BOOK FOUR OF COLOR MANAGEMENT

Color distances, metamerism and

practical color equations
Chapter 11

Color distances and

acceptability of colors

Introduction

Most industries require that their products demonstrate In practice, it is generally impossible to reproduce the color
color consistency from one batch to another. For example, of a product 100% exactly; as in the example below, the
if you are painting a room and you run out of paint, you t-shirt could exhibit minimal color differences in different
expect that there will be no visible difference between places, even if we cannot perceive any differences visually.
the two batches used. There are also products for which Using colorimetry, such color differences can be measured
color consistency is required across a variety of materials. and recorded. Color measurement and the evaluation
Your automobile contains parts of the same color, such as of color differences help the manufacturer greatly in
plastic arm rests, carpeting, cloth interiors, etc. that are adhering to the specifications agreed between customer
made from different materials and processes. Often these and supplier. In order to determine the difference between
components may display small color differences when the colors of two samples, the color coordinates of the
located side-by-side, but if the differences are small you standard and of the reconstruction are entered in a color
find them visually acceptable. In either case, when the space; the distance of these two color points from each
color is grossly inconsistent, you will probably reject the other shows the color difference between the samples.
product as defective. The distance between two points is calculated with a
relationship based on its spatial projection onto each of
the three main variables of the color system. This is the
main application of the CIELab color system and the color
differences determined in this system.

Total color distance dE* (Delta E)

between two red samples

01 Datacolor | Color and color measurement

Color differences in the
CIELab color space

The color distance between two colors is specified as dE

(alternative notation: Delta E, ΔE). It can be calculated by
a formula that was developed in 1976. Thus, the CIELab
color space allows the color deviations to be represented
using two procedures as follows:
„„ With perpendicularly plotted coordinates L*, a* „„ With cylindrically plotted coordinates L*, C*
and b*, the formula is as follows: and h, the formula is as follows:

dE* = dL*2+ da*2 +db*2 dE* = dL*2+ dC*2 +dH*2

where where
„„ dL* represents the deviation of the lightness on „„ dL* represents the deviation of the lightness on
the L* axis the L* axis
„„ da* represents the red-green deviation on the a* „„ dC* represents the deviation of the colorfulness
axis or chroma on the radius C*
„„ db* represents the yellow-blue deviation on the „„ dH (in degrees) represents the deviation of the
b* axis hue angle on h

Standard (S0) Sample (E1) Standard (S0) Sample (E1)

L*0 = 52.15 dL* = +3.40 L*1 = 55.55
L*0 = 52.15 dL* = +3.40 L*1 = 55.55
C*0 = 55.20 dC* = +3.06 C*1 = 58.26

{ }
a*0 = +51.72 da* = +2.60 a*1 = +54.32
h0 = 20.45° dh = 0.77° h1 = 21.22°
b*0 = +19.29 db* = +1.80 b*1 = +21.09 dH* = 0.78

dE* = dL*2+ da*2 +db*2 dE* = dL*2+ dC*2 +dH*2

dE* = 3.402 + 2.602 +1.802 = 4.64 dE* = 3.402 + 3.062 +0.782 = 4.64

By D65 / 10° By D65 / 10°

CIELab color space. Color CIELab color space. Color
distances in L* a* b* distances in L* a* b*

Since the equation for the distance calculation (for the parameter dh)
can be expressed only in units of length, the distance of the hue angle dh
(actually expressed in °) is converted into a unit of length. This hue distance
is specified with dH*, in conjunction with the radius of the color circle C*,
which represents the chroma.

