke) or if danger
from traffic cannot be avoided. Treat for injuries (see
later). But where casualty must be moved handle very
carefully, especially if broken bones suspected or com-
plaint of pain in back (spinal injury-risk).

Motor Cycle Crash

Out of the very little you can do in bike crash salvage
these key points:
1. Get rid of bike immediately crash is certain.
2. Fall limp, tucking head in.
3. Try to roll into a ball.

219
 ~

But most survival measures should have been

taken in advance.
4. Be wearing best crash helmet available when solo.
5. Be wearing best crash helmet available when pil-
lion.
In heat of moment you can do very little without
practice in doing neck rolls, cannonball somersaults
and ‘relaxed’ falling. Every tumble is different. Once
you are flying through air at 95 k.p.h. (60 m.p.h.) you
have no time to modify action.
It is essential to fall limp — without arms and legs
sticking out.
And to fight against instinct to ride the bike out —
motor-cyclists with 1000cc BMW machine or moped
run ona shoestring never like to abandon ship even in
direst crisis. But you must.

Train Crash
Don’t think you haven’t an earthly ina train crash (rare
as they happen). You may have several seconds warn-
ing as carriages cavort to standstill. Further — trains
differ the world over, possibly giving you more chance
in one situation than another. And where any advance
knowledge could save your life.

In the compartment
As train lurches/rocks/careers, and if time to act:
1. Fling yourself flat on floor.
2. Clasp back of neck, face down.
3. Wait for it.
Quick reaction in doing this means best survival posi-
tion against twisted metal/flying suitcases/spraying
glass. How you fare in full compartment depends on
your reactions. Get down fast — and first.
Passengers with back to engine too late to hit the
floor should clasp back of neck with hands neverthe-
less. And brace.

In corridor
Throw yourself on the floor . .
1. On back, feet to engine.

220
2. Hands clasped behind neck.
3. Feet pushing against anything solid, knees bent.

In toilet/lavatory/w.c.
If time to act forget about wiping bottom/pulling up
pants/drying hands. Fling yourself into action . .
1. Sit on floor with back to engine.
2. Bend knees.
3. Clasp hands behind neck.
4. Brace (and hope cubicle is crushproof).

In sleeper
Be asleep — and relaxed: key factor in crash/collision/
impact survival.

Outside the train

You can help prevent train crashes by signalling any
train approaching crash/car-stuck-on-level-crossing/
debris-strewed-by-vandals-on-railway-track and so
on.
Recognized stop signal on railways, when no red
light or red flag available, is to face oncoming train
from safe position and raise both hands vertically
above head.
At night: violently swing light (any colour) from side
to side as train approaches.
When you see obstructions dropped/thrown/placed
across lines let railway authorities know immediately.
If you know train is due any minute (through local
knowledge, signals or sound in distance) and you feel
you have chance to shift it, then do so after quickly
weighing up danger to yourself and others.
Once on the track (and trespassing) you might be
surprised by any oncoming train and not know which
lines it is running on. Especially as no reliable indica-
tion from the tracks as to which way they are worked.
Don’t attempt to lie between the running rails
(where there are sleepers) but fling yourself flat in
space between two adjacent tracks.
(Note: where ground level electrification is used,
conductor rails must be avoided.)

221
Plane crash
Take-off and landing are crisis points. Once in the air
and emergency happens, pilot can do wonders.
Ditchings happen when there is no panic— everyone
following crew’s directions.
A cause for panic can be sudden lurch in mid-flight
(possibly pilot taking evasive action, or turbulence)
when without warning passengers are shaken. Only
remedy for this is to be ready for it or wear seat belt for
most of time.
Before any emergency (when you will be briefed
exactly what to do) once you are flying, read survival
instruction card or booklet placed in front of you.
This will tell best position to brace in impact. Varia-
tions differ between airlines. Generally it is:

Seat belt fastened tight

Chair fully upright
Bend forward with one arm across knees
Place pillow on lap and hold head on pillow with other arm
Push and brace legs forward
You will be warned when to brace

Tall people not having room should push backrest of

seat in front forward and rest folded arms on it,
holding their head firmly. But there are variations to
these bracing positions — depending on airline and
instructions in front of you.
When descending over water: loosen collar and tie,
remove spectacles, false teeth, sharp or breakable
objects and high-heeled shoes. Take up impact posi-
tion and brace when told by the crew (see Too Wet page
95) until you stop. Wait for second impact as the nose
hits the water.
In planes where you are not sitting in airliner-type
accommodation ditching positions are. . .
(a) Brace back against bulkhead, facing towards tail.
Bend knees and grasp hands at base of skull to
protect neck.
(b) Sit in seats if (1) near emergency exits (2) got
harnessing which may be burst-proof. Seats fac-
ing aft best. If facing forward brace as near posi-
tion given above as possible.

222
(c) If (a) or (b) impossible lie braced across the floor of
plane,or. 2).
(d) Flat on floor, feet forward and bent at knees —
braced against anything solid.
In each case stay braced until aircraft stops.
(Note: if possible whip off collar/tie/etc. first — see
above.)

Falling Lifts
It is essential no part of body touches floor at impact.
Many lifts have a ledge like a picture rail on their
side walls just below roof. Jump and cling on this
desperately so as to raise body from floor. Older
passengers (or in ledgeless lift) should try jumping up
and down during time the lift falls so they may be off
the floor on impact.
(Note: all modern passenger lifts have safety gear
which makes this eventuality very unlikely. Worst
condition most likely is lift car over-travelling bottom
terminal floor and striking buffers in lift pit.)

Avalanches
Never give up in terror of an avalanche: keep fighting.
It can happen on any steep hillside where fresh new
snow up to three days old (or possibly longer) lies on
old hard snow, and where, if you break the surface
tension, it all rushes down like a pack of cards.
This is prevalent in gullies.
Signs are new snow. Thaw conditions (sun/rain/
heat). Snowballs rolling downhill. Remember — one
avalanche could follow another very quickly striking
in quick succession. A shout can trigger an avalanche.
Keep away from such areas. If an avalanche slope
has to be crossed try throwing rocks and snowballs
first to see if you can precipitate it.
Anatomy of avalanche is that if you are swept down
by it you will be swallowed underneath quite out of
sight in a matter of seconds.
Once buried under snow you may be able to breathe
if among boulders in the avalanche tip at the bottom.
But as soon as avalanche stops, terrific pressure is

Pa
 _
released and the tip freezes concrete-hard immediate-
ly — with you entombed inside.
Whole action in avalanche survival is to be in opti-
mum position when this happens.
(a) Have bindings of skis in quick-release position,
slacked off in readiness. Take hands out of loops
on ski sticks or, if climbing, take off ice axe wrist
strap.
(b) Tread lightly on danger zone.
(c) Keep planning what you will do, which way you
will try to escape, if avalanche starts.
If slope does avalanche . . . with fracture suddenly
snaking across slope with muffled detonation and
whole plate of snow peeling away:
1. Get rid of skis/sticks/ice axe immediately.
2. Quickly check if at top/centre/sides or bottom end
of fall.
3. Dive for best escape at top or sides if possible.
4. At all costs try to delay downhill slide.
This can possibly be done by leaping upwards if
avalanche breaks off by ankles. Or to one side if you
are near solid snow. Or by clinging to some bush or
rock horn sticking out of snow. The less snow above
you, the less to bury you later.
5. Keep mouth shut tightly.
6. Swim.
Try swimming for side. Use sort of double-action back
stroke with back to force of avalanche and head up. If
in danger of being clobbered by solid slabs of snow try
rolling into a ball. There is no cut and dried answer.
Ride it out as best you can. But keep your mouth shut
(many avalanche victims die from drowning with
snow melting into lungs).
7. Reserve greatest effort for last few seconds.
8. Bring arm up in front of nose and mouth.
9. When avalanche stops make one huge effort to
break out.
As avalanche loses momentum and starts to settle two
things are paramount: an airspace in front of face and
being as near as possible to the surface. In that last

224
final effort if you don’t know which way up you are,
spit. And go in opposite direction to saliva.
Lastly’...
10. Don’t panic when trapped.
Much much easier to say than do. But fear uses oxygen
by accelerating breathing rate and you want to save
oxygen as much as possible. Try hard to keep calm.
In many avalanche areas rescuers will arrive quick-
ly. Dogs are used more and more and highly efficient
at finding survivors. In many cases survivors have
lived underground, though completely jammed fast,
for hours.
It is possible to shout if near enough to surface to
hear people, though unlikely you will be heard by
them.
Aids to help searchers: coloured avalanche cord tied
round your waist in advance with marks every metre
to arrow towards your buried body (you could lie toa
loosened coil of rope before you move on to dangerous
zone). It will stay on surface if you are buried and lead
rescuers to you.
Also — flares with cords attached which fit into ski
sticks. Special bootpolish for aiding dogs. Magnets in
boots help searchers with mine detectors.
There are different kinds of avalanche - wet
concrete/dry sugar/crazy paving. You may land nearer
surface in wet snow than in powder. If avalanche is
broken slabs, jump on top and toboggan.
Best preventive action: go on avalanche course at
outdoor pursuits centre — and learn how to dig snow
pit in slope and ‘read’ the condition of layers of old
snow revealed below — for that particular day.

229
 —a

Speed Hazards (including falls)

Shock see Too Lonely page 33.
Bleeding
Unconsciousness } see Too Crowded page 62.
Broken bones
Breathing stopped see Too Wet page 105.
Don’t move anyone injured by violence if at all possible.
Dragging inert body from wrecked lorry/train/car
could kill if human frame is broken-up inside or spine
is fractured.
Never stuff unconscious/bleeding/deformed acci-
dent victim into car and race to hospital. Wait for
medical help to come to them . . . in meantime do
everything to get help/stop bleeding/keep patient
warm and treating for shock.
If you have to move victim (say because of flood/
falling rocks/fire) — see Too Slow page 239.

Broken spine
Movement or pressure on spinal cord will cause para-
lysis — hence need for not moving injured.
Persons likely to complain they cannot feel legs/legs
and feet are numb/feel body cut in two. Pain in back
and neck possible too.
Slack off clothing at waist and neck. Warn injured
not to move at all. Don’t give anything to drink. Never
raise head. Keep warm/stop bleeding/treat burns — but
don’t move for examination.

