vol. 13, pp. 24-25; Encyclopedia of American Biography, 1974, pp. 1035-1036; P. L. Alger and C. D.

Wagoner,
“Charles Proteus Steinmetz,” IEEE SPECTRUM, pp. 82-95, Apr. 1%5; Steinmetz the Philosopher, compiled by
Philip L. Algerand Ernest Caldecott (Schenectady, NY, 1%5); Ronald R. Kline,“Professionalismandthe
Corporate Engineer: Charles P. Steinmetz and the American Institute of Electrical Engineers,” IEEE TRANS.
EDUCATION, vol. E-23, pp. 144-150, Aug. 1980; Ronald R. Kline “Charles P. Steinmetz and the Development
of Engineering Science,” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1983; James E. Brittain, “C.P.
Steinmetz and E. P. W. Alexanderson: Creative Engineering in a Corporate Setting,” Proc. /€€E, vol. 6 4 , pp.
1413-1 41 7, 1976.

ON THE LAW OF HYSTERESIS.

BY CHAS. PROTEUS STEINMETZ.
In the number 137,of December 17th, 1890,-of theElectri-
cal Engineer I published a short article under the title “Note
on the Lawof Hysteresis,” where I showed that in a setof
determinations of the lossof energydue to hysteresisby
reversals of magnetism, for different magnetizations, made by
Ewing, this loss of energy due to hysteresis can fairly well be
expressed by the equation:
H =VB’.~,
where H istheenergy consumedbyhysteresisduringone
magnetic cycle, in ergs per cubic centimetre,B the magnetiza-
tion in lines of magnetic force per squarecentm i etre, and q(’)
a numerical coefficient,in this case = .002.
Considering that even the simple law of magnetism-that
is, the dependence of the magnetization B upon the magnet@
motive force F (for instance, in ampere turns per centimetre
length of themagneticcircuit) has until now defied all at-
tempts of mathematicalformulation, it appeared astrange
feature that the apparently much more intricate phenomenon
of hysteresis, or rather of theconsumption of energy by
hysteresis,shouldyieldtoanalyticalformulation in such a WLE I.
simple way, to be directly proportional to the 1.6th power of -
the magnetization. At the same time the coincidenceof Ewing’s F H: H - H:=
CalC calc obs s:
tests with the curve of the 1.6th power was near enough to be 1.50 375 + 35 + 8.5
1.95 3,830 1160 1082 + 58 + 5.0
considered as something more than a mere incident, but at 2.56 5,950 2190 2190 ... ...
least as a clue to a law of hysteresis, the moreas this law held 3.01 7,180 2940 2956 - 16 - .5
3.76 8,790 3990 4080 -90 -2 3
not only for low and medium magnetization, but even for very 4.% 10,590 5560 5510 +so + .9
high saturation, withoutshowing any kink at that point where 6.62 11,480 6160 6260 - 100 -1.7
7.04 11.W 6590 6690 - 100 - 1.5
the magnetic characteristicgoes over the bend or “knee” and 26.5 13,700 8690 8310 + 380 + 4.4
thereby entirely changes its shape, nor any marked tendency
of deviation of the extremest observed values from the calcu-
75.2 15,560 10,040
iT
10,190 -150
Av: i98 - -1.5
f2.6
lated m e .
In Fig. 1 and Table I, I give from the article referred to, the
calculatedcurve of hystereticloss, as adrawnline,with
Reprintedfromthe American lnstitute of ElecfricalEngineers Ewing’s tests marked as crosses, and in dotted line the curve
Transactions, vol. 9, pp. 344,1892. Copyright 1892 by the American
Institute of Electrical Engineers. of magnetomotiveforce F, c o r r v n - tothedifferent
magnetizations, as abscsi sae.
In the table, I:
’If any quantity has a nght to be d ed “magnetic resistance,” it is this F = the M. M. F., in absolute units,
coefficient 7 ; for 7 is the c&cient of conversion of magnetic energy into
heat, while as “electric resistance” we define the cwfficent of conversion of B = the magnetization,in lines of magnetic forceper square
electric energv into heat. centimetre,
The term generaIiy denoted ‘‘magnetic resistance”-that is, the inverse
value of magnetic conductivity, docs not deserve this name at all, but is H = the observed values, and
&re properly caned “reluctance.” ObS