Chapter 11 | Color distances and acceptability of colors 02

Chapter 11

Color deviations and color tolerances in Tolerances dL* da* db* expressed
in perpendicular coordinates in the
the CIELab color space L* a* b* + b*

CIELab color space

The description of a color deviation via perpendicularly – a* + a*

plotted coordinates L*, a* and b*, in terms of the

physics of perception, follows opponent color theory: ∆a*0

„„ Red/green deviation: projection of the distance onto – b*

the a* axis ∆b*0

„„ Yellow/blue deviation: projection of the distance onto ∆L*0

the b* axis

S0
Sample (E1) L*1a*1b*1 L*

+ b*

100
S1
90

dL* b*1=+80.0 L=52,15

dE* 80

70

60

50
db*
40 S0
30

da* b*0=+19.3 20
10
Standard (S0)
dC* – a* + a*
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

L*0a*0b*0 – b*
a*1=+20.0 a*0=+51.7
Bei D65/ 10°

Color deviations dL* da* db*

expressed in perpendicular
coordinates

dE* total color distance

dL* difference in lightness ( = darker; = lighter )
da* green color difference  red ( = greener; = redder )
db* yellow color difference  blue ( = bluer; = yellower )

Color deviations and color tolerances in

the CIELab color space L* C* h

In contrast to the theoretical L*a*b* system, colors in The same mathematical difference of 1, therefore, does
the actual perception space do not behave linearly with not correspond with our visual impression. The CIELab
each other. The human eye does not perceive color color space L* C* h provides an alternative in the
distances (green, red, yellow, blue) to the same extent “achromatic” area. Determination of the color deviation
as differences in colorfulness (chroma) and lightness. via cylindrically plotted coordinates L*, C* and h in the
Generally, a person will first perceive distances in color CIELab color space allows the description of color and
shade, then in colorfulness, and finally in lightness. color distances just as we see them. The total color
A color distance of e.g. dE = 1 is an acceptable difference (dE*) is split into the lightness difference (dL*),
color difference for brilliant yellow or green shades, the chroma difference (dC*) and the hue difference (dH*).
but for achromatic grey colors, in contrast, dE = 1
represents a different color that is not acceptable.

03 Datacolor | Color and color measurement

 Tolerances dL* dC* h expressed in
cylindrical coordinates in the CIELab
color space

– a* + a*

L*
C1* Color deviations dL* dC* dh0
dC*0
C0*
dh* expressed in cylindrical
S0 coordinates – b*
dH*
S0
dh
h0 dL*0
E1
h
2
C*

Sample (E1)
L1*C1*h1
L* + b* h1=75,96°
90°
100 80°
70°
dE* 90 S1 L*=
52
dL* 80 60°
,15
50°
70
40°
L0*C0*h0 60

dH* 50 30°

Standard (S0) 40
20° h0=20,45°
4
30
dh S0
20 10°
dC* 10

– a* + a*
0
– b*
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Achromatic locus C*0=55,20 C*1=82,45

By D65/ 10°

The formula is then as follows:

H° color shade (angle)
dh = hue angle difference: represents the difference in
dE* = (dL*)2+ (dC*)2 + (dH*)2 angle (in degrees) between the vector courses associated
with the two colors (standard and sample). The angle
difference dh is converted into a distance of length dH*
using the following transformation:
L* Lightness axis
dL* = Lightness difference: value and interpretation are
dh
identical with the description in the L*a*b* system dH* = 2 C*0 C*1 • sin ( )
2
C* Chroma (colorfulness)
dC* = Difference in colorfulness: represents the difference
in the distances from each color point to the lightness axis.
Breaking down the total color difference dE* into dL*, dC*
and dH* like this puts it on a level with describing color
deviations using visual evaluation in natural classification.
dC* = C*1 – C*0
As it is simpler and more practical, this is the most
where C*0 = chroma of the standard
frequently applied method.
and C*1 = chroma of the sample
Color specialists very often use dL*, da* and db*
as the form to express the color deviations, if C* ≤
„„ if dC* is positive, the sample has a higher
5 and the color distance is evaluated according to
chromaticity than the standard
L*C*H* > 5. If C* ≤ 5, then the coordinates L*a*b*
„„ if dC* is negative, the sample has a lower
must be used for evaluation. If the value C* > 5,
chromaticity than the standard
then the coordinates L*C*H* must be used for the
evaluation.