226
 “~

12 TooSlow
The castaway who decides or is forced to move out
from desert island/ditched plane/marooned car rather
than wait for rescue is chancing his arm against big
odds.
This is the classic situation where many have left
stranded transport to walk out, and few have been
seen alive again. Circumstances vary greatly, accord-
ing to whether the trip is over sand/snow/ice, through
jungle or by water.
The decision to travel instead of wait is critical.
Judgment here counts as much as doggedness later.
Look at all the factors collectively, never singly. Look
at all the factors collectively, never singly.

When You Become Stranded

Ensure everyone is safe.
Apply first-aid.
Make shelter/check water/light fire.
Place signalling equipment ready.
Relax.
oar
el
Sd
Seg Make plan of action.

When to Move Out

Stay with or near wrecked transport whenever possi-
ble. It is seen more easily from the air, gives shade/
shelter/materials, offers supply of oil/petrol/water,
and radio. You save energy.
Often the decision is taken out of your hands when
crew of ditched plane/shipwreck/stranded coach are
there to make it for you.
But travel is often best for the solo castaway —
motorist/sailor/pilot — if there is a possible way out.
Decision here is: how long to stay with immobile
transport before trekking out?
There are various factors (see Too Lonely page 17).

228
-
(a) Have you given up all reasonable hope of rescue?
(b) Do you know way to civilization?
(c) Are you fit to travel?
(c) Are you certain you can make it?
If you answer ‘Yes’ each time, start planning to move
out.

Preparing to Travel
Don’t rush. Pack carefully. Relax and sleep as much as
possible before leaving. Test and adjust improvised
equipment before accepting it.

Maps
You must know where you are heading. If you have no
map, draw one of surroundings and distant land-
marks. Add to it as you travel to prevent walking in a
circle.
Make map case from parachute material/clothing/
plastic. Don’t pack it away with rest of gear, but slip it
down shirt front, or keep in a pocket.
Copy map by shading on its back with pencil/
charcoal/crayon, then press this side down on paper or
cardboard and stencil through by drawing over origin-
al map.
There are many substitutes for paper: tin/inner birch
bark/shirt tail.

Compass
Besides personal compass, or those in aircraft survival
packs, retrieve any car/boat/plane compass (remove
any compensating magnets).
Allow for magnetic variations as shown on maps.
Don’t use compass near metal objects or camera
exposure meters. Check compass often with night
sky.

Rucksack
Wrap everything in groundsheet/polythene sheet/
coat. Strap this to readymade pack frame (as shown)
which can be lashed together from almost anything
rigid. Pad with foam or kapok (from vehicle seats or
spare clothing) to protect your back.

229
 —_———
South-Seekin
pole end needle
North -seexing pole end

Fig 65 Making a compass from a battery and coiled wire

and needle
Wire should be enamelled so that turns don’t short out each
other (as happens with copper wire). Many turns of wire are
needed — overlapping in layers. Coil should be wound closely,
yet loosely, on pin or needle. Test needle by hanging ona
thread or floating on water on a leaf (take leaf away and
needle will still float on water’s skin — and rotate too).

Make a small ledge at bottom of the frame to prevent

load slipping lower or improvise a hip belt to take most
of the load on the hips rather than the shoulders.
Don’t carry more than 14kg (30lbs).
Practise using a headband (broad cloth band for
forehead tied to frame top with cord) which lifts the
pack frame off the shoulders.
Practise packing with what is to be carried:
Matches/lighter/
firelighters (keep dry)
Water
Food
Map and compass
(best in clothing or pocket)
Signalling mirror
(best in safe pocket)
Watch (best worn)
Petrol/oil/paraffin bottle
(keep away from food)
Knife

230
 Sah

Fig 66 Pack frame and improvised version with hip belt

Torch
Spare clothes
Shelter material
Gun and ammunition
First-aid kit

Footwear
Wear shoes. Repair or make new ones from tyre
rubber/parachute fabric/animal hide. Anything that
can give a strong sole and soft uppers.
Wear layers of material inside shoes to insulate feet.
Lace up outer covers with improvised thongs.
(a) Sandals are simple to make for desert travel — just
tough soles and fabric straps.
(b) Skis improvised from wood or metal vehicle parts
should not be longer than 1m (3ft) and be about
15cm (6in) wide. Make ski sticks from branches.
(c) Snow shoes can be made from forked spruce or

231
 willow limbs. Tie interwoven branches in place.
Or use metal tubing/wood panels/wire mesh —
anything to spread your load on snow.

Clothing
Unless very cold, carry most clothing in pack rather
than wear it. Wear sufficient for weather/insect/sun
protection.
Don’t jettison it. Spare clothing means shelter, bed-
ding, bandages, tinder, string, and signalling gear.
And more.

Survival transport
Avoid load-carrying whenever possible. Use whatev-
er form of transport you can make or patch-up to save
your energy.

Sledge
Use vehicle doors/cowlings/seat runners. Planks or
branches. Even parachute and dinghy material. Any-
thing that slides and carries.
A single tow line with individual shoulder loops is
generally best. On risky ice, however, it may be safer
to have several towlines attached so that you can all
use different footholds, not just follow one trail-
breaker (as is best on snow).
Tie single towline to sledge bridle (V of rope jutting
forward like snowplough).
Small solo sledge can be made for long open snow
slopes from balled-up parachute/hub caps/gas cape on
spur of moment.

Raft
Don’t be optimistic of a river raft carrying you and
your possessions without adjustment first. Example: a
raft floating on two 45 litre (10 gallon) oil drums only
just about supports a man not weighing more than 78
kg (13 stones) and its own weight.
Wood is an excellent float. But...
1. Use light-woods
2. Test floating quality of each log first.
3. Don’t use large trees.

232
Raft 2m (6ft) wide made from logs about 15cm (6in) in
diameter and 34m (10-12ft) long is a useful one-man
size. Buoyancy can be supplemented by anything else
that floats well.
(a) Fix buoyancy round edges rather than in the cen-
ire:
(b) Add far more buoyancy than you need to carry the
intended weight of passengers and gear.
(c) Don’t build square rafts. Pointed rafts easiest to
propel. Rectangular, best general design.
(d) Use parachute shroud lines/wire/vines for
lashings. Strap buoyancy floats very tightly.
(e) Oil drums are best lashed longwise between
parallel poles.
(f) A logs-only raft should have a platform of thinner
logs on top, but majority of poles should be in
bottom layer.
Bamboo rafts are easy/light/quick rafts to make
if you find some bamboo.
(g) Pans/buckets/bottles add buoyancy to raft. So do
reeds or straw carefully packed dry in a ground-
sheet (but ensure folds of sheet come above water-
level) — lash this to raft like oil drum.
(h) Square sail will power pointed-nosed raft (more or
less downwind).
Punt raft on shallow water with pole (preferably with
forked end). Deep water means rowing or paddling
with flat end of a branch or flat object nailed or jammed
on to pole (say pan lid).

Coracle
Make framework by sticking green saplings in a circle
in the ground, then bending them over and lashing
together as if frame for flat-roofed igloo (place rock on
top).
Weave in sidepieces till structure is robust. Then
pull out of ground, turn over, add saplings round edge
to form gunwhale. Flat bottom is important.
Cover tautly with plastic sheet/tarpaulin/ground-
sheet. Paddle it by oar. Practise a lot first in shallows.

Emergency dinghy
Inflatable dinghy from aircraft and boats must be
properly inflated. Top up with pump/bellows/

233
blowing. Avoid over-inflation. Leave seat uninflated if
injured people lying down.
Close valves tight. Check inflation regularly. Re-
lease air when hot; add air when cold. Leaks most
likely underwater, along seams and at valves. Use
repair plugs provided.
Rig canopy/curtain/awning if sea is rough (depend-
ing on type of raft).
When foraging among floating wreckage on sea
don’t drag in sharp metal objects carelessly.
Try to obtain a parachute pack before wreck goes
down and you take to dinghy.
Always stream a sea anchor over the side (make
from bucket/garbage/cloth-ball if proper drogue mis-
sing) so you don’t drift far from wrecksite.
Don’t let sea anchor rope chafe raft.

Car or van
Bogged, ditched or broken-down transport is not
necessarily the end if you are involved in a race for life
— whether in desert or deserted countryside.
Techniques for getting moving again will depend on
your mechanical knowledge. Here are some very basic
examples.
(a) When wheel stuck in ditch: three men can usually
bounce car out without help from engine. Lift
bumper, gain up and down momentum and
bounce wheel out sideways. If only two people —
one should drive, one bounce. Avoid wheel spin.
Drive car out at angle it went in.
(b — Stuck in slush/mud/ice: don’t race engine. Engage
first gear and drive with absolute minimum of
throttle so wheels crawl out. Add weight above
driving wheels.
(c— If in ruts, try easing car forward then whip out
clutch so it rolls back, then go forward again, then
back and so on to build up momentum to climb
out.
A scarf or belt tied round tyre (through slots in
wheel) will often ‘bump’ car out of ruts as you
drive.
Hefty passengers rocking car at the back works.
Lift as high as possible, let car roll back then build
up momentum again until final heave clears it.

234
 Starter motor can get you out (although it
throws heavy strain on battery): take out plugs
and use starter motor with bottom or reverse gear.
Drive out in straight line with rear-wheel-driven
car, but turning steering wheel quickly if front-
wheel-drive helps gain grip.
(d —
Deep ruts mean a combination of digging and
possibly using jack to lift wheels clear so you can
place planks/branches/stones underneath.
Use everything to help wheels grip — even dirt
scraped from underneath wings, floormats and
sacking (they might be tossed out by wheels but
worth trying).
There have been many improvisations to get transport
moving at all costs. Rope wrapped round wheel has
served as tyre. Whisky/paraffin/coconut-oil-mixed-
with-high-octane petrol have all served as fuel.
These examples show what can be done with con-
tents of a woman’s handbag:
Nylon stocking (reef-knotted) substitutes for broken fan
belt.
Hairpin or silver paper mends blown vehicle fuse.
Nail varnish stops wire shorting on metal bodywork.
Nail file makes screwdriver and sparking plug point
adjuster.
Plastic rainhood binds split radiator hose (tie with belt).
Face powder seals leaking radiator.
More drastic measures may be needed: weigh up
rapidly whether the risks justify doing possible se-
rious damage to vehicle or whether you must get
transport moving without fail.

Direction Finding
You should have some idea where you are before
setting out (though to be accurate you need compass,
sextant, watch and accurate navigation tables if you
are suddenly pitched into wilderness).

Direction without compass

North Star and Southern Cross (see Too Dark page 127)
will always show north and south — when you can see
them.