STEINMETZ: ON THE LAW OF HYSTERESIS 197

H the calculated valuesof hysteretic loss,in ergs per cubic
=
E X
B=
centimetre,
H - H = thedifference between both, in ergs and in
amNn
calc obs percentages. the maximum magnetism.
For higher frequencies, 80 to 200 periods per second, the
To study morecompletely this phenomenon of hysteresis alternating currentwas derived from a1H. P. 50 volt Westing-
and of the energy consumption caused thereby, I endeavored housedynamo. This was drivenbya 3 H.P. Eckemeyer
to make a number of determinations with different magnetic continuouscurrentmotor. Byvarying theexcitation of the
circuits and at different magnetizations. motor field and varying the E. M. F. supplied to the motor, the
To be enabled to carry out these experiments, I am highly speed and therefore the frequency of the alternating current
obliged to Mr. Rudolph Eickemeyer, of Yonkers, N. Y.,who, could be variedin wide limits.At the same time, supplied with
being greatly interestedin the laws of the magnetic circuit and constant E. M. F. andlikealltheEickemeyermotors of
havingdoneconsiderablework himself in this branch of unusually small armature reaction, this electromotor kept al-
electrical science, not only put the large facilities of his well- most absolutely constant speed under varying load, the more
known factory at my msa,l but also guided the experiments as it never ran with full load.
with his valuable advice. Apart of the instruments used in the For low frequencies, this bipolar continuous current motor
tests are of Mr. Eickemeyer's invention and coveredby his wasused as abipolaralternatingdynamo, as shown in a
patents. patent of Mr. Stephen D. Field. On the continuous current
To beabletodealnotonlywiththesmallamounts of commutator two sliding rings were mounted and connected
energy which the reversal of magnetism in a tiny bit of iron with opposite commutator bars. In the ordinary continuous
wire sends through the ballistic galvanometer, but to reduce current brushes a continuous current was sent in, which set
the determinations to readings of considerable power-values, themachine in motion as an electromotor,whilefromthe
and where a much greater exactnesscan be reached, andat the slidmgringsby two separatebrushes,alternatingcurrents
same time to determine the dependence of the hysteretic loss were taken off. By varying the E. M. F. supplied to the motor,
of energy upon the velocity of the magnetic cycles, I decided the E. M. F. of thealternatingcurrent wasvaried,while a
to use alternatingcurrents, at least as far as this could be variation of themotorfieldgavethevariations of the
done, whereby the determination of the energy consumed by frequency. The curve of E. M. F. was very nearly a sine-wave,
hysteresis is r e d u d to a simultauwus wattmeter, voltmeter, the ratio of maximum E. M. F. to effective E. M. F. found
ammeter and speed reading. = 1.415,whilethesine-waverequires 1.414-ht is, essen-
At the same time this electro-dynamometer method has the tially the same.
advantage that the magnetic cycle is completed in a steady, To determinewhetherthechange of theshape of the
continuous motion,while in the ballistic method the magnetic alternating currentby varyingload and varying excitationhad
cycle is completed by sudden changes in the magnetization, any influenceupon the readmgs, the variationsof the alternat-
which jumps from point to point,to enable the productionof ing E. M. F. were produced:
the induced current. This feature introduces an errorinto the 1. By varying the excitation of the field of the Westmghouse
ballistic method, for if a magnetic cycle is gone through by dynamo.
sudden changes, a larger amount of energy may be consumed 2. By running the Westmghouse dynamo fully excited feed-
than if the magnetization varies steadily in harmonic vibra- ing the secondaries of a bank of converters, feedmg from
tion. the fine wirecoils of these converters the fine wire coils of
Suppose, around a magnetic circuit, an alternating current another bank of converters, and taking current off from
of N complete periods per second is sent in n convolutions. the secondariesof these converters, connected from one to
Let C=the effective strength of the current, six in series.
E =the effective E. bf. F. induced in the circuit by self-in- 3. Bychangmg the E. M. F. bymeans of a Westinghouse
duction, after subtracting theE. M. F.'S induced by the converter of variable ratio of transformation.
self-induction of the instnunents, 4. By loadmg the dynamo when small currents wereused for
W =the energy consumed in the circuit, after subtracting the tests.
the energy consumed by the electric resistance. But afterhavingfound that allthesedifferentways of
Then, I beingthelength and s thecross-section of the varying the alternating E. M. F. gave no perceptible difference
magnetic circuit, allin centimetres, amperes, volts, watts, etc., whatever in the readmgs, I afterwards used the most conveni-
Let B==themaximum magnetization in lines of magnetic ent way to vary the excitationof the dynamo field and, where
force per squareamtimetre, higher E. M. F'S were needed, to increase the E. M. F. by an
H ==the loss of energy by hysteresis, in ergs per cycle and interchangeable converter,which gave the ratios:1: 1,2,3,4,5.
cubic centimetre;it is For thedetermination of thefrequency,adirect-reading
speed indicator (horizontalball governor, actingupon a spring)
w = L ~ N Hx 10-7 was used, which was carefully calibrated.
hence For theelectricreadings,instruments of theelectro-dy-
W namometer type were used, zero-reading-that is, the movable
H = -
LrN
X 10+7 coil was carried back by the torsion of a steel spring to zero
position.
the hysteretic loss of energy, and
*This formula holds rigidly only for the sine-wave, but as shown in the
E = f i m B N n X lo-' follow& the currents &LI in the tests were at least very near sim-waves.
Besidegadeviationfromthcsiacshapewouldnotaltcrtherrsultsatall,
hence but only slightly change the coefficient q.

198 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE. VOL. 72, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 1984

 These instruments were specially built for alternating cur- then with large currents, and then again with small currents
rents, with very low self-induction and low internal resistance, taken, so that I believe every possible care was exercised to
using bifilar german silver wire as additional resistance. avoid any errors in the tests.
In theammetertherange of readingswasfrom 3 to 40 As beforesaid,thefirst sets of testsweremade on the
amperes, the internal resistance = .011 o. magnetic circuit of a small Westinghouse converter.
The normal inductance (that is, E. M. F. of self-induction The constants of this converter, so far as they are of interest
induced by one ampere alternating current, flowing through here, are:
the instrument with a frequency of 100 complete periods per Mean length of magnetic circuit, 21 cm.
second): = ,045 o. Mean cross-section of magnetic circuit,= 43.67 an.*
In the voltmeter the range ofrea-was from .5 volts Hence volume of iron, = 917. a d .
upwards, but to avoid the necessity e: corrections for self-in- Resistance of secondary coil, = .2 w .
duction sufficient additional resistance was used to decrease Further sets of readings were taken on a magnetic circuit,
the correction under 1 per cent., and then the lowest readings built up of very thin sheets of iron, alternately 8 in. x 1 in.
were from 3 to 6 volts. and 3 in. X 1 in., in rectangular shape,very carefully insulated
The internal resistance of thevoltmeter is = 2.5 w , its against eddy currents with layers of thin paper between the
normal inductance = 4.12 w . sheets. On the two long sides two coils of each 50 turns, very
In the wattmeter the resistanceof the coarse wire coil (fixed coarse wire (3 No. 10 in parallel), were wound and connected
coil) was = .026 o,is normal inductance = .073 u. in series, thereby givingn = 100 turns of an internal resistance
The internal resistanceof the fine wire coil was = .25 o,its of .048 w .
normal inductance = .33 a. Here the mean lengthof the magnetic circuitwas I = 41 c m .
In most of the readings sufficient additional resistance was The cross-section, s = 3.784
used to make the correction for self-induction of the fine wire Thecircuitconsisted of 58 layers of sheet-iron of the
coil neghgible. Only in a few readings where it exceeded 1 per thickness s = .02577 t3) and the width o = 2.579.
cent. it was taken in account. The whole volume of iron was = 155 c m . 3
For small currents an Eickemeyer ammeter was used, which, The sheet-ironpieces were first freed from scales by dipping
while reading from .7 to 3 amperes, though built originally for into dilute sulphuric acid.
continuous currents, had already been used by me for alternat- In one set of tests an open magnetic circuit was used, by
ing currents and had been checked for its constancy of read- leaving the short end pieces (3 in.x 1 in.)off, and using two
ingsseveraltimes,andalwaysfoundtogive no perceptible piles each of 66 pieces (8 in. X 1 in.) of the same iron, the
difference in its readingsfor continuous currentsand for same pieces as used in the former closed circuit tests.
alternatingcurrentsupto over 200 complete.periods per In thesereadings,forthedetermination of thehysteretic
second, the highest frequency I could reach loss, onlyvoltmeterandwattmeter,but no ammeter,were
Its internalresistance is = 1.1 o, its normalinductance used,andtheconductivitycurvedeterminedseparatelyby
= 2.03 o. voltmeter and ammeter.
Several sets of readings for different frequencies were taken The calculation of the rea-was done in the following
on an old Westinghouse voltmeterconverter.Thefinewire way:
coil and one of the 50 volt coils were left open.Into the other After applying the corrections for self-induction of instru-
coarse wire coil an alternating current was sent, in series to ments, resistance andspeed, the rea- were reduced to lines
ammeter and coarse wire coil of wattmeter, while the voltme- of magnetic force per@are centimetre B and consumptionof
ter and the fine wire coil of the wattmeter were connected in energy by hysteresis per magnetic cycleH , in ergs.
shunt around the whole circuit. Then the resultswere plotted on cross-section paper and if
Hence a correction had to be applied for the self-induction any valuewas foundto be verymuch out of thecurve
of ammeter and coarse wire coil of the wattmeter and for the connecting the other values, it was stricken out as evidently
resistance of thecircuit.Only in veryfew this correc- erroneous,not consideringit worth whileto determine whether
tion amounted to somewhat more than 10 per cent. Generally it was a wrong reading of any one of the instnunents or a
it was much smaller. mistake in the calculation.
Theinstruments were calibratedseveral timesandtheir Then from the other values of B and H , under the supposi-
constants found to remain constant. tion that H were proportional to anypower x of B:
The speed indicator was calibrated carefully andits correc- H = qBX
tions added.
Each r e a consisted of an ammeter readmg, a voltmeter this exponent x was determined.
reading, a wattmeter reading and aspeed readmg. Thisvaluexwillbeseenalwaystobesonearto1.6that1.6
Before and after each set of readings the zero positions of can be considered at least as first approximation to x.
theinstruments weredetermined, and onlythose sets of Then, under the assumption
readings used where the zero positionhad remained constant. x = 1.6
Before and after each set of alternating current rea- a hence
continuous currentwas sent into the circuit and few a readings
for different currents taken. Voltmeter and ammeter readmgs H VB'.~
combinedgavetheresistance of the circuit, and both com- the coefficient q was calculated, and now the equation
bined with the wattmeter readmg gave a checkfor the instru-
ments, here being watts = volts X amperes. Only those sets H = vB'.~
were used again where an entire agreement was found, and
with the alternating current firstreadings with small currents,