Chapter 11 | Color distances and acceptability of colors 04

Chapter 11

CMC compliance system

The color distance formulae in the CIELab color spaces The CMC color distance formula is as follows:
L*a*b* and L*C*h have the advantage of being relatively
simple and practical in their application.
dL* dC* dH*
A disadvantage is that the CIELab color system is not dECMC = ( )² + ( )² + ( )²
visually of uniform scale. The calculated color distances l SL c SC SH
do not correspond to the perceived or sensed color
distances for all colors. In practise, this means that for
the achromatic colors, the human eye can distinguish l lightness factor
the slightest differences in color shade. Accordingly,
the lowest possible dE*ab numerical value had to be c chroma factor
determined here. The more brilliant the color shades SL function of L
being evaluated, that is, the higher the C values, the
further out are the colors in the CIELab system, and the SC function of C
lower the sensitivity with which the human eye reacts to SH function of H and C
the color distances. Here, among others, a numerically
higher dE*ab difference is not recognised by the eye. The
eye is also better at evaluating differences in the color „„ Valid for SL:
shade than differences in lightness or chroma (brilliance). If L* < 16  SL = 0.511
In order to avoid having to determine color tolerances 0.040975L*
per color in the CIELab system, and to bring If L* ≥ 16  SL =
1 + 0.01765L*
it more into line with the human eye, the
dE*ab color distance formula was further This correction improves the evaluation of dL values
improved. This brought about the by almost 200% in the case of very dark colors!
CMC formula, for example, which
is widespread today in the textile „„ Valid for SC:
industry. 0.0638C*
SC = + 0.638
The CMC formula comes from 1 + 0.0131C*
Great Britain, where continuous
research has been carried With the parameter SC, dC values close to the
out since 1970. It was tested achromatic axis are weighted approx. 60% more
based on tens of thousands highly. For brilliant colors (high chroma values), CMC
of visual evaluations and decreases existing DC values.
finally standardised by the
UK standards body, the „„ Valid for SH:
British Standards Institution.
 SH = (FT + 1 – F) SC
The original name, JPC70,
was later changed to CMC (for C*4
color Measurement Committee where F =
C* + 1900
4

of the Society of Dyers and

colorists). The CMC formula was
published in 1984. And T = 0.36 + |0.4 Cos (35 + h)|

The “components” of dE, namely dL, unless 164° < h < 345°
dC and dH, are weighted with correction Or T = 0.56 + |0.2 Cos (168 + h)|
factors SL, SC and Sh, which themselves in turn
Note: | represents an absolute value
are dependent on the lightness, colorfulness and
hue. SL, SC and Sh are essentially hyperbolic functions, Due to the influence of SC, given dH values close to
ensuring that dL and dC increase as the colors become the achromatic axis are weighted more highly, but not
darker and more achromatic (greyer). dH also decreases as highly as with SC alone, due to the influence of the
as the chroma increases. A correction is also made factor f. According to the CMC formula, dH increases in
depending on the situation of the color circle. the orange area and in the violet area, and decreases in
the green to blue area and in the purple to red area.

05 Datacolor | Color and color measurement

 +b

The principle of

dH
CMC acceptability

*
*
dC

h
–a +a
-b
Hu
ea SL
xis
dL* dC* dH*
dECMC = (–b )² + ( )² + ( )²
C* l SL c SC SH
Chroma axis SC
CMC – tolerance = ellipsoid
SH
L*

– a* + a*

dL*0

– b* h0
dH*0
d dC*0
dL*0 = dL*1
dC*0 < dC*1 C*
dH*0 < dH*1
Lightness axis

SL = lightness semiaxis S0
SC = chroma semiaxis
SH = hue semiaxis
l and c = acceptability and =75,96°
+ b*
perception factors L* 90°
100 80°

L*
70° L*=
90 52
,15
80 60°
50°
70 S1
40°
60

50 30°

40
20°
2
h0=20,4
45°
4
30

20 10°
10 S0
– a* + a*
0
– b*
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

The CMC color distance formula is based on approximately Bei D65/ 10°
=82,45

2,000 textile samples that were matched under D65

illumination and measured using the CIE64 10° standard CMC acceptability tolerances in
observer function. the CIELab color space