20
 Also the sun rises approximately in the east and sets
roughly in the west.
There are three daytime methods of finding direc-
tion.
(a) Stick pole upright in flat ground. Starting in the
morning mark a point at the top of the pole’s
shadow about every hour (you don’t need a
watch). At end of day draw a line connecting
points and it will run east-west. Shortest distance
from pole’s base to this line is north-south.
(Note: in northern hemisphere base of pole will
point south and the other end north and vice versa
in southern hemisphere.)
(b If your watch has correct local time, shadow of an
—

upright stick at 1200 will point north-south. Re-

member which hemisphere you are in as with (a).
(c—
Point hour hand of watch (with right local time) at
the sun. Midway between the hand and 12 o’clock
will be a line pointing south (if in northern hemis-
phere). Method is not accurate when sun is very
high. Draw dial/hands if watch is digital.
(Note: hold piece of grass vertically to cast sha-
dow across dial and line up hour hand with this
shadow.)
You can still get general idea of where the sun is even
on dark or overcast day (see Too Dark page 127).

Aline midway between hour

hand and 12 is taken as
SOUTH in northem hemisphere
and NORTH in southem
hemisphere. Don't relyon
this method too much.

Fig 67 Translating direction from a quartz digital watch

in southern hemisphere (via a quick sketch)

236
 Try more than one method to check direction. Once
you have found it keep it.

Keeping on route without compass

Pick two obvious distant objects exactly on the line of
travel. Walk to the first then, before reaching the
second, pick another far landmark still dead-on line.
Keep in line as you walk.
Remember them when you stop. Rest facing in
direction of travel. Draw arrow in ground. Or build
rock pointer.
Distances are deceptive. Multiply estimated dis-
tances by three. View distance you are covering pessi-
mistically. Reckon on 3 k.p.h. (2 m.p.h.) for straight-
forward walking conditions.
Be prepared to detour (as you would with a com-
pass) at obstacles like dense thickets/cliffs/swamps.
Calculate carefully where your detour will bring you
back on course again at the far side if possible.
Fill in map as you go along to check you are not
curving away from destination in a wide circle.
Blaze a trail. Use rocks/branches/debris to make
your route clear for anyone following, or if you have to
backtrack.
Slash tree trunks with knife/rock/sharp instrument
to make a white flash about chest-level (so you spot
them easily when backtracking, even if snowing).

If you get lost

When separated from (and out of sound of) compan-
TONS...
. Don’t panic.
. Stop.
. Sit down and think back.
. Signpost where you are.
= . Try to find trail again.
WON
Ok

Return to site you signposted if still unsuccessful.

Prepare to bivouac (see Too Cold page 140) before night-
fall.
Next morning will seem less frightening. Try for a
high view — whether from tall tree or hill. Look for
companions’ smoke (you also have lit a fire).
Draw valleys/streams/hills you see on paper or bark.

237,
Never trust a landscape to memory only.
If you still haven’t a clue make in straightest line
possible for a known coast. Or follow downsteam ot
river: even in remotest area, it will eventually lead to
habitation. Continue trail blazing.
If you could backtrack successfully along your path
in the very beginning you were not really lost.

Walking
Leave big sign for any passing aircraft pointing to way
you have started to trek out at the original crash site.
Walk very slowly at first. If sign of blisters stop and
treat (see page 250). Gradually lengthen pace out to
longer stride. Never set blistering pace.
Zig-zag up hills. Walk in single file. Don’t crowd
each other or race for first place. Weakest person
should go first on open slopes and flat country.
Always keep together. If one stops, everyone else
should. It is morale raising for someone to go ahead to
blaze the route and make camp .. . but don’t lose
them.
Stop whenever you need to rather than at set
periods. But beware of too-frequent stops. Try to keep
going for long stretches at an easy pace.
Avoid canyons, cliffs, thickets, swamps when you
can skirt them, though it may take you much further
out of the chosen way.
Stop in darkness, mist and blizzard. Shelter im-
mediately (see Too Cold page 140).
Always stop in good time to prepare camp before
darkness.
Negotiate unpassable swamps with pole. If sinking
lie flat and roll and wriggle with pole crosswise under
shoulders or chest to ‘swim’ to side. Don’t make
violent panicky movements.
Keep eating (see Too Empty page 266), drinking (see
Too Dry page 72), and cheerful: sing.

Sledging
Don’t be tempted to ride fast down steep slopes on
sledge after long session of hauling.
Sit astride small sledge with feet firmly planted on
ground. And grasping line at front. Brake by digging

238
in heels and lifting front end of sledge off the ground.
Pick clear route to bottom — well away from trees
which are hard to steer through. Keep braking.

Carrying someone injured

Lifting a casualty to a safe place for treatment any-
where needs improvisation and patience. There are
various methods.
(a) Fireman’s lift (as shown).
(b) Two-, three- and four-handed lifts (as shown).
(c) Sheet slid on level floor (as shown).
(d) Coat-and-poles stretcher (as shown).
(e) Rope stretcher — hard to make and carry.
(f) Pick-a-back with victim’s feet through a backpack
frame (worn on carrier’s back): suitable when the
injured can hang on to you.

Fig 68 Fireman's lift

pepe)
pent
.
ge PILI
BOC
=, 4
Fig 72 Drag sheet

240
=a
~~» ia

(g) Same as (f) with injured’s feet slipped through coil

of rope, coil being worn by carrier like a coat (he
first puts one arm through half, then the other and
top of coil crosses back of his neck).
(h) Sledge as carrier — don’t speed.
(i) Raft carrier — be careful not to capsize.
Don’t cripple yourself trying to fireman’s lift someone
too heavy. You need additional help. Remember prin-
ciples of lifting — see Too Lonely page 29.
When injured is not in desperate-looking condition
and has to be moved to safety he/she can be carried
between two helpers using various hand grips. Three-
handed one is variation on two-handed (see fig 69)
depending on weight/strength/size of injured and hel-
pers. Injured is supported by free hand of one helper.
Four-handed lift can carry injured who is able to
hold on to shoulders of two people carrying him
between them. Two-hand grip (fig 70) is best for
injured not able to help himself at all - and who is then
supported by both carriers’ spare arms in position
roughly as for three-handed lift.
Serious casualties should be moved as little as possi-
ble (see Too Fast page 226). If essential, however, move
on improvised stretcher for patient must be in lying or
semi-lying position. Best stretcher is rigid — door/
plank/bench. Failing this use jackets and coats
threaded on poles as shown.
If possible to drag injured just a short way to safety
feed blanket/sheet/tarpaulin underneath (very gently)
keeping body in position it already lies.
Remember . . .
1. Move body lengthways not sideways, and if you
have to lift up patient (heaven forbid) then support
each part of body and carry it in a straight line. . .
2. Never let body sag in centre by just picking up
head and feet.

Water Travel
Crossing rivers
(See Too Wet page 98.)

241
Rafting
Distribute weight over raft evenly. Stand or sit round
edges to balance other paddlers. If load slips, balance
it on far side immediately while sorting it out.
A sail can be more trouble than it’s worth. Butif your
course is downwind take advantage of it.
Raft travel is very slow. Take it easy. Don’t try to
hurry. Only sail in daylight. Don’t fall asleep. Listen
and watch for hazards ahead: spray/noise/silver line
across water. Don’t enter smooth-walled gorges.
Attach a long line so you can let raft down small river
rapids from the bank.
Keep near to land. When faced with rough water,
carry gear round and float your raft down rapids (on
its rope) or build another raft at the bottom.
Always lift raft high on to river bank at night and
unload the gear. Beware of flooding during a sudden
storm.

Dinghy survival
Avoid leaping into dinghy after ditching or boat
wreck. Climb in carefully.
. Check everyone is aboard.
. Paddle away from sinking wreck.
. Join up with other dinghies.
. Put out sea anchor.
OC
= . Apply first aid.
PrWON

Dinghies should link together with 8m (25ft) lines: tie

stern of first boat to bows of second and so on. Keep
sea anchor line long, and if you lose this anchor
substitute a makeshift one at once to stop you drifting
away.
Generally aim to stay near crisis site for three days at
least for best chance of rescue. During this time:
(a) Retrieve stores / wreckage / buoyancy floating
around (but beware sharp metal bits which could
spike dinghy floor and buoyancy chamber).
(b) Shelter from bad weather with whatever cover
dinghy affords.
(c) Keep watch in two hour stands. Tie person on
duty to boat with 6m (20ft) line. He should inspect
boat for leaks. Keep bailing. Watch for chance of
rescue.

242
(d) Have signalling gear ready to use immediately.
(e) Ration water and food. Set out solar stills.
Only try to move dinghy out of crisis area if land
definitely in reach or sharks attracted by floating food/
bodies/remains.
Don’t try to sail dinghy unless land is near and
downwind. Make sail from anything handy. Inflate
raft fully, take in sea anchor and use oar as rudder.
Don’t secure bottom of sail but hold it with hand-held
line so sudden gust doesn’t capsize you.
Avoid capsizal (see Too Wet page 97) by sitting low in
raft in rough weather, keeping sea anchor out, and
distributing everyone to ballast the weather side.
Don’t sit on sides or stand up. When you move warn
the others.
Signs of land sometimes are:
Cumulus cloud stationary in clear sky
Green tint in sky above lagoon
Drifting wood
White sky above snowfields (water makes for grey sky)
Lighter colour of water
Roar of surf
Continued bird cries
Bird flight direction in early morning and sunset
If you arrive off land at night, wait until morning to
beach if possible. Then select landing point very care-
fully.
Go to lee of island or point of land. Don’t land with
sun in your eyes. Steer clear of rocks/reefs/wrecks.
Make for clear gaps in surf. Sloping beach with small
surf is ideal. Try to ride in on back of breaker, paddling
hard.
Big surf means: keeping on clothes and shoes;
checking lifejackets; streaming out sea anchor on as
long a line as possible (and keep strain on anchor by
adjusting); all hands at the paddles.
Sea anchor will keep you pointing at the shore.
Paddle hard to get through oncoming crest and avoid
being swept broadside. Try to hold dinghy back from
overshooting back of breaker.
Seize raft if you capsize (see Too Wet page 97).