STEINMETZ: ON T H E LAW OF HYSTERESIS 199

plotted in a curve, as given in the figures, and the observed Coefficient of hysteresis:
values of H drawn in and marked. q = BO2315
Fromthe c w e were taken thecalculatedvalues of H ,
correspondingtotheobservedvalues of B, thedifference hence, theoretical curve:
Hdc - Bobs determined, and expressed in per cents. of Hdc. H = BO2315 B’.6
These values are given in thetablesandshown in the
curves. TABLE II. (4)
Frequency: N = 137 complete periods per second:
MAGNETIC CIRCUIT OF THE B. H.
ObS
H.
calc
H. - H.
cak. obs.
- %
WESTINGHOUSECONVERTER. 4ooo 1490 1410 -80 - 5.7
FIG.2; TABLES
11. 4670 1818 1800 - 18 - 1.0
5510 2358 2350 - 8 - .3
MAGNEnC CRARACIERISIIC. 5760 2482 2520 + 38 - 1.5
5840 2540 2580 +40 + 1.6
F. = M. M. F., in ampere turns per centimetre length of 6690 3285 3180 - 105 - 3.3
- 68 - 2.1
magnetic circuit. E
12,430
3358
3374
8336
3290
3370
8610
- 4
+ 274
- .1
+ 3.6
B.= Magnetization, in lines of magnetic force per s q w e 13,7SO 10.m +loo + 1.0
10,1oO
centimetre. av: f 73.5 i-zb
TABLE II. (1)
F. B. F. B. F. B. Exponent of power, derived fromtests:

I : 1500
I :: X 1.5887 1.6 -
yo0
. ~~

6800
%a,
11.750
1i8m
I i!
20
25
15.080
15570
15,630
15.880
16;4m
55

m
18500
18,820
19,140
19,440
19,740
Coefficient of hysteresis:
q = .002438
8 13,600 30 16.950 75 mom hence, theoretical curve.
9 14,100 35 172m 80 2 0 w
10 14,350 40 17,780 85 m,560 H = .002438B’.6
90 2o.m

WSTERESS
I. TABLE II. (5)
Frequency. N 5 205 complete periods per second.
B.= Magnetization, in lines of magnetic force per square
centimetre.
H. = Loss of energy by hysteresis, in ergs per cycle, and
I B. I E. -
H.
calc
-
%

1790 376 400 +24 + 6.0

cubic
centimetre, = watt-second. 1990 463 460 -3 - .7
2380 585 610 + 35 + 5.7
2620 735 720 - 15 - 2.1
TABLE II.(2) 3060 893 920 + 27 + 2.9
Freauencv: N.= 28 comlete Deriods m second. 3390 1054 1100 +46 + 4.2
3660 1297 1240 - 57 - 4.6
3710 1288 1250 - 38 - 3.0
4620 1822 1800 -22 - 1.2
+ 2.2
mm 2024 2070

I +46
- 24 - 1.2

1 E- 1 ii 1
1178 4990 2034 2010
3510 -2 8
6286 5910 2693 2620 -73
-10,560 6100 2844 27x1 -96 -3.5
13,800 10286 10.180 - 106 + 1.3
17,W 15,357 15.600 + 243 6550
7290
3039
3673 - .9
PV:
4341 - 1.0
4530 + 2.1
Exponent of power, derived from tests:
u60 _-- -f 22.27
-
X = 1.6111 1.6 -
Coefficient of hysteresis: Exponent of power, derived from tests:
q = .002410 x = 1.6012 1.6 -
hence, theoretical curve: Coefficient of hysteresis:
H = .00241B’.6 q = .002434
TABLE! II.(3) hence, theoretical curve.
Frequency: N = 36 complete periods persecond H = .002434B’.6
From these 4 sets of readings, we get the results:
1. N = 28 4 m w :X =1.61117 =.002410
7090 3333 3500 + 167 + 4.8
10,250 5667 6310 + 643 + 10.2 36 2. 5 ” 1.6476 BO2315
13,410 9694 9700 + .1 3. 137 10 1.5887 BO2438
17,080 14,417 14,400 + 17 + .1 ”