The correction parameters (SL – SC – SH) have therefore

been empirically evaluated and are available in formulae The lightness difference (dL*) is changed only via the
that allow prior calculation. Furthermore, the two additional lightness. It increases for lower lightness values and
factors l (“lightness”) and c (“chroma”) can influence the decreases for higher lightness values.
results depending on how a problem – especially the
acceptability of a deviation – is positioned. The differences in colorfulness (dC*) are changed only
via the colorfulness. They are generally smaller compared
The correction parameters l and c can be changed by the with the CIELab system, with the exception of low values of
user. They are both equal to 1. This corresponds to the colorfulness, smaller than 6.
most common case when evaluating the perceptibility of
color deviations. In order to evaluate the acceptability, The hue deviations (dH*) are changed only via the hue
the values l and c can be increased or decreased. For angle and the colorfulness. It can be seen, especially for
example, the CMC combination (2,1) is used in the textile orange shades, that the color deviations become larger
industry, where l = 2 and c = 1. Here, l = 2 means that in relation to the green shades, and that the effect of
only half of the lightness distance goes into the calculation the color deviations with reference to the CIELab system
for the total color distance. reduces considerably if colors are relatively saturated.

Chapter 11 | Color distances and acceptability of colors 06

 Chapter 11
+b*

C*
S1
L*
100
100
h
80 90

S0/S1 80
60

70
40
60
S0

Lightness
20
50

0 40
+a*
–a* b*
30
20
20

40
10

60 0
C*
C*=50
80

100

100 80 60 40 20 a* 0 20 40 60 80 100

The CMC acceptability

ellipsoid system

–b*

The effects of these correction parameters can be seen in The graphic makes one thing clear: The CMC formula
the above graphic. The visually determined differences of does not provide a uniform representation system or
the same magnitude are specified as ellipses for the area form a color space, but it enables the calculation of
a*/b* for a constant lightness. The differences within an color deviations and acceptability based on an empirical
ellipse are perceived by the human eye as equal. The right- valuation of any color point in the CIELab color space.
hand side of the graphic shows the acceptability ellipses
In the context of improving the acceptability formulae and
on the L* axis (for a constant colorfulness C* = 50, but a
the color distances, the CIE developed the color distance
variable lightness L* of 0 -100).
formulae CIE94 and CIE2000.

07 Datacolor | Color and color measurement

 The CIE94 color distance formula

In 1994, the CIE published the CIE94 color distance The factors kL, kC and kH are correction parameters that
formula. It is based on a similar approach to the CMC are linked with the observation conditions of the samples.
formula, but provides three correction parameters (kL, kC The reference conditions are determined experimentally as
and kH) that can be optimised according to the application typical conditions for the observation of control colors.
area. Observation conditions have also been added to the
formula, which serve as a basis for the presentation and
observation of the samples. SL = 1
SC = 1+0.045 C*
The CIE94 color distance formula is as follows: SH = 1+0.0015 C*

The reference conditions:

L*2–L*1 C*2–C*1 dH*ab „„ Illumination – light source: the light source simulates the
dE94 = ( )² + ( )² + ( )²
kL SL kC SC kH SH D65 standard illuminant type, which is the equivalent
of daylight
„„ Illumination of the sample with a light intensity of
L*2 – L*1 = dL* approximately 1000 lux
„„ Environment: uniform observation background of a
neutral grey color and lightness L* = 50
The total color distance dE*94 between 2 color samples „„ The surfaces to be observed (samples) must fulfil the
represents the distance in the CIE76 color space (CIELab) following conditions as far as possible:
that has been weighted and adjusted by the user. Under „„ Observation field and distance must be
specified reference conditions, the formula takes into illuminated so that the field of vision is greater
account the components of these color distances, such than the centrally fixed field of vision of 4°
as the differences in lightness (dL*), the difference in „„ The samples must be arranged next to one other;
colorfulness (dC*), and the hue difference (dH*). they cannot be separated and must be in direct
The factors SL, SC and SH represent the respective weighting contact so that the separating line is not apparent,
factors for the differences in lightness, colorfulness and as far as possible.
hue. They are calculated and weighted as follows: „„ The structure, texture and color must be as
uniform as possible.