243
Driving
Snow/ice/slush
Drive slowly, gently, and in a higher gear than usual.
Take hill in top which you would normally climb in
third.
Be alert to lightness of steering. If you have to brake
do it on the straight. Pump brakes gently instead of
hitting them. Release brake if you skid (see Too Fast page
216).
Keep normal tyre inflation on snow. Keep as much
weight as possible over driving wheels and stop as
little as possible.
Wait until you have a clear run uphill. Avoid trying
to climb in too low a gear: over-revving causes wheel-
spin. Avoid steep hills where possible.
On banked bends (say on hairpins) where car might
slide over edge, travel with wheels on verge or in
gutter of far side of any drop.
If wheels start spinning on hill-climb passengers
should try jumping up and down inside.
Select low gear to go downhill. Use brakes gently.
On very dangerous slopes descend with engine in
lowest gear
If trapped in snow (see Too Cold page 146).

Through water
Inspect water to see if too deep (height of distributor
and carburettor decide this).
(Note: an exhaust pipe extension is useful but not
essential.)
Remove fan belt if a lot of water ahead — to stop fan
blades drenching engine.
Stop and cool the engine before starting. Then close
windows and start through at 5 k.p.h. (3 m.p.h.).
Avoid a bow wave piling up against front of car.
Slip clutch if necessary to keep revs fairly high and
prevent water entering exhaust pipe, but don’t burn
out the clutch. Avoid stalling the engine.
Passengers should be ready to jump out and push if
wheels start spinning.
A sheet of water ahead can make it impossible to see
limits of roadside: you may be driving straight for a

244
 river (see Too Wet page 97). Watch sides of road when
you first inspect water.
Hedges indicate road, but never trust telegraph
poles — they may cut across country. Watch ripples
from car. They change formation when passing over
submerged roadside.
If water swamps car electrics, try this long shot: pull
choke right out and fire engine in the hope you can get
one cylinder working. If this happens push choke
home and keep engine going (in neutral). Eventually
other cylinders will join in.
Usually you have to get out and dry leads and
distributor with dry cloth. But wait 10 minutes first to
let stored-in engine heat do some of the drying too.
Use special aerosol spray for drying if available.

Mud
Avoid wheelspin. Place weight over the driving
wheels. Bad patches can be prepared in advance by
laying rocks/foliage/sacks. Press throttle slightly.
Don’t stop once moving. If wheels start spinning
don’t rev but reverse smartly.

Mountain pass
Change down in good time for steep gradients. Don’t
over-rev on hairpins. Choose the easiest line of a very
sharp corner — round outside edge.
If radiator boils, switch off engine. Sometimes you
can turn car to face the wind. Or freewheel down other
side if top already reached. Top up radiator when cool.
If losing power and failing to climb — try ascent in
reverse.
Vapour lock in fuel supply (due to overheating) is
cured if you:
1. Allow engine to cool; 2. Apply wet cloth to fuel
system parts; 3. Prime carburettor by hand.

Sand
Drifts could cover desert tracks.
Keep going at all costs when moving on soft sand
until you reach hard ground. Avoid wheelspin (but
you may have to change down to first gear as more
chance of stalling in top).
245
 Don’t stop if engine boils until that hard patch of
ground is reached.
If stuck: dig and use jack to slide sandtracks (metal
channels/wire mesh/rocks) under wheels.
Sandstorm can be seen approaching. You may be
able to drive round it. If no escape: face vehicle away
from storm, seal it as well as you can against sand and
drive it on to sandtracks.
Wait until storm stops. Don’t try to leave vehicle.

Aspects of Travel
Arctic
Travel is extremely strenuous (see Too Cold page 136).
And very slow.
Salvage gear from aircraft or boat as soon as risk of
fire from crash/ditching/landing has passed. Drain oil
before it freezes. Remove battery and keep warm. See
to clothing/shelter/fire.
Prepare signalling gear while waiting for rescue (see
Too Lonely page 16).
If you decide to move out head for coast/major
river/settlement.
Snowshoes or skis are essential — especially in tim-
ber country. Try to travel by river: on raft or dinghy in
summer, on ice in winter. But if river very twisting
avoid by taking to higher ground ridges.
Keep to inside of bends on river ice. Walk on the far
side of junction where rivers meet. Or travel by land
until well downriver of the junction. Beware of thin ice
all the time.
Check on your tracks behind to help keep on route.
Walk 30 paces apart in single file so last man can line
up those ahead with compass or by eye to ensure
straight travelling in absence of obvious landmarks.
Avoid swamps/tundra lakes/quicksands. Dig into
snow and shelter in face of coming blizzard.
Don’t leave anyone behind on sea ice. Distant land-
marks of ice unreliable for direction-finding as they
move. Be ready for ice to break up, ice floes to prove
unstable, icebergs to capsize. Keep checking compass
(unreliable here) with stars.
Actual texture of ice varies according to season.

246
Shelter on low-lying, level-topped ice. Don’t make
rash jumps across water from extreme edges of ice —
always leap with about 60cm (2ft) to spare.

Desert
A huge area offering very arduous travel (see Too Dry
page 72).
Immediate action: take water from transport; wait
until any fire-risk from immobilized transport passes;
salvage rest of survival gear; relax.
It is vital not to panic and rush in desert heat. Lie in
shade and make plans. You should attempt to stay put
for at least seven days.
Travel is likely to be over hilly country with unex-
pected weather changes: windy/freezing/foggy as well
as simmering. You should not carry more than 14kg
(30lb) weight, yet 4.5 litre (1 gallon) of water weighs
5kg (10lbs). Hence the travel risk.
If some stay and some travel, those walking should
take more water than those left waiting for rescue:
how much depends on water supplies.
Travellers carry water mainly (plus piece of
parachute/groundsheet/polythene for shade, clo-
thing, little food, and navigation aids). Remember
torch as you should travel only at night.
(Note: in winter there will be opportunities to travel
through days.)
Rest during hot days under double thickness of
shelter material rigged bivouac style (see Too Cold page
145). Remove shoes and socks when resting (and clean
frequently of sand).
Take whatever cover is available in a sandstorm.
Button up clothing. If caught in open, lie on ground
facing away. Roll occasionally to avoid being buried.
Walk on ridges or troughs between dunes. Steer
clear of soft sand where possible. Take care travelling
in the dark — sudden slopes are steeper than they look.
Develop your night vision.
You must plan route to definite destination. Once
you have made a decision don’t change it. Set out for
road or coast if possible rather than pinpoint a village/
oasis/settlement — unless very near.

247
Jungle
Travel is exacting, but necessary, as tree canopy con-
ceals you from any air search and masks your signals.
Ferocious animals, giant spiders, huge snakes and
savages are nowhere nearly as dangerous as...
Heat exhaustion (see Too Hot page 172).
Sickness/fever/poisoning (see Too Crowded/Too Empty
pages 61 and 278).
Panic (see Too Lonely page 16.)
Cross country travel very difficult. Follow rivers
(both wet and dry), game trails, native paths, ridges.
But never follow water too closely downhill as it takes
shortest route down waterfalls/defiles/gullies.
When you find a trail — follow it. Good places for
this: river crossing; low hill passes; river rapids. You
may see natives here (see Too Crowded page 50). Native
villages are sited on stream banks.
Main jungle equipment — water (refill containers
whenever possible), machette or knife, compass,
strong shoes, hammock and shelter, first-aid kit.
Trust compass more than maps. Check it with night
sky. Sun rises too high in day to be accurate guide,
except early in morning and late afternoon. Follow
water when without compass.
Detour any dense foliage/swamps/ravines. Don’t
travel at night when trails mentioned above are used
by animals and reptiles. Always take easiest line.
You are soaked with rain and sweat in jungle. Body
moisture and vital salts are lost. Keep drinking (and
taking salt). Defy heat exhaustion (see Too Hot page
72).
If separated from companions bang a stick against
tree trunks — the noise carries further than shouting.
Take action if lost and separated from companions (see
earlier). But this should never happen. Stick together.
Watch for trees with octopus-like roots and avoid
swamp they indicate. Also beware of falling
deadwood/coconuts/animals by looking up often.
Make plenty of noise to warn animals (like beating
on trunks). Travel in single file with front man break-
ing trail with machette or knife.
Avoid rotting logs/stumps/branches — they harbour
ticks. Beware of crocodile risk when faced with water.
Don’t blunder into hornets nest. Be alert.

248
 a bg x \ y
cos
Sa WY wee A“sw
Ze
Bee: GE
ad: shin?lsat a tefey.“cb.
Se
a,

Fig 73 Bivouac and hammock

Rest often. And stop well before dark to make camp.

(a) Choose solid ground, not marshy. Avoid dead-
wood above you. Check flooding risk. Clear
ground completely of vegetation.
(b Sleep off ground in hammock or on raised bed of
—

branches and leaves. Simplest design resembles

small four-poster bed with parachute canopy com-
pletely draped over. Simple bivouac shelter (see
Too Cold page 145) is good general shelter too.
(c) Build thorn fence round camp if uneasy. Keep fire
lit all night. Wrap up well against cold.
(d) Scatter ash from fire round camp to stop insects
crawling in.
Any amount of improvisation can be carried out with
wood and huge leaves in jungle with knife or sharp
stones. Leaves are a good shelter thatch. Bamboo
makes fishhooks/harpoons/furniture. Ferns, vines,
canes, weeds and flowers can often produce string/
twine/cord.

Mountain
Avoid mountain ranges when possible (see Too High/
Too Low/Too Cold pages 198, 192 and 136). Especially

249
when snow-capped and presenting glaciers and ava-
lanche possibilities. ;
If no rope, no ice axe for each person, no experi-
enced leader give a wide berth. If no alternative: travel
in early morning when snow and ice is frozen hard.
Beware once sun starts to melt slopes.

Travel Hazards
Frostbite
Exposure } see Too Cold (page 157)
Trench foot
Heat Exhaustion
see Too Hot (page 172)
Sunstroke
Sun blindness
} see Too Bright (page 117)
Sunburn

Blisters
Don’t break foot blisters. As soon as skin reddens
apply a plaster (if available). Edges can be pricked with
flame-sterilized point. Press fluid out gently. Dry with
improvised bandage. If very painful rest until better.
Prevention: wash/rinse/dry stockings each night.
Darn holes immediately (and carefully). Always keep
change of socks if possible.
Hot salt water bath is comforting.

Rashes
Soothe irritation from poisonous plants with — if no-
thing else — coconut oil, or paste of wood ash and
water. Bandage.
A good tan (gained under hot sun for 5 minutes
exposure only daily) is best protection against prickly
heat and sunburn.