19,340 16,111 17,600 + 1489 + 8.4

f .
205 4. 18 ” 1.6012 .m34
~-

Therefrom we derive the average, by giving to each value as

Exponent of power, derived from tests: weight the number of readmgs, whereit is based upon:
X = 1.6476 1.6 - X = 1.60513 1.6 -
200 PROCEEDINGS OF T H E IEEE, VOL. 72, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 1964
 = .0024164 II.-MAGNE~c CIRCUIT BUILTUP OF WELL
Hence: INSULATED
LAYERSOF VERYTHIN
H -- .0024164B'.6 FIG.3; TABLES
SHEET-IRON. 111.
MAGNElTC CHARACIERISTIC.
This curve is used for calculating the values given as H&,
and is plotted in Fig. 2 in drawn line. F = M. M. F. in ampere tums per centimetrelength of
The observed values of H are drawn in Fig. 2: magnetic circuit.
The magnetic characteristicis drawn in dotted lines. B = magnetization in lines of magnetic force per square
From this curve of hysteretic loss centimetre.
H = .0024164B'.6 TABLE III.(1)
we derive the values: F. B. F. B. F. B.
TABLE II. (6) 2
3
1700
4200
12
14
17,502
13,750
14260
45
50 17,wO
1 B. I H. 1 B. H. 4
5
7400
9200
16
18
14,600
14,900
55
60
lSf00
18,650
6 10.400 20 15200 65 19,030
152 13,000 9230 11,160 7 15,700 25 19,380 70
462 14,000 lop00 8 11,850 30 19,730
16,200 75
884 15,000 11,610 9 12,470 35 16,680 80 m,oso
1400 16,000 12Im 10 13,070 40 17,050 85 m,m
m 17,000 14,180 90 20,750
2680 18.000 15.550
3430 19,000 16,970
4240 20,000 18,uy)
5130 25,000 26,290 HYsTmFSIs
6070 3c4000 35,210
7070 35,000 45,060 B = magnetization in lines of magneticforcepersquare
8130 40,000 55,800
centimetre.

STEINMETZ: ON T H E LAW OF HYSTERESIS 201

 H = loss of energy by hysteresis, in ergs per cycle and cubic Coefficient of hysteresis:
centimetre, = 1 0 - watt-seconds.
~ I) = .00373
CLOSED MAGNETIC CIRCUIT. hence theoretical curve:
Frequency: N = 85 complete periods per second. H = .00373B1.6

TABLE III.(2) OPEN MAGNETIC CIRCUIT.

H
cak.
H.
cak.
- H.=
obs
s Two gaps of - 4 cm. length.
3140 - 180 - 5.7
- 270 3420 - 7.9 TABLE III. (5)

1
4220 7690 4700 +480 + 10.2
10,470 7160 7700 +540 + 7.0 Frequency, N = 138 complete periodsper second.
11,110 8370 8464 + % + 1.1
14,030
14.890
12,600
13,730
17,190 17,040
12280
13,540
17,040
- 320
- 190
...
- 2.6
- 1.4
...
B. H.
obS. I 2. z.;;= ",
'
17,940 17,570 -
18,240 + 670 + 3.7 3150 1570 1560
av : + 315 = x 3640 2110 2020 -90 - 4.4
+
Exponent of power, derived from tests:
4690
5490
6270
2930

4380
2950
3780 3510
4690
+ 20
+270
+ 310 I
I
.7

++7.2
6.6

- 10.250 10,290 10,450 -160 -1.6

X = 1.6041 1.6
Coefficient of hysteresis:
7 = .00285
11,Ooo
12280
11,810
14250
I 11,520
13,740
av:

hence, theoretical curve: Exponent of power derived from tests:

H = .900285B'.6
X = 1.6040 1.6 -
Coefficient of hysteresis:
TABLE III. (3)
Frequency, N = 138 complete periods per second. q = .00394
hence theoretical curve:
B. H. H. H. - H . =
obS. calc. obs.
calC.
H = .00394B'.6
5220 3030 3015 - 15
5750 3620 3550 - 70 From these four sets of readings we get the results:
6540 4320 4355 + 35
7070 4830 4890 +60
8210 5950 6160 + 210 + 3.4 CLOSED MAGNETIC CIRCUIT.
8520
9570
10,450
11,990
14,570
6090
7850
8780
11,060
15,840
6530
7840
9040
11,230
15,340
+440
- 10
+ 260
+ 170
I i2:;
+ 1.5
N = 85
138
205
9 readings: x = 1.6041
14
9
I'

'I
1.6044
1.6970
7 = .OO285
.00335
.00373
14,aaO 16,160 15,580
16,770 20.350 19260 - 1090 - 5.6
17,970 20,620 21,440 + 820 + 3.9 OPEN MAGNETIC CIRCUIT.
19,320 23,180 -
24,120
av:
+940
f 371 - + 3.8
N =138 8 readings: x = 1.6040 q = .00393
Exponent of power, derived from tests: Herefrom it seems that theconsumption of energyby
hysteresis
per
magnetic cycle increases with increashg
x = 1.6044 = 1.6
frequency-that is, with increasing velocity of the magnetic
Coefficient of hysteresis: change.
q = .00335 The three values of three coefficients of hysteresis for closed
circuit in their dependence upon the frequency N, can be
hence theoretical curve:
expressed by the empirical formula:
H = .00335B'.6 7 = (0017 + .000016N - .00000003 N2)
TABLE III. (4) To compare the values of hysteretic loss for different fre-
Frequency, N = 205 complete periods per second: quencies, in Fig. 3 the curve of hysteretic loss for N = 100
I B. I H.
ob%
I H.
cak.
1 H -H.-
cak obs
complete periodsper second is plotted, giving:
q100 = .003
6360 4440 4660 +m +4.8
I340 5380 5780 +400 +6.9 hence
10.030 9510 9510 ... ...
10,860 9980 l0,6X, +690 +6.5 H = .003 B'.6
1WO 13,700 12,940 - I60 - 5.9
14,600 17,390 17,160 -230 - 1.3 and the observed values of H are not cllrectly drawn in, but
14,700 17,830 17.343 - 490 - 2.8 the observed values of H multiplied with the factor:
15,750 19,700 19560 -340 - 1.7
16,700 21,990 21500 - 690 - 3.2
aV: * 425 rn 'Iloo
I)&.
Exponent of power, derived from tests: to compare the different frequencieswith each other.
x = 1.697 = 1.6 These valuesare plotted for:

202 PROCEEDINGS OF T H E IEEE, VOC. 72, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 1%

 26.000,-

N-85withthemarkr
138
205 ‘1 ‘1
]
+ closedmagnetic
circuit.
Especiallynoteworthy is the last set ofreadings, an open
magneticcircuit, in so f a r as it provesthefallacyofthe
general opinion that the hysteretic lossof energy in the iron is
N = 138 with themark 0 ;Open magnetic circuit. smaller in the open magnetic circuit than in the closed circuit.
For the coefficient of hysteresis observed on open magnetic
From this m e of hysteretic loss,
circuit
H = .003B1.’ q = m393
we derive the values, for the frequency of N = 100 complete
is even greater than that for closed magnetic circuit,
periods per second.
q = .00335
TABLE III. (6) But this discrepancy is easily explained by the fact that in

II
B. H. the closed magnetic circuit the magnetization is nearly uni-
13,000 11,460
form throughout the whole iron. But in the open magnetic
14,000 circuit the magnetic field intensity differs considerably from
1740
15,000
16,000 15,990
point to point, bemg a maximum in the middle of the mag-
2490 17,000 17,610 netizing coils, a minimum at the ends of the iron sheets. Now,
3330 18,000 19590
4260 19,000 21,060 the values ofB given in the table, are the average vahaes of the
Moo
7000
4aQ
8ooo moa, 22.830 magnetization, and the values H,the average valuesof hyster-
9oM) 6360 2s;oOo 32340
etic loss. But the average value of the 1.6th powersof different
10.000 7530 30,000 43,680
11,000 8790 35,000 55,950 quantities B is larger than the 1.6th powerof the average value
w@Jo 10.080 40,000 a92m
of B.

STEINMETZ: ON THE LAW OF HYSTERESIS 203

 For instance, in a cubic cm. of iron magnetized to B =
12,000 is H = 10,080; in a cubic cm. of iron magnetized to
B = 6OOO is H = 3330; hence of these 2 cubic centimetres the
average magnetization is
-
B = 9o00,and the average H 6,705 ergs
but to B = 9o00 c o r r q n h H = 6360 ergs; that is, about 5
per cent. less, and the difference becomes still greater, if the
values B differ still more.
Talung this into account, it seems that the loss of energy
due to hysteresis depends onlyupon the intensity of magneti-
zation, and perhaps upon the frequency, but is independent of
open or c l o d magnetic circuit, as is to be expected.

III.-FIG. 4. TABLES
IV.
A third setof determinations of the hystereticloss of energy
is given in the following:
Again a magnetic circuit was built upof 17 layers of a soft
kind of sheet-iron, each layer consisting of two pieces of 20
cm. length, 2.54 cm. width, and two pieces of 7.6 cm. length
and 2.54 cm.width, of the thickness S .M86cm., that is, of
=i

considerably greater thickness than in the former set of tests.

Here evident proof of the induction of eddy-aments in the
iron was found. EspeQally perceptible was a decrease in the
watts consumed by the iron, when a larger M. M. F. ofhigh
frequency was leftacting upon the iron.This decrease mustbe
attributed to the increaseof the electric resistance of the iron,
caused by its increasing temperature.
To eliminate this source of error as far as possible, before
eachset of tests an alternating ament ofhigh frequency
( N = 200) andconsiderablestrengthwassent through the
magnetizing coils and left on for ten to fifteen minutes, and
then first readings with lowmagnetization,thenwithhigh,
and thenagainwithlowmagnetizationweretaken.But,
nevertheless, as was to be expected, in these tests the observed
values agreed less with each other thanin the former readings. Fig. 4.
The method of determination, the apparatus, etc., were the
same as in the second set of tests, only that ammeter, voltme- MAGNmC CHARACIWSTICS.
ter, and wattmeter were used at the same time. In calculating
F = M. M. F., in ampere turns percentimetrelength of

1 1
these tests, the law of the 1.6th power was assumed as true, magnetic circuit.
and the loss of energy in the iron expressed by the equation, B = magnetization, in lines of magnetic force per
H = vB'.~+ tNB2 centimetre.
where TABLE TV. (1)
Hl = TB'.~ B. B. F. B.
1.5 2,700 11,700 18 15,450
is the true hystereticloss per cycle and ad., which is indepen- 4,350 lZ,ZIIO 20 15,800
dent of the frequency, and 7,100 12,700 25 16,400
4 8,850 10 13,100 30 16,800
5 10.000 12 13,900 35 17,200
Hz = cNB2 6 10,800 14
16
14,500
15,000
40 17,500

is the lossofenergyby eddy-currents per cyclewhich is

proportional to the frequency N.
From this expression WsrmEslS.

H=HI + Hz B = magnetization, in lines of magnetic force per

the coefficients 7 and c were calculated and the agreement or

dsagreement of thex coefficients 7 and c allow now to check (=
-
centimetre.
H loss of energy by hysteresis,in ergs per cycle and ad.
joules) = Hl + Hz
the correctness or incorrectness of the law of the 1.6th power. Hl = v B ' . ~ = lossof energy by hysteresis proper, in ergs
These tests gave the following results: and ad. (=
per cycle joules).