Note:
SL, SC, SH= Weighting factors
kL, kC, kH= Correction parameters The correction factors kL, kC and kH are still valuated very
badly for special prerequisites. The correction factors kL, kC
h and kH are equal to 1 for the reference conditions. In the
SL

textile industry, the following factors are generally used: kL

= 2 and kC = kH = 1.
SC Chroma axis The CIE color distance formula must be expressed in the
C* form of dE*94 and written using the abbreviation CIE94.
SH The correction parameters kL, kC and kH do not have to
Hu equal 1. In this event, they must follow the abbreviation
ea
xis
dE*94 . An example from the textile industry: for the factors
Lightness axis

kL = 2 and kC = kH = 1, the notation is then CIE94 (2:1:1)

with the symbol dE*94 (2:1:1).

L*

L*2–L*1 C*2–C*1 dH*ab

dE94 = ( )² + ( )² + ( )² Tolerance diagram CIE94
kL SL kC SC kH SH

CIE94 Color distance formula

Chapter 11 | Color distances and acceptability of colors 08

Chapter 11

CIE2000 – the current CIE color distance

formula

Even though it was an improvement on the CMC currently best matches visual perception. It contains
formula, CIE94 achieved little or no acceptance in not only weighting functions for lightness, colorfulness
the industry. Therefore, it was refined using new data and hue, but also mixing terms. These terms take into
sets and replaced by the new formula CIE2000. The account additional dependency of the colorfulness on
CIE2000 color distance formula is the formula that the hue.

The CIE2000 color distance formula is as follows:

dL* dC* dH* dC* dH*

dE00 = ( )² + ( )² + ( )² + RT ( )( )
kLSL kC SC kHSH kCSC kHSH

The last term in the equation is also referred to as a rotation Assessment of CMC, CIE94 and CIE2000
term. This introduces an additional weighting dependent in summary
on the “rotating” hue, and should correct particularly bad
All of the corrections to the original CIELab dE formula
cases of lack of equivalence between visually perceived
represent a significant improvement to color difference
and calculated color distances in the blue color range.
evaluation. However, as long as no DIN or ISO standards
All of the color distance formulae described up until exist, no corrected dE formulae will gain acceptance in
now can be represented by means of the above practice. Therefore, the technical standards committee
equation. Thus, for CIE94 and CMC, SL = 1. The for color in the DIN (especially working committee 4), in
rotation term does not exist for the color distance parallel with the development of the CIE (CIE2000), had
formulae CMC and CIE94, so therefore it is zero (RT=0). the idea of transforming the entire color space to make the
scale more uniform instead of modifying the color distance
CIE2000 gets very close to the goal of obtaining
formulae themselves. The result was a new color coordinate
an equivalent color distance for all shades of color.
system, which subsequently defined a color space that had
a uniform chromaticity scale for small color distances. As
color distances can now be calculated as vector length
Comparison between from the differences of the color coordinates (here L99, a99
dE*ab and dE00 and b99), this is referred to as a “Euclidean color space”.
The relevant formula was introduced in 1999 as the
dE*ab dE00 DIN 99 formula.
dE*ab = 3 dE00 = 1
Relative color differences – comparison of
differently calculated color distances
dE*ab= 2 dE00 = 1 L* a* b* C*ab dE*ab dE94 dE00 dE99
Cyan (C) 1 54 -37 -50 62.2 6.00 3.54 2.29 2.16
2 52 -41 -46 61.6
Magenta (M) 1 47 75 -6 75.2 6.00 2.94 2.66 2.54
2 45 79 -2 79.0
dE*ab = 1 dE00 = 1 Yellow(Y) 1 88 -6 95 95.2 6.00 2.77 2.69 2.54
2 86 -10 91 91.5
Black 1 18 0 -1 1.0 6.00 5.78 6.28 4.76
2 16 4 -5 6.4
C+M 1 26 22 -45 50.1 6.00 3.73 4.56 3.97
2 24 26 -41 48.5
C+Y 1 49 -65 30 71.6 6.00 3.26 2.97 2.83
2 47 -69 26 73.7
M+Y 1 48 65 45 79.1 6.00 3.23 3.48 2.59
2 46 69 41 80.3
Paper 1 93 0 -3 3.0 6.00 5.45 6.13 4.09
2 91 4 -7 8.1