Seasickness
Concentrate on some job. If bad don’t eat and drink.
Lie still, keep changing head position. Keep warm.
Take seasickness tablets if available.

Salt water sores

Keep body as dry as possible. Don’t open or squeeze

250
sores. Clean gently. Cover large sores with dressing.
Antiseptic cream OK if you have it.

Constipation
Expect it when short on food and water. Don’t use
laxatives — and rob body of moisture. Also expect dark
urine (difficult to pass). Don’t sweat about it.

Cracked lips/parched skin

Use oil/salve/chapstick or any suncream if handy.

251
 or a,
J lhad oe
ji-
>
13. Too Full
When your world explodes — be it with bomb/
hurricane/erupting volcano — what can anyone poss-
ibly do in the face of such total destruction?
Flash and fire, blast and radiation fall-out, or a sky
darkening so rapidly with hot ash that thousands of
kilometres/miles away a magnifying glass will no lon-
ger set fire to a piece of paper because the sun is
screened by pumice dust asa result. . . Everyone can
be affected.
Benjamin Franklin discovered erupting volcanoes
might prevent a struggling survivor on the other side
of the globe from lighting such a fire in 1783. In the
1980s this risk still exists, but there are now so many
more new and vastly menacing threats closer to home,
any of which can make your perhaps humdrum exist-
ence all too full of activity within a moment. Yet
knowing about these may help.

Letter/Parcel Bombs
All you can do with such a missive is to suspect it
before you try opening it any further...
Here are some possible clues.
Any current wave of terrorist activity in region/city/
country
Book-sized parcels rather than small ones
Anything from unusual sources
Items addressed in a foreign or unknown style of writing
Springiness inside a pack or envelope
Lopsided feel
Wires sticking through paper
Smell of marzipan
Greasy marks from explosive sweating
Rattling loose metallic sounds (like a safety pin/drawing
pin/needle).
Unusual amount of stamps
Additional envelope inside tied with string/tape/staples

254
_ If a parcel or envelope arouses your suspicions . . .
1. Put it down at once.
2. Call the police.
3. Resist temptation to slit the paper a little.
4. Do not put package in sand or water.

Earthquakes
Without any advance warning possible, the motion of
an earthquake may herald absolute extinction — or
merely near it. You won’t know until too late. There
are two main risks besides the ground possibly open-
ing under your feet — falling masonry and widespread
fire.
1. Keep inside, off the streets and away from win-
dows.
2. Stand inside a doorway to take advantage of its
overhead support (or squeeze under a strong desk/
table/bench).
3. Wait until police give the all-clear.
If inside a car much depends on if you can drive out or
not. If not, get down on to the floor and wait the
emergency out.

Hurricanes and Big Storms

Heed all warnings of imminent abnormal weather
conditions. From TV/radio/your own observations.
1. Stay at home*
2. Barricade windows (with heavy furniture if neces-
sary).
3. Store away all loose objects outside (dustbins/
garden tools/toys).
4. Take valuables out from rooms where windows
may break.
5. Have _ flashlights/food/drinking water/empty
buckets ready just in case services fail or water
comes in through the roof.
6. Avoid touching electrical appliances if wet.
7. Keep listening to weather reports.
* Hurricanes cause tidal waves that sweep inland. Get

255
away from low areas that may be flooded by the sea,
lake or river. Drive with topped-up fuel tank. This can
happen in many countries — not just USA.

Quarry Blasting
If you live near a quarry that warns of an extra-large
blast, then take precautions. Houses and people can
be affected by the blast for kilometres/miles.
1. Open all windows before the appointed time.
2. If in the vicinity open your mouth at countdown
Gino ne
3. And press fingers in ears.
The purpose of the two actions is the same. In the one,
to save burst eardrums; in the other, shattered glass.

Erupting Volcanoes
The following signs should give ample warning. . .
Local earthquakes ... rivers with sulpherous
smell . . . steam hanging over a mountain or hill
peak ... rumbling sounds ... acid rain ...
pumice dust in the sky . . . hot ashes and gasses
issuing from the hill.
Leaving the area is the only answer — and certainly if
the volcano finally erupts. Car fuel tanks should be
full. But cars are no guarantee you can escape once ash
is raining down. Be ready to walk using makeshift
mask over mouth and nose. Protect the head if possi-
ble from flying stones/rocks/pebbles.
Buildings in the locality will be dangerous: roofs
bombarded by rocks will often collapse.
Your only escape is to flee — and fast.

The Bomb
No one is immune from or necessarily doomed by
nuclear bomb attack (it could miss a target to hit
theoretically safe ground). Take precautions on the
chance you are outside the explosion area.

256
Bomb Effects
Flash-heat
See Too Bright/Too Hot pages 113 and 169.

Blast
Like thunder follows lightning, blast follows flash —
almost immediately or possibly over a minute later.
The force will uproot trees/flatten buildings/make peo-
ple into missiles in the devastation area. And still
wreak damage outside it.

Radiation Fall-Out
The explosion churns wreckage into dust which is
sucked up into the fireball — and then released as
deadly contaminated dust. Every bit dropping back is
radio-active.
Fall-out will fill the explosion area within an hour
and then — depending on wind directions/speed/
variability — blanket a huge area. Invisible, fall-out will
kill and sicken. It can only be detected by instruments
carried by civil defence/police/services.

Warnings
Period of increasing tension in the daily news is first
likely indication. Official instructions will be given by
radio/TV/Press/noticeboards if things get really bad.
Warnings of potential attack are graded by colour.
_ . ‘Red’: sirens rising and falling (attack imminent).
2. ‘Grey’: sirens’/bells’/whistles’ interrupted note of
steady pitch (fall-out expected in an hour).
3. ‘Black’: rockets/gongs/whistles sounding morse
“D’ dash dot dot (fall-out imminent).
The all-clear is sirens on a steady note.

What to Do When Warned

Bad news
Make home as fire-proof (see Too Bright/Too Hot pages
113 and 169) and fall-out proof as possible. Working

pay
fast you can doa great deal towards this in a day. Stock
up with supplies.
If you live in bungalow, single storey pre-fabricated
house or caravan try to join families in more substan-
tial dwellings.
Middle floors of multi-storey flats are the safest,
while ground and top floors (especially top) are un-
safe. Occupants here should join families on middle
floors if possible.
Flats four storeys high or less, however, are only
safe on the ground floor.

Red warning
Those who cannot reach home in a matter of minutes
should shelter in nearest safe building. If in open fling
yourself on ground (see Too Bright page 113).
If you are indoors: switch off electricity, gas, and
water (at mains stopcock). Then shut everyone inside
the fall-out refuge (see page 259).
Once explosion happens and you are still alive,
check fire-risk immediately (see Too Hot page 169).
Cover up well with clothing when you do this, then
shed outer clothes before entering fall-out refuge.

Grey warning
Try to reach good cover before fall-out comes in the
hour. Your shelter needs thick walls and roof and
stopped-up windows and doors to keep radiation at a
distance.
Move quickly, keeping calm. Avoid fall-out contact
at all costs.
Grey warning does not mean another attack will not
follow meanwhile. Don’t expose yourself needlessly
to attack.

Black warning
If you are still outside and have missed all previous
warnings go for cover at once, throwing off outer
clothes and leaving them outside when you find shel-
ter:
If possible wash exposed parts of body and brush
down rest of clothing before entering cover.
Stay inside until told by police or civil defence to
move. Listen to radio announcements. You may be

258
able to leave fall-out refuge for other parts of the
building on essential errands — but not for first three
days (when fall-out most potent) unless absolutely
essential.
Rely on official instructions as to when, where and
how to go. And for how long.

Advance Preparations
Preparing against first flash-heat wave (see Too Bright/
Too Hot pages 113 and 169).

Making a fall-out refuge

Effects of fall-out can be weakened by three factors.
1. Distance
2. Thickness
3. Time
Choose cellar/room/passage with fewest outside
walls. Try to buttress walls/windows/doors with as
much extra thickness as possible. Bricks, concrete,
hard-packed earth all baffle fall-out attack.
(a) Hole in ground outdoors (roofed with boards and
soil), cellar or basement gives best protection.
(b) Room on ground floor of house with as little
outside wall as possible can be used. Or an interior
passage. The further away from outside walls and
roof you are the better.
(c) Thinly protected house can give some shelter if
you build a fall-out refuge core (see page 261).
Put as much distance between you and the outside of
the houses as possible. Strengthen and thicken all
round the refuge. Take out windows and fill spaces
with double layer of bricks, or board up and pack in
between with pressed-down soil. Wire or bolt boards
together.
Pile up heavy furniture/books/sandbags against
windows, doors and walls. Block windows and doors
of rooms and/or passages leading to fall-out refuge.
Pile sandbags/earth boxes/oil drums on outside of
refuge walls. Deep snow also helps.
An outdoor trench deep enough for family to stand

259
 Fig 74 House strengthening

Fig 75 Outdoor Fall-out shelter

260
 Fig 76 Fall-out shelter cores

in is very effective. Shore sides with improvised pit

props. Cover top with planks/metal sheeting/concrete
slabs, then pile and press down soil on top.
Keep tools inside (in case you have to dig out).
Manhole entrance through roof can be covered with
dustbin lid (covered on top with anything conve-
nient).
If you make passage it may collapse under blast. Jam
sandbags to prop its roof and combat radiation.

Making refuge core

Build another shelter inside refuge to give extra pro-
tection (especially during first three days of fall-out). It
can vary from tent of sandbags to a lean-to formed by
doors propped against the wall and covered with
_ sandbags, cushions filled with earth, plastic bags full
of soil.

261
 _
An underfloor trench covered over is effective. So is
cupboard under the stairs with sandbags covering all
stairs and built up outside the walls.
After three days, worst of fall-out could be over,
allowing you to live in rest of refuge before going
outdoors at (approximately) the end of ten days.

Stocking up
Use a check list of equipment needed in refuge. You
must be self-sufficient. Don’t take so much stuff that
the place becomes cluttered but use common sense.
Remember you will be using this small place for
sleeping/eating and as bathroom and lavatory. A radio
is essential. So is plenty of fresh water and food (all
kept in screwed-up containers). Hygiene is very im-
portant too.