204 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 72, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 1984

 H2cNB2= loss of energy by eddy-currents,in ergs per cycle In Fig. 4 are drawn the four curves,
and ad.( = joules).
1.True hysteretic loss, H = .00333 B'.6
TABLE IV.(2)
2. Iron loss for N = 78 .00333 B'.6 + .oooO5856 B2
'I 3. 'I 140 .0001022 B2
Frequency, N = 78. 4. If If 209 .0oO1567 B2
q = .00331 c = .751 X
B. H.
(4)
H. A
The observed valuesare plotted by crosses, +
HI HZ =%
calc obs.
4171 2,060 1,080 3,140 3,060 + 80 + 2.6 IV.-FIGS.5 AND 6;TABLES
V AND VI.
58x) 3340 5,660 2,120
5,640 + 20 + .3
9520 7,740 13,340 5,600
13,440 - 100 - .8
13,160 12,w 23,670 10,710
24,540 - 870 -3.7 Two other sets of determinations of the hysteretic lossof
14,320 12,720 14,880
27,600 26,460 -1140 +4.0
16,050 17280 15,900 33,180 33,180 .._ energy, for the frequency 170 complete periods per second,
weremade on two laminated horse shoe magnets,with
( T::;}
av: *1.9(+.4)
laminated keeperor armature.
The method of observation and of calculation was the same
TABLE IV. (3) as in III., and the same precautions weretaken.
Frequency, N = 140. The dimensions of the horse shoe magnets were:
q = .00331 c = .730 X
Mean length of magnetic circuit: 38 cm.
(4)
B. HI H2 H. H. A =% " cross-section: 70
calc. obs. " volumeof iron: 2660 ~ m . ~
4880 2,720 2,650 5,280 + 80
5,360 +1.5
distance of keeper from magnet, in the first case:
6780 4.490 9,760 5,270
9,420 + 340 + 3.4 I'

7720 5,530 6,830 12,600 -

12,360240 - 1.9 , .15 cm.
10,200 8,640 11,940 201400 + 180
20,580 + .9
12,080 16,700 11,300 29,100 -1100
28,000 - 4.0 'Idistance of keeper from magnet, in the second case:
33,840 19,860 17,200
53,000 + 700
53,700 + 1.3 .08cm.
av:
(T:::} +2.2(+.2) each magnet consisting of 300 sheets well insulated iron, of
the thickness .0405 cm.
TABLE N.(4) In the first set of readmgs, considerable eddy-currents were
Frequency, N = 207 found; in the second set, only asmall amount of eddies.
q = .00336 c = .757 x 10-6 The magnetic conductivity of the iron was not determined,
becausethereluctance of themagneticcircuitmainly con-
I - I - I calc. I obs. I I sisted of that of the air gap between magnet and keeper.

1 1 1 1 1 1
2710
4720
7540
12380
13200
1,030

5;320
11,700
26,800
38,500
13,000
30,400
1.290

9;970
38.500
43.400
42,600
15390
2,340 2,320
l5&0
- 20
6.480 6.430- 3.910
50
-670
+800
1
- .8
2.510- .8
Tf
+1.8
1 The results were,
B =magnetization, in hes per
Hobs.= observed loss of energy in the iron, in ergs per cycle
and
for N = 170.
Hl =true hysteretic loss of energy.
L J H2 =loss of energy by eddy-currents.
. I
I I I I

HdC.=whole calculated loss of energy, = Hl + H2

Therefrom we get the results:
N = 78, 6 readmgs, q = .00331 c = .751 x TABLE V.
140, 6 If .00331 .730 X Frequency, N = 170.
207, 5 " .00336 .757 x 10-6 7 = .w5 E = 1.16 X
- -
Thevaluesfoundfor q are so nearlyalike that we can Hl H2 H. H.
consider them as constant, and take theirmean value - -
51 23
-
74
-
calC.
70
ObS.

q = .00333 68 34 102 102

108 59 166 166
132 78 210 219
as the coefficient of hysteresis. 670 150 90 240 234
Even the values found for c are not much different from 178 111 289 300
210 138 348 333
eachother,not more than was to be expectedfromthe 1020 293 208 501 524
unavoidable differences in the temperature of the iron, which 1100
1200
345
392
234
290
579 549
682 695
because of thehighelectrictemperaturecoefficient of iron 1310 436 343 779 795
makes E rather variable. 1490 539 445 984 985
1930 820 742 1562 1547
Taking the average of E , we derive 2600 1310 1280 2590 2670

c = .746 x
and as formula of iron loss, -
av:
-
H = .00333B'.6 + .I46 X 10-6NB2
Therefore we get the formula for theloss in the iron,
4 H d is calculated by using for 7 the mean value 7 = ,00333, but for c
the individual values, corresponding to the particular set of observations. H = .0045B'.6 + 1.16N X 10-6B2

STEINMETZ: ON THE LAW OF HYSTERESIS 205

 zation up to high saturation, while the tests in IV. cover the
rangefrom 85 to 2600 lines per that is, frommedium
down to very low magnetization.
The law is found exactly the s
ame,
H = vB'.~+ ENB'
and herewith proved for the full range from 85 lines per m 2
up to 19,340 lines, a ratio from 1 + 230.

In Fig. 5 are shown

1. The curve of true hysteretic loss,

Hl= .0045B'.6
2. The curve of the whole loss in the iron,
H = HI + H 2
with the observed values marked by crosses +
TABLE VI.
Frequency, N = 170 This seems not to agree with Ewing's theory of the molecu-
1 = .00421 c = .2083 X lar magnets. According to this theory, for very small magneti-
- - - zationthehysteresisshould be expected to dmppear, or
B.
- H1 I I 2;. H.
-
obs.
H. - H.
calc. obs.
=%
- almost disappear, and the cycle be reversible. Then for medium
85 5.2 .3 5.5 5.6 - .1 - 1.8 magnetization, where the chains of molecular magnets break
I82 17.3 1.3 18.6 16.9 + 1.7 + 10.0 up and rearrange, hysteresis should increase very rapidly, and
211 22.0 1.7 23.7 23.5 + .2 + .9
560* 105 11 116 122 - 6 - 5.0 slowly again for saturation. Nothing of this is the case, but
670 140 15 155 146 + 9 + 6.1 hysteresis seems to follow the same law over the whole range
685 145 16 161 157 + 4 + 2.6
775 176 21 197 202 - 5 - 2.4 of magnetization, and is certainly not zero for even such a low
800 186 22 208 200 + 8 + 4.0
magnetization as 85 lines per
loo0 265 35 300 300 ... ...
lorn 2% 41 337 353 - 16 - 4.0
1130 322 47 369 386 - 17 - 4.3
1250 319 56 435 430 i s + 1.2 MAGNETOMETER TESTS.
1380 445 69 514 514 - 26 - 4.1
2200 940 170 1110 1130 - 20 - 1.8
2420 1268 + 30 + 2.4 The method used in the foregoing has the great advantage
- that
+ 38 + 21.2
- -90 - 24.6 1. It allowsthetaking of agreaternumber of readings,
av :
- *10 +34
- over a wide range of magnetization, in a short time,
by
meresimultaneous instrument
readings,
and
Therefore we get the formula for the lossin the iron, thereby reduces the probable error by increasing the
H .00421B1.6+ .2083 X 10-6NB2
= number of observations.
In Fig. 6 are shown, 2. It allowsthe use of electro-dynamometers, as the most
1. The curve of true hysteretic loss, reliable electric measuring instruments.
3. It dealswithlargeramounts ofenergy, countingby
Hl= .00421B'.6 watts or even hundreds of watts,wherebyamuch
2. The curve of the whole loss in the iron, greater accuracy can be reached than by the ballistic
galvanometer.
H HI + H 2 4. It measures the hysteresisundertheinfluence of an
with the observed values marked by c r o w + harmonically, and not suddenly varyingM. bi. F., that
Especially interesting are these two sets of readmgs in so far is under the same conditions, where it becomes of
as they cover quite a different range of magnetization as the importance for practical engineering.
tests in I. to rn. But it has the great disadvantagethat it can be used only for
In I. to m. the tests cover the range from 1790 to 19,340 testing sheet-iron or other thoroughly laminated iron, where
lines ofmagnetic forceper that is, for mediummagneti- eddies are either inappreciable or can be calculated also. For