Source: Schläpfer, K.: Farbmetrik in der grafischen Industrie (colorimetry in

09 Datacolor | Color and color measurement

the graphics industry), 3rd edition, St. Gallen, Switzerland; UGRA, 2002
The DIN 99 color space
Starting situation:
The basis for the DIN 99 color space is the CIELab color a*/b* plane. The
points in these and the
space with its coordinates L*, a*, b*. following illustrations
represent each set
The transformation from CIELab to DIN 99 took place in
of a*/b* coordinates
two parts: A transformation of lightness to the new DIN going from -150 to
99 lightness L99, and a transformation of colorfulness or 150 in steps of ten
chroma.
After the transformations, the values such as chroma (C99),
hue angle (h99) and color distance (dE99) can then be
calculated.
Step 1:
The DIN 99 formula is designed for small to medium color rotation of
distances. Its application is recommended for small color the a*/b* plane
distances up to 5 dE CIELab such as those dealt with in by 16°
quality assurance and recipe calculation.

Calculation

Lightness transformation
The lightness L* is transformed to the DIN 99 lightness L99 :
Step 2:
compression
of the f axis
1
L99 = ( ) • (105.51 • ln (1+0.0158 • L*))
kE

This transformation is to better reproduce the

distinguishability of darker shades of color. The
transformation resembles a power function with an
exponent of 0.75. The area for the dark shades of color is
expanded and the area for the light shades is compressed.
Medium lightness values are shifted upwards on the Step 3:
radial compression
lightness axis. of the e/f plane
The variable kE describes the influence of
changed observation conditions.
Under reference conditions, kE =1.

Colorfulness transformation

The transformation of the colorfulness coordinates

Enlarged view of
takes place in three steps: the a99/b99 plane
„„ The colorfulness axis is rotated by 16°
„„ The yellow/blue axis is multiplied by the factor 0.7,
and is therefore compressed
„„ The colorfulness (chroma) values are logarithmically
compressed radially around the L99 axis

Unlike in the CIE94 and CIE2000 formulae, it is

not necessary to determine the hue angle in order
to calculate the color distance.

Chapter 11 | Color distances and acceptability of colors 10

Chapter 11

The individual calculations are as follows: From this, the chroma value G (colorfulness) is then
calculated:
a* and b* are transformed to:
Redness values (red/green axis) G= (e² + f²)

e = (a* • cos (16°) + b* • sin (16°)) With the compression factor

ln (1 + 0.045 • G)
k=
(kCH • kE • 0.045)
Yellowness value f (yellow/blue axis)

this results in the

f = 0,7 • ( –a* • sin (16°) + b* • cos (16°) )
hue values e
a99 = k •
G
f
b99 = k •
G

In the case that a* = b* = 0, also e = f = G = 0,

then a99 = b99 = 0.

An advantage compared to the other correction or

methods is that with the transformed a99 and b99 , you
dE99 = (dL99)2+ (da99)2 + (db99)2
can now proceed exactly as you do in CIELab, to now
calculate, for example, a C99 (corrected colorfulness/
chroma) or a H99 (corrected hue difference).
where
Accordingly, the formulae are then as follows:
dE99 = (dL99)2+ (dC99)2 + (dH99)2

(a99 B • b99 P ) – (a99 P • b99 B)

dH99 =
0,5 • ((C99B•C99P)+(a99B•a99P)+(b99B•b99P)) C99 = (a99)2 + (b99)2

In the DIN 99 system, dC and dH are calculated exactly

as in CIELab. The index B stands for the reference or
comparison sample, and P stands for the sample.

Quality and further development

The DIN 99 color space is very close to the CIE94 color The modification of the lightness axis and the higher
distance formula and has similar qualitative characteristics, weighting of the colors close to the achromatic axis by the
also comparable with CMC(l:c). A great advantage compression of extremely saturated colors considerably
as opposed to CIE94 is the permutability of the sample improve the uniformity of perceived color distances.
and comparison sample in the calculation, making the
The evaluation categories of lightness axis and hue
transformation completely and easily reversible.
axis (yellow/blue and red/green) have not changed in
The difference from CIELab is that, with regard to the comparison with CIELab. The calculation of the color
calculations, the equivalence with perceived color distances distance as a simple Euclidean distance is a great
has been improved. The DIN 99 formula is handled the advantage compared with CMC(l:c), CIE94 and CIE2000,
same way as the CIELab formula. for which the calculation is very complicated.