Food and water

Supplies should last three weeks at least.
Food and water is not contaminated by radiation
rays passing through. But it will be contaminated onte
fall-out dust collects on it. 4
Always wipe down food and water containers
before opening. Water kept in open-topped contain-
ers (like the bath) must be covered, and the top wiped
down before it is lifted off.
Remember — it is essential to cut off mains water
immediately red warning is heard so contaminated
supply cannot enter and spoil water already in your
cistern/lavatory/pipes.
Keep at least three days’ supply of water (which is
more important than food) in refuge core. Wipe down
and take care when opening container so no fall-out
dust can spill inside.
A search for food outdoors (see Too Empty page 266)
following fall-out period means you must look for
foods naturally protected — like nuts, say, which are
shielded by the shell. When possible check foods with
authorities. Wear gloves when handling.
(a) Eggs will probably be safe to eat — especially if
hens stayed under cover during fall-out.
(b) Wash and peel potatoes (fall-out contamination is
not removed by cooking alone). Cook.

262
 4”.

- (c) Peas and beans protected by their pods would be

edible.
(d) Greens like cabbages/sprouts/lettuces are fairly
safe. Pick the heart and discard all outer leaves.
Note: heart must be solid and have been shielded
by outer leaves.
(e) Fish will probably be safe to eat.
(f) No animals which have been roaming outside
through fall-out period will be really safe.
But after first few days of fall-out there is a risk of
plants being contaminated by their roots taking up
radioactive materials in the soil.
If food so scarce you must eat growing plants (and
there is no chance of having them tested) eat in this
order: (1) potatoes, (2) peas, (3) beans, (4) greens.
Water in mains supply will be contaminated. And
rainwater too. Boiling water does not make it fit to
drink. Water in wells/caves/tanks will probably be
drinkable however.
(Note: when going outside after fall-out has faded
follow official instructions on safety precautions.
Dress so outer clothing can still be left outside shelter
on return — including shoes and gumboots. Always
wear gloves indoors or out when handling anything
that could have been contaminated by fall-out.)

Radiation Sickness
Could be slight or serious. Signs: sickness, weakness,
nausea, diarrhoea, loss of appetite, possibly delirium.
Treat wounds or other injuries; remove all con-
taminated clothing where possible and wash patient —
remembering the hair. Wear gloves/long coat/mask.
Keep patient’s clothing and washing water separate
from anything else to avoid contamination danger.
Await help from police/civil defence/services.

Nuclear Spills
People living near nuclear power stations are vulner-
able if radio-active material escapes. The main danger:
radio-active iodine leaked in the atmosphere and
being absorbed by the human thyroid gland which, in
approx. 30 years, might result in cancer.

263
 Remedy: swallow a couple of K-1 pills — small,
brown, sharp-tasting potassium iodate pills (they fill
the thyroid with so much harmless iodine there’s no
room left for the radio-active variety that might exist
outside).
Police stockpile these pills near nuclear power
stations/nuclear reprocessing plants/nuclear-powered
ships and submarines, ready to distribute them in
times of emergency — to homes downwind of any
nuclear leakage.
Otherwise, when you receive word via radio/TV/
police public address systems -— see Advance
Preparations/Radiation Fall-out pages 113, 169 and 256.

264
14 TooEmpty
Hunger alone does not kill. Man can stay alive several
weeks without solid food, but he will grow so weak he
becomes increasing prey to sickness/disease/ele-
ments.
After his ordeal a survivor's condition will depend
on what he found to eat. And how he overcame his
distaste of accessible meals like cockroaches, frog,
nettles, birds.
To detail what is safe to eat would take books (there
are over 300,000 plants alone). What basic rules can the
survivor follow to stave off starvation when on the
spot?

Live Off the Land

Eat as much and whenever possible (unless short of
water). Try for one hot meal a day minimum.
Keep in reserve whatever food you already have
(follow directions on survival food packs). Spin it out
by the food you find.
Grass. Ferns. Tree bark. Eggs. Shellfish. Slugs. Can-
dles. Lizards. Frogs. Seaweed. Squirrels. Crickets.
Rats. Termites. Grasshoppers. Seagulls. And
thousands more.
Stick mainly to plant-eating when short on water.
Plants won’t increase thirst as much as fish/meat/eggs
(see Too Dry page 74).
If it moves — consider it potentially rich food. Excep-
tions: all toads, some shellfish, some saltwater fish,
and parts of various creatures like the liver of polar
bears and seals, skin of salamanders, heads of snakes.

How to Eat Unpleasant Food

Shut eyes, pinch nose — and chew! The difference is
amazing. Raw potato tastes like a Golden Delicious
apple.

266
g Plants
Test

. Plant must not irritate skin/stink/have milky juice.

. Bite off small piece.
. Hold piece inside lower lip for five minutes.
. Eat this if no soapy/bitter/burning taste.
= . If no ill effects within ten hours plant is safe.
Om
WN

Some plants which are safe to eat won’t pass this test
(see later), but majority of plants do.
Small quantity of poisonous food is unlikely to kill or
make you seriously ill whereas large dose will. Once
plant passes test don’t eat large quantities at once, but
gradually increase quantities.
Plants eaten by birds and animals are not always
safe for humans. Test these plants as you would any
other before eating in quantity.
Avoid mushrooms — unless you know them to be
safe.
All plants should be cooked for safety — especially
when you are not sure. But poisonous mushrooms are
not made safe by cooking.
Experiment with best parts of plants to eat; fruit;
bark; sap; tubers; roots; seeds; pods; flowers; buds;
nuts; leaves; stems; bulbs; shoots.

Fig 77 Poisonous plants, left to right: deadly nightshade,

yew, hemlock

Widespread plants
Universally-found edible plants (see later for plants
_ Special to areas) are:
(a) Grasses (including rice/oats/wheat). Help grass on

267
 to cloth and beat out seeds with stick. Rub/shred/
blow chaff away and pound seeds in container.
Boil or roast (avoid black and withered seeds).
Stems are edible too.
(b) Nuts everywhere can be eaten. Bitter taste can be
washed away by swilling mashed-up nuts in a
stream.
(c) Tree bark (inner layers) are edible boiled/roasted/
chewed raw. Avoid only if unpleasantly bitter.
eS Berries should be tested carefully first —- they may
be poisonous even though birds eat them.
(e) Ferns (especially the young coils) are a safe stand-
by. Scrub away hairs in water and boil.
(f) Elephant grass (in all damp areas) grows taller
than a man and has seeds like firework sparklers.
Boil roots/flowers/shoots.
(g) Bamboo has many edible parts: seeds/shoots/
roots. This grass grows from tall swamp grasses to
trees over 33m (100ft) high. And grows wherever
really moist and warm.
(h) Seaweed clinging to rocks or floating is edible
when healthy/fresh/firm (though will make you
thirsty). Leave slimy, decaying seaweed alone.
(i) Lichens can be scraped/peeled/crumbled off rock
and soaked well in water. Boil.

Hunting
Small animals and insects are your most likely bet.
View hunting with common sense. Don’t expect suc-
cess at first. But something to come slowly with prac-
tice.

Weapons
Use everything. Catapults powered by underpants-
elastic or hide from already dead animals. Clubs/
bludgeons/spears. Knives. Rock missiles. Sling/bow-
and-arrow/gun.
Keep knives sharp. Any sandstone will do this, but
gray soft sandstone better than quartz (which will
scratch knife blade with bright scars).
Granite (rubbed smooth on another granite lump)
will also sharpen knives. Hold blade at slight angle on
stone and push away, sharpening sides alternately.

268
by Keep guns clean. Never clog the barrel — or try to
shoot out an obstruction. Clean barrel with hot water
and pull through piece of cloth on string.
In arctic-cold clean all oil off gun. Wrap it well
against any contact with snow or ice. Leave wrapped
outside a warm shelter.

Going for the kill

Least subtle approach best when inexperienced. Arm
companions with clubs and/or net. Surround area of
bush. Set fire to target and attack creatures which run
out. If no fire, converge, trampling down under-
growth.
Other variations: set fire to hollow tree; poke sticks
down holes having sealed off as many other exits from
a warren as you can find; or light fire at burrow
entrance. Wait with weapons for animal exit.
Fire catapult/sling/gun as close to target as possible.
Aim to make one shot do the job. And fire from
steadiest position you can find.
Shoulder/chest/head are best all-round targets of
game. If animal/bird/reptile falls re-load immediately
and be ready for it to get up and run.
Try to catch your target lying/sitting/standing. This
needs very careful approach:
(a) Discover where animals pass. Signs are drop-
pings, tracks, trampled ground. Best areas: water/
forest clearings/edges of thickets.
(b) Avoid the trail or runway itself once discovered.
Prepare to hunt in early morning or dusk.
(c) Hide with face to wind or the slightest breeze. If
sun shining keep it behind you if possible.
(d) Keep still.
(e) Crawl forward only when animal is feeding/
drinking/looking away. As soon as it starts to turn
head, freeze.
(f) Avoid snapping twigs, brushing aside foliage,
silhouetting yourself.
Try night hunting with a light. It can attract creatures
giving you chance to strike/club/spear. You will de-
velop various methods with practice — like stalking a
frog with one hand while grabbing with the other.

269
Fig 78 Traps and triggers

270
 Trapping
Success is bound to be hit-and-miss until you are well
practiced. But you may be lucky. Make a determined
search for signs of wild life in your region.
Use lots of snares/traps/deadfalls to capture, strang-
le or crush wild creatures. Diagrams show principles
of how these work and can be improvised, but use
common sense. For instance saplings bent over and
tied to a snare may not budge if triggered by animal in
very cold weather (trees are frozen stiff).
Keep traps simple and small. You are unlikely to
trap big animals with cumbersome and elaborate
deadfalls.
Elastic/cord/wire are essentials. So are natural-
looking traps. Lay them across narrowest part of trails
and runways. Or narrow-down a wide trail with rocks/
foliage/herbage — so long as it looks part of area.
Lie in cover, keep still, watch for signs of life when
you have found tracks. One kind of animal life usually
means other forms around too. Snares can be hand-
held ready to pull.
(Note: snares across tracks or over animal burrows
should admit creature’s head but be too small for the
body.)
Wild life can be attracted towards a trap by kissing
back of hand to make loud squeaks.
Butcher a trapped animal on the spot and leave
entrails. These may attract other animals within sever-
al hours. Re-spring trap.

Fishing
Most fish are edible — poisonous ones are found main-
ly in tropical waters close to land. Remember when
short of water that eating fish will increase thirst.