M6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 72,N O . 2, FEBRUARY 1984

testing solidiron and steel pieces,this method cannot be used,
because of thetremendousamount of eddieswhichwould
flow in a solid piece of iron.
To determine.thehystereticloss ofenergy in steeland
cast-iron the Eickemeyer differential magnetometer was used.
Complete description of this instrument and its use is to be
found in the Electrical Engineer, March 25th. 1891, wherefrom
is taken a part of the following description. In Fig. 7 is shown
this instrument, which I shall be glad to show in our factory to
0
a n m y who is interested in it. In Figs. 8 and 9 are diagrams Fre. 8
of its action.
Theprinciple of this instrument resemblessomewhatthe
principle of the well-known differential galvanometer, applied
to the magnetic circuit. In Fig. 8, suppose F1 and F2 were two
E. M. F.’S connected in series; forinstance, two cellsof a
battery, x and y the two resistances which we want to com-
pare. Either resistance x and y is shunted respectively by a
conductor a and b of equalresistance,whichinfluencesa
galvanometer needle G in opposite directions but with equal
strength.
Thenthezeroposition of theneedle G shows that the
electric currentc,, flowing in u, is equal to the currentc b in b.
But let the current in x be c,, and iny, cy; then we must have
c a + cy = cb + cx

because the currents c, and cy are the two branches of the

same integral currentas c b and c,
Therefore, if c, = cb, then
c, = cy

But if c, = cb, and a = b, the difference of potential at the Re.9

ends of a (or,what is thesame thing, y ) is equal to the
difference of potentialattheends of b or x and,therefore, or “number of lines ofmagneticforce;”insteadof“elec-
the current in x and y , and the potential differences being the tromotive force” or “potential difference,” say “magneterne
same, it follows that x = y . tive force;”
instead
and of “electric
resistance,”
say “reluc-
That is, this method of connection allows us to compare an tance,” and we have the principle of this instrument.
unknown resistance x with a standard resistance y . Its magnetic circuit consists of two pieces of best Norway
Now, instead of “electric current,” say “magnetic current” iron, Ln shaped, shown in theillustration of thecomplete