11 Datacolor | Color and color measurement

 DIN 99 optimal color
solid – standard
100 illuminant D65

80

60

40
Conclusion and outlook for the future
L99
20

Instrumental color measurement is an essential aid to

0 quality assurance in industry. It complements visual
-40
color matching and allows the introduction of numerical
values as tolerances. Cooperative work between suppliers
-20 and customers is thus put on a reproducible basis, with
both sides using technical measurement. It is important,
0
-40
however, that the colorimetric assessments match the
b99 visual assessment as far as possible.
20 -20
0 The color spaces developed over the years now come
40 20 a99 very close to visual color perception, but also display
40 weaknesses, as the color distance perceived visually in
many cases does not correspond with the parameter for
the measured color distance, dE*.
Example of a modern color space: Further work is constantly being carried out on the
DIN 99 optimal color solid in cross-sectional view. development of a completely uniform color space, on a
Sectional planes for lightness L99=5 to 95 in steps of ten. formula for color distance, and on simple acceptability that
a99 represents the yellow/blue direction, b99 the red/green is representative of visual perception. Research in recent
direction. Distortions come about because the connection years on the neurophysiology of vision and psychology
of the colors with lightnesses is a factor in present-day color of perception, together with statistical research, is also
spaces. The area of this color solid is created via spectra. leading to improved efficiency of acceptability formulae
The area represents the entirety of all optimal colors (colors and making their automatic usage ever more reliable. It
with the highest chroma and brilliance). The volume of the can therefore be said in good conscience that with perfect
color solid represents all of the colors that are theoretically command and expert handling of the current mathematical
possible. model calculations in the area of the objective automatic
control of colors and color distances, color measurement
can today be applied accurately to guarantee high quality
of the colored products.
VISIBLE SPECTRUM

400 nm 500 nm 600 nm 700 nm

Chapter 11 | Color distances and acceptability of colors 12

Chapter 11

Metamerism When you use the same ingredients in the original sample to
match a color, you can match the spectral curve of the object,
wavelength by wavelength. However, this is not necessary to
Metamerism is a characteristic of a pair of samples. reproduce a color. In commercial applications, it is standard
Two samples match when viewed by a specific practice to match the colorimetric description of a particular
observer under a specific l amp. H owever, w hen color. You find a formula that matches the tristimulus values of
either the lamp or observer changes, the colors no a color for a specific lighting and viewing condition. To do this
longer appear to match. The choice of colorants in the you do not have to have the exact colorants used to make the
recipe influences t he d egree o f m etamerism b etween target color. You may find several different recipes to match
the samples. Computer color matching systems the color. However, keep in mind that changing the lighting
include settings to select the least metameric formula or viewing conditions, changes the colorimetric description
available to match a color. The formula selected may of the color. When you match the tristimulus values, if you
be the best match to the color under a variety of change either condition the colors may no longer match.
lighting and viewing conditions, and you may not be
able to visually detect the metamerism between the
samples when you change either condition.

≠ =

Color-matching functions
Metamerism

100 %
Standard specifications (X-Y-Z)
Sample
for the 10° -normal observer 90 %

80 %
Illuminant type D65 Illuminant type A
(Daylight) (Artificial light)
70 %
Reflectance value (%)

Standard SampleNo. 2 Standard SampleNo. 2 Standard

STD.N ECH2.N STD.N ECH2.N 60 %

X XØD = 31.28 X2D = 31.28 XØA = 47.88 X2A = 52.66

50 %

Y YØD = 20.28 Y2D = 20.28 YØA = 27.57 Y2A = 31.41

40 %

Z ZØD = 12.71 Z2D = 12.71 ZØA = 4.04 Z2A = 4.42

30 %

20 %

10 %

0
400 500 600 700
Wavelength (nm)

13 Datacolor | Color and color measurement

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October, 2019