Where to look
Deepest parts of rivers. Pools below rapids in shallow
streams. Behind and under rocks. Below the bank.
Underneath falls. Experiment at all likely places.
Fish with outgoing tide. Remember one of best
regions for food is between high and low water mark.
_ Fishin early morning or dusk. Fish are attracted by a
light. Flying fish can be landed on a raft by reflecting

271
 Fig 79 Fish-hooks

torch or moonlight onto sail/shirt/sheet and catching

them as they jump.
Shrimps, prawns, crabs, crayfish can be caught by
combination of shining a light, searching shallow wa-
ters and using nets.
Watch swimming habits of fish, type of food they
are likely to go for, then use your ingenuity to net/
hook/trap them.

Catching fish
Line and hook can be improvised with cloth or plant
fibres and bent pin (though proper hooks much bet-
ter). Try different lures: feathers/plastic/fish entrails or
bright cloth, metal or worms.
Hooks can be made from bone/wire/wood. Stop
fishing line being bitten through by attaching hook to
line with thin wire.

272
 Jerk heavy metal bait up and down in water to
attract fish. (Hooks and lure must be heavy enough to
sink quickly.)
A small kite (see Too Lonely page 16) will carry a
fishing line well out over the water and increases your
chances. Rig fishing line to kite line with bent pin at
one place only — and so any tension (from biting fish)
to fishing line will jerk it free. Or you release it your-
self.

Fig 81 Fish-traps

273
 i
4
Other methods:
(a) Catch by tickling fish under rocks with bare
hands. Then scoop out.
(b —S Wade into shallow water and club/spear/net fish.
Or do it from the bank.
(c) Stun fish in pools and ponds by burning coral or
seashells to make lime and throwing into water.
(d) Make nets from whatever line/string/cordage
handy. Parachute cloth net for shrimping.
Closemesh net can be stretched out across stream
between two of you walking quickly through it
lifting rocks in water, snatching net out frequently
with a possible catch each time.
A gill net hangs in still lake/river/sea water and
traps fish swimming through it. Fix under ice as
shown with branches/sticks/poles and patience.
Set net at right angles to shore. Use stones for
weights and wood/rubber cork/for float.
(e) Fish traps can be made from rocks and sticks (as
shown). Check movements of schools of fish. Sea
fish often move in with the tide and swim along
the shore. Lake fish come towards banks in morn-
ing and at dusk.
Pick trap site at high tide and build at low. Make
it look at much a part of the scenery as possible.
Use any natural features — spits/reefs/ledges — as
part of trap. Look at it from fish’s viewpoint.
Nets work all the time, and traps store fish fresh and
live until you need them. They could prove worth the
trouble they are to make.

Catches to throw back

Ale Beware fish with flabby skin/slimy gills/sunken
eyes.
a Beware if fish stinks.
3 . Beware if dent from pressed-in thumb stays in
fish.

Other danger signs are: naked or bony skin instead of

scales; fish that puffs up as it is taken from water; fish
covered in spikes/thorns/bristles (which can give you
poisonous wound).
Also throw back netted jellyfish/diamond-shaped
rays with long tails/sea snakes (they have flat tails).

274
Keep off black mussels.
Never collect dead shellfish - when touched shell-
fish should move and/or grip rocks tighter. Don’t try
shellfish with cone or spindle-shaped shells.

Cooking
1. Clean food soon after collecting.
2. Always cook when possible.
3. Dry extra meat or fish over fire or in sun.
Remove poisonous parts of creature at once (say head
of snake). Slit animal’s stomach and roll skin back-
wards like taking off glove. Scrap skin and guts.
Shellfood (clams/oysters/mussels/crabs/crayfish)
should be left overnight in clean water to clean them-
selves.
Scale and wash fish in clean water. Cut out gills and
slit underside. Chop head off.
Boiling is best way of cooking in survival situations.
If possible drink the cooking water too. Boil seafood in
seawater. Add plants to fish or meat stews.
If no cooking pot available use improvised spit or
fork to roast over coals. Or wrap in clay/mud/wet
leaves and bake among hot embers — don’t clean or
skin food before baking. Or make utensils from inner
layers of birch bark (as shown).

Fig 82 Inner birch bark utensils

275
 If no fire available in very cold conditions let food —
freeze, then carve off thin shavings, warming it to just
below freezing before eating.

Storing Food
Keep fish alive in trap until you need it. Or store in box
underwater. Once dead — like meat — cut into strips
and dry under hot sun or firesmoke if unable to boil it
straight away.
Cover food. Wrap it against insect and animal con-
tamination. Hang on trees out of animal reach.
Use damp packing: shellfish in seaweed; berries/
fruit/roots in sphagnum moss, wet leaves. Keep food
cool in holes in ground/banks/rocks. Wet cloth hole
cover acts as cooler. Food stays fresh buried in snow or
sand (but mark the spot).
Wipe off mould on stored meat. In wet conditions
smoked or sun-dried meat and fish need drying out to
prevent mould. In hot weather re-cook once-cooked
animal food once a day.
Best safeguard of all against food poisoning is to eat
fresh food and cook it.

Aspects of Food Finding

Arctic
You need more food in cold climate than in hot. Yet
here food can be very scarce (although plentiful in
sub-arctic areas).
Marmots, squirrels, rabbits, hare, porcupine, mus-
krat, rats, beaver, geese — all possible prey. Obviously
avoid the big food (polar bears) unless you have gun,
skill and courage.
Fishing through ice is determined by whether you
can find a place thin enough to hack through. Use line
or net (see page 272).
Vegetation is sometimes abundant, sometimes hid-
den. Watch where birds land. Many safe plants but
two very dangerous ones: baneberry (red/white/blue
berries growing in clusters) and water hemlock (pars-
ley family plant growing 1.2-2.4m (4-8ft) high with
purply leaves which stink when bruised).

276
 Eat lichens/seaweed/roots/greens/berries. But leave
fungi alone.

Desert
Food should only be eaten in small doses when water
is short (see Too Dry page 74).
Plant food is rare. Try cacti fruit/roots/leaves (with
spikes removed). Greenest grass is food source too.
Avoid plants with milky sap.
Gazelle/antelope/birds sometimes seen near water.
But most likely animal foods are snakes/rats/lizards/
slugs/locusts — if you are lucky.

Desert islands
Seafood is most reliable — so long as non-poisonous.
Clams, mussels, sea cucumbers, crabs, sea urchins
crayfish, shrimps can be found on shore and in coral
reef pockets.
Avoid black mussels and shellfish with cone-shaped
or spindly shells.
Follow turtle tracks on sand. Turtles can be rolled on
their backs (watch claws and mouth), head cut off and
baked. Eggs may be buried near sea and 60cm (2 ft)
under sand.
Even barren islands often have edible weeds — some
with yellow flowers tasting like watercress. Coconut
palms and screw pine palms (with good fruit looking
like pineapples) found on otherwise bare islands too.

Jungle
Many foods are available in jungle, though hard to
find in rain forest. Old native gardens (abandoned) are
excellent food source. Test all plants you try (as ear-
lier).
(a) Coconuts are a standby for food (see Too Dry page
79).
(b) Sago palm has spiny trunk. Grind up pith under
bark, soak in water, strain and bake residue.
(c) Taro roots/leaves/stalks must be boiled. Leaves are
shaped like elephant ears.
(d) Papaya is marrow-shaped fruit on palm-type tree
(avoid leaves which have milky sap).
(e) Mangoes also exception to milky sap rule. They

Paytg
 grow on knobbly trees with dense canopy, aa
resemble large pears. :
(f) Figs (edible grow on milky sap trees).
(g) Breadfruit (milky sap) looks like yellowy-green
melon on leathery-leaved tree.
(h) Yams (like potatoes) have to be dug from under
plants with gigantic and coarse leaves.
Bananas/sugar cane/pineapple add to the wide tropic-
al edible plants ranging from bamboo and grass to
water lilies and ferns.
Avoid:
Milky sap plants apart from exceptions mentioned
Fungi
Plants which irritate/burn/wound your skin
Anything tasting foul
Plants resembling tomatoes
Brightly-coloured fruits and berries
Monkeys’ food isa fairly reliable pointer to safe human
food, but still test first.
Small creatures (frogs, lizards, snakes, insects,
grubs, birds) much more likely to provide meals than -
big game.

Mountains
Very little food on high ridges besides lichens and
birds. Descend below treeline to eat.

Hunger Hazards
Poisoning
Need not be in the wilds. If not, telephone doctor
immediately. Do what he says.
Otherwise drink lots of water (or milk) to dilute.
Make yourself vomit by sticking fingers down throat.
Salt and water (warmed) do same job.
After vomiting, drink more milk. Four glasses say.
Note: if poisoned by acid, alkali (ammonia), petrol
or paraffin don’t try to be sick. Acid = two teaspoon-
fuls of magnesia in glass of water; alkalis = teaspoon-
ful of vinegar in glass of water; petrol and paraffin =
lots of glasses of water.

278
-

tics
All kinds of things become either sinful or acceptable
when economic or political expediency demand. Men
and women have forced themselves to overcome
man’s deepest taboo when the need arose. Can they
be blamed? Or should they be praised for their deter-
mination to live?
(When you, alive and kicking, could become victim
see Too Crowded page 36.)

A Last Chance
Can you be sure someone is dead?
Not always. It can puzzle even medical people
sometimes. Example: people suffering extreme expo-
sure (see Too Cold page 157) resemble corpses. Look at
the hours and hours it has sometimes taken to bring
round an apparently had-it person with artificial re-
spiration.
In certain cases signs of death can be misleading if
taken individually. Blue lips might simply mean block-
age in airways. Waxy skin (or pallor) could just be
caused by bleeding. Heart beats may be missing — if
you are not feeling in the right place (to do this: place
pads of fingertips on skin of lower left chest and feel
over a wide region).
Play safe. Look for as many signs of death as possi-
ble, thus:
No heartbeat
No pulse
Blue lips
Pallor
Muscles stiff
Bowel movement
Mouth agape
Dilated pupils
Pupils don’t move in torchlight
Eyes glazed
Body cold
Muscle stays flat after pressed
Skin stained red-blue in parts
No blurring on mirror held to nose/mouth

279
Unless no doubt at all that person is dead, keep up
artificial respiration/keeping them warm/getting help
quickly. Or whatever else circumstances dictate. And
really keep it up — right to the bitter end.

280
 Index

This index anticipates disasters that may befall you —

x directing you to the necessary help before you need
. before you approach any likely disaster point
E hich, no matter how mundane it may seem now
(whether ball game/train trip/rush hour roundabout),
might turn sour at the flick of a finger.
Abseil 200-1 Bombs 113-14, 169-70, 254-5,
Acid in Eye 132 256-63
Aeroplane Crash 95, 147, 222-3 Bonds 51-3
Agoraphobia 14 Bones
Alcohol 75 Broken 63-4
Alligators 60 Dislocated 65
Altitude Sickness 211 Brake Failure (car) 216
Animal Hazards 53-61 Brightness, Excessive 110-7
Ants 59, 67 Bruises 61
Arctic Buildings
Finding Food in 276-7 as Shelter 145
Travelling in 246-7 Climbing up 176-81, 184-5,
Artificial Respiration 105-7 192
Attacks, Attempted 38-53 Jumping from 203-5
Avalanches 193, 202, 223-5 on Fire 164-5, 168-9, 203-5,
209
Bag Snatchers 48 Bulls 54-5
Baneberry 276 Burglars 46-7
Barbed Wire 186 Buried Alive 27-9
Bat Bites 66 Burns 171-2
Battery
for Firelighting 154-5 Cannibalism 279
for Water 75 Canoe Capsizal 96, 187
Bears 56 Capsizal of Boats 96-7
Bees 59, 67 Car (see also Drivers and
Bites 65-7 Driving)
Black Eye 65 as Shelter 146-7
Blast (from Bomb) 257 Battery 154-5
Bleeding 62-3 Brake Failure 216
Blindness 117, 131-3 Breakdown 234-5
Blisters 250 Crash 214-19
Blizzard 140, 146 Engine on Fire 166
’ Boat Capsized 97, 187 Headlights 116

281
 vt
on
Run Down by 185-6 Car 214-19
Underwater 97-8 Motor-Cycle 219-20
Windscreen 128-9 Train 220-1
Carbon Monoxide 160, 168 Crevasses 193-4
Carpet, Burning 167 Crocodiles 60
Carrying Crowds 36-8, 49, 61
Injured Persons 239-41 Crushing in Crowd 37-9
Loads 29-31 Currents in Sea 85-6
Casualties, Carrying 239-41 Cuts 61
Caves
Darkness in 126
Darkness
of Snow 143
Aspects of 124-6
Safety in 194-5
Direction in 126-7
Centipedes 58
Fear of 14, 120
Chemical Burns 132, 171
Hazards of 120-21
Childbirth 69-70
Chimney Fires 171 Moving in 1214
on Roads 128-31
Choking 67-8
Dazzle 110, 112, 116
Citizen’s Arrest 46
Death, Signs of 279
Claustrophobia 13
Debris, Falling 87, 177
Cliffs, Trapped by 90, 182-5
Climbing Deserts
Actions before 176
Finding Food in 277
Buildings 176-181, 184-5, 192 Travelling in 247
Cliffs 182-5 Dew Traps 77
Dinghy 233-4, 242-3
Crevasses 193-4
Direction Finding 126-7, 235-7
Downwards 198-202
from Water 187-9 Dislocation 65
into Boats 187-9
Distress Signals 24-5
Doctor, Contacting 33
Ladders 191
Dogs 55-6, 66
Mountains 182-5, 192-3
on to Ice 188
Donkeys 53, 66
Ropes 181-5, 190-191, Drinking Hazards 74-5
199-201 Drivers
Trees 189-90
Dangerous 48, 215-16
Furious 49
Underground 194-5
Clothing Driving Hazards 116, 128-131,
in Cold Conditions 137-40 214-9, 244-6 (see also Car,
in Water 92-4 Motor-Cycle)
on Fire 167-8 Drowning 50, 84, 104
When Travelling 232 Drunks 49
Coconuts, Reaching 190
Coldness 136-161 — Electric Shock 171-2
Compass Electrical Appliances 166
Direction 229 Electrified Fences 187
without 235-7 Exhaustion (heat) 172
Constipation 251 Explosions 110-11
Cooking 275 Exposure (cold) 157-9
Coracle 233 Eye
Corrosive Burns 171 Acid etc. in 132
Cramp 86, 136 Black 65
Crash Foreign Body in 132
Aeroplane 95, 147, 222-3 Eyesight Failure 131-2

282
 a Po ¥

_ Falling 207, 210 Ice

Fall-out Refuge 259-262 as Drink 78
‘ Fat, Burning 165, 166, 167 Climbing on 193
Fire Climbing on to, from Water
: and Gas Danger 160, 168 188-9
as Hazard 164-9, 204-5, 209 Driving on 244
for Warmth 23, 147-57 Shelter on 140, 144
First Aid 31-2 Injured, Carrying 239-41
Fish Fluids 75 Insects 58-60
Fishing 271-6 in Ear 67
Flash 110-11, 113, 117, 132 Insomnia 160-61
Fleas 59 Islands, Desert 277
Flooded Tunnel etc. 90
Fog 129-130 Jumping 185-6, 203-7
Footwear 231-2 Jungle
Forest Darkness in 126
Darkness in 126 Finding Food in 277-8
Fire in 165, 167 Travelling in 248-9
Fox Bites 66
Fractures 63-4 Kicks 41-3
Frostbite 159 Kindling 149, 155-6
Fuel Collection 149-150 Kiss of Life 105
Fungi 267, 277 Knife Attacks 44-6
Knots 181-5, 190-91, 207-9

Gas Hazard 160, 168 Ladders 182, 191

Ghosts 14-15 Leeches 59
Girders, Climbing 191 Lens for Firelighting 151-2
Glacier Water 75 Letter Bombs 254-5
Glare 110-12 Lifesaving (in water) 100-4
Glass on Wall 186 Lifting Loads 29-31
Gun Attacks 15, 43-4, 46-8, 86 out of Water 188
Lifts 223
Lightning 115-17
Haunted House 14-15 Lips, Cracked 251
H-Bomb 113-14, 169-170, Liquid Burning 165
256-263 Load Handling 29-31
Head Injury 69 Loneliness 12-33
Head Stuck in Railings 29 Lost, Actions When 237-8
Headlights 116 Lowering Person 207-9
Heart Attack 67
Heat 164-173 Madmen 49
Heatstroke 173 Maps 229
Height Hazards 198-212 Matches, Use of 150
Help, Summoning 15-25 Mines (underground) 126,
Hemlock, Water 276 194-5
Hijacker 55-6 Mirages 117
Hitchhikers 47-8 Mirrors for Firelighting 152
Hornets 59 Mobs 49-50
Hunger 266-279 Morse Code 20
Hunting for Food 268-71, 276 Mosquitos 58, 67
Hurricanes 255-6 Motor-Cycle Crash 219-20
Hygiene 161 Mountain
’ Hypothermia 157-9 Climbing 182-5, 192-3

283
 Darkness on 125 Ropes 181-5, 190-91, 198-201,
Descending 211-12 208
Finding Food on 278 Rucksack 229-231
Passes, Driving on 245
Travelling on 249-250 SOS 17-19, 24-5
Mud 78, 245 Salt Water 74
Mushrooms 267 Sand and Sandstorms 245-6,
247
Natives, Behaviour Towards Scaffolding, Climbing 191
50-51 Scorpions 57-8
Nuclear Bomb see H-Bomb Seasickness 250
Spills 2634 Seat Belts 214, 218-19
Sea Water 74
Sewers 126, 194-5
Oil
Burning 86, 165-7 Shale, Climbing 192-3
Sharks 60-1
Heaters 165
Shelter from Cold 140-7
Overtaking 218
Shipwreck 95
Shock 33, 168, 171
Parcel Bombs 254-5 Signals 16-25, 124
Pass, Mountain 245
Silvester Method of Artificial
Peeping Tom 49 Respiration 107
Pepper in Eye 132
Skidding 216-17
Phlebitis 211
Skin Diving 90
Pickpockets 48
Skin Parched 251
Plants
Sledge 232, 238
as Water Collectors 78-9
Sliding Down 199-202
for Food 267-8, 276
Smoke 23, 168
Poisoning 278
Snakes 57, 66
Portuguese Man O’War 54, 66
Snow
Potassium Permanganate, uses
as Climbing Hazard 192-3,
of 154
202, 223-5
Potholes 194-5
as Shelter 141-3, 147
Propellers, Ships 87
Blizzard of 140
Pushing Loads 31
Darkness in 125-6
Pylons, Climbing 191
Driving in 244
for Warmth 136
Quarry Blasting 256 Thirst and 77-8
Quicksands 91 Sores, Salt Water 250
Space, Creatures from 53
Radiation Speed Hazards 214-26
Fall-out 257, 262 Spiders 57
Sickness 263 Spikes on Wall 186
Rafts 232-3, 242 Spine, Broken 226
Rain, Collection of 76-7 Sprains 61, 65
Rapids 88 Stills, Water 81-2
Rashes 250 Stings 67
Rat Bites 66 Stingray 54, 66
River Crossings 98-100 Storing Food 276
Roads, Darkness on 128-131 Storms 255-6
Rocks Stove
Climbing on 192 as Gas Hazard 160
Landing on 89 Making a Stove 156

284
_ Stranded, Actions When 228 Unconsciousness 63
Strangulation 39-41 Underground Hazards 126,
Suicide, Contemplating 12-13, 194-5
210 Urine 75, 251
Sunburn 112, 117
Sunstroke 173 Volcanoes, Erupting 256
Surf 88-9, 103-4 Vertigo 210
Survival Bags 145
Swans 61 Walking
Sweating, Control of 72-3, 139, on Roads in Darkness 128
141-2 When Lost 238-9
Swimming 84-92, 102 Wasps 59, 67
Water
as a Fire Extinguisher 166
Tents 145 as a Hazard 84-107, 136
Thirst 72-5 Car under 97-8
Ticks 59 Climbing from 187-9
Tied up toa Tree etc. 51-3 Darkness on 124-5
Tigers 57 Driving Through 244-5
Tinder 149, 152, 155 Drinking 75-82
Train Crash 220-1 Jumping into 205-7
Transport for Survival 229-35 Weapon Attacks 43-6
Traps, Animal 271 Weirs 87
Travel Preparations 228-32 Whirlpoois 87
Trees Windscreen Hazards 128-9
as Shelter 144 Wolves 56
Climbing 189-90 Women followed and attacked
over Water 88 38-9
Trench Foot 160 Woods, Darkness in 126
Tunnels 194-5 Wounds 64-5

285
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— to escape the immediate danger,
to stay alive until help arrives — to
survive.

Bell & Hyman Limited ?-

£5.95 net UK

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USBN. O=¢L35-eS)4=e

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