STEINMETZ: ON THE LAW OF HYSTERESIS 207

instrument, Fig. 7,and in the diagramFig. 9, at F~ and F2. The Norway iron. Then another piece of iron, and of any desired
middle portion is surrounded by a magnetizing coil c. There- size, has been addedin the front. Tbis piece, y, carrying some
fore if coil c is traversed by an electric current, the front part magnetism also, equilibrium was disturbed. Then through a
s1 of the left iron piece becomes south, and the back part n coil of exactly 110 turns, surrounding this piece y, an electric
north polarity. The front part of the right iron piece n be- current i was sentandregulated so that equilibrium was
comes north, and the back part south;and the lines of restored. In this case no magnetism passed through y , or in
magnetic force travel in the front from the right to the left, other words, the M. F.M.of the current i 110 i ampere turns, is
from n 2 to s,; in the back the opposite way, from the left to equal to thedifferences of magneticpotentialbetweenthe
the right, or from nl to sz, either through the air or, when n 2 pole-faces of the instrument. In this way, for any strength of
and sl,or nl and s2, are connected by a piece of magnetizable current in the maincoil C of the magnetometer, the difference
metal, through this and through the air. of magnetic potential produced thereby between the pole-faces
In the middle of the coil c stands a small soft iron needle of the instrument, was determined and plotted in a curve, for
with an aluminium indicator,which plays over a scale K, and convenience in ampere turns per cm. length.
is held in a vertical position by the lines of magnetic force of Now,theNorwayironstandardwascompared on the
the coil c itself, deflected to the left by the lines of magnetic magnetometer with sheet-iron, of which, from tests with low
force traversing thefront part of the instrument fromn z to sl, frequency alternating currents, the magnetization correspond-
deflected to the right by the lines traversing the back fromn, ing to any M. M. F. wasknown, andtherefromderivedthe
to s2. This needle shows byits zero position that the magnetic magneticcharacteristic of theNorway iron standard, and
flowthroughthe air in front from n 2 to s1 hasthesame plotted in a curve also.
strength as themagneticflowinthebackfrom n1 to s2 In the way explained before, theiron sample that was to be
through the air. determined, was balanced by the magnetometer by Norway
Nowwe put apiece of soft iron x on thefront of the iron, thereby giving its magnetic conductivity.in per cent. of
instrument. A large numberof lines go throughx , less through that of the Norway iron standard, the magnetometer current
the air from n 2 to s,, but all theselinesgofrom nl to s2 read, from the curves taking theM. M. F. corresponding thereto
throughthe air at theback part of themagnetometer,the -denotedwithF-andthemagnetization of theNorway
front part and back part of the instrumentbeing connected in iron, corresponding to this m M. F., F, andfromthede-
series in the magnetic circuit. Therefore the needle is deflected termined per centage of conductivity of theexamined sam-
to the right by the magnetic flow in the back of the instru- ple, the magnetization B of this sample correspondingto the
ment. M. M. F. F.
Now we put another piece of iron, y, on the backpart of the With this instrument a numberof magnetic cyclesof differ-
instrument. Then equilibrium would be restoredas soon as the ent samples of steel and cast-iron were determined.
samenumber of lines of magneticforcegothrough x , as First, a powerful alternating current was sent through the
through y, because then also thesamenumber of lines go magnetometer and around all the iron pieces used, to destroy
through air in the front as in the back. As will be noted, the any trace of permanent or remanentmagnetism.
air here takes the place of the resistances a and b, influencing Then the examined sample was laid against the front, the
the galvanometer needle G, as in the diagram, Fig. 8. standard against the back of the magnetometer, balanced, and
The operationof the instrument is exceedingly simple andis a larger number of magnetic cycles completed between given
as follows: Into the coil c an electric current is sent which is limits, for instance, +95 and -95 ampere turns M. M. F. per
measured by the ammeter A, and regulated by the resistance- cm. length. Then readings were taken from maximum m m F.
switch R Then the needle which before hadno fixed position, + 95 down to zero, and again up to the maximum - 95, down
points to zero. over zero and up to +95, thereby completing a whole mag-
Now the magneticstandard, consisting of a cylindrical piece neticcycle, andthen of a secondmagneticcycle, a few
ofNorway iron of 4 cross-sectionand 20 cm. length is readings were taken as check for the first one.
laid against the back of the instrument, with both ends fitted In this way for different M. M. F.’s the curve of hysteresis
into holes in large blocks of Norway iron, A,, A , , which are was found, and by measuring its area the loss by hysteresis
laid against the poles S,N of the magnetometer, so that the determined.
transient resistance from pole-faceto iron is eliminated. The further calculation was done in a somewhat different
The sample of iron that we wish to examine is turned off to way. Generally the number of cycles was not large enough to
exactly the same size, 4 cm.’ cross-section and 20 cm. length, determine conveniently the exponent by analytical methcds.
and fitted into blocks A,A2 in front of themagnetometer. Therefore the law of the 1.6 M. power:
Then so many fractional standard-pieces of Norway iron are
added in front, that theneedleof the instrument points to H = vB’.~
zero. This means that the 4 cm.’ Norway iron in the back,
cany underthesamedifference of magneticpotential,the wasassumed as true,andforeach cyclefrom the known
samemagnetism as the 4 of the examined sampleplus values of H and B determined the co-efficientq.
the x cm.’ of fractional standard, added in the front. Hence, If for different cycles the valuesof q agreed, this would
4 cm.’ of the examined sample are equal in magnetic Conduc- provetheassumption,the correctness of thelaw of1.6th
tivityto (4 - x ) cm.’ of Norwayiron,andthemagnetic power, while a dtsagreement would disprove it.
conductivity of this sample is (4 - x)/4 x 100 per cent. of In the following fora number of samplesthemagnetic
that of Norway iron,for that differenceof magnetic potential, cycles are given:
viz., magnetization, that corresponds to themagnetometer F=M.M.F.,inampereturnspercm.length.
current. B, and Bd = theintensity of magnetization, in kilolines,
To get absolute values, the instrument has been calibrated corresponding to M. M. F. F,for the rising and the decreasing
in the followingway: In the front and in the back the branch of the magnetic curve.
magnetic circuit of the instrument has been closed by 4 cm.’ The area of the looped curve, representing the loss
of energy

208 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 7 2 , NO.2, FEBRUARY 1%

by hysteresis is derivedby adding the values of B,, and Herefrom as coefficient of hysteresis, was found
subtracting therefrom the s u m of the values B,,Bd and B,,
being given from 5 to 5 ampere turns,or .5 absolute units, the T = .024941.025121.02490I.0079971.007%2
,
difference of the sums of Bd - B, just gives thelossby 7 = .024987 1 = .007980
- -
a-

hysteresis, in ergs per cycle. .025 .0080

Hence, when anneded, the hysteretic loss is
CAST-STEEL,
ANNEALED AND HARDENED.
FIG.10; TABLE
VII. H = .008 B'.6
when hardened
Of one kind of steel, two test pieces were cast, at the same
casting, turned off to standard size and, by comparing them in H = .025B'.6
the magnetometer, foundto be exactly alike. and calculated by means of these formulas, we derive
Then the one piece was hardened, the other left annealed. H = 48,400
77,500
101,500
34,730
45,100
Magnetometer tests gave the following magnetic cycles: calc.

- TABLE VII.
r Md. r
F.
- Br Bd Br Bd Br Bd Br Bd Br Bd
0
5
f 5.0
-4.4 + 5.6
* 1.0
-6.4 + 1.5
f1.8
-7.3 +
f6.6
8.2 - 1.4 + 10.7
f 8.6
-2.6 + 11.3
10 -3.1 6.1 -5.6 1.9 -6.8 8.6 C3.4 11.9 t3.7 12.3
15 6.5
-2.7 -4.4 8.2 -5.6 8.9 12.5
8.4 8.4 12.7
20 0 6.9 -1.9 8.6 -2.3 9.2 12.8
10.9 10.8 13.0
25 63.9 7.3 +1.9 9.0 +.4 9.5 12.2 13.1 12.0 13.3
30 5.5 1.6 4.2 9.3 2.5 9.8 13.0 13.4 12.1 13.6
35 6.1 8.0 6.2 9.6 4.2 10.1 13.5 13.7 13.2 13.9
40 7.1 8.3 7.6 9.9 5.8 10.4 13.9 14.0 13.5 14.2
45 8.5 8.1 10.2 1.2 10.1 14.1 13.8 14.5
50 (44.5.) 9.6 10.5 8.4 11.0 (44.5.) 14.1 14.1
55 10.4 10.8 9.6 11.2 14.4 15.0
60 10.9 11.1 10.4 11.5 14.7 15.2
65 11.4 10.9 11.8 15.0 15.4
10 (64.5.) 11.4 12.0 15.3 15.6
15 11.9 12.3 15.6 15.8
80 12.2 12.5 15.8 16.0
a5 12.5 12.7 16.0 16.1
90 12.9
12.8 16.2 16.3
9s 13.0 13.1 16.4 16.5
100 13.2 13.3 16.6
105 13.4 13.4 (101,O.)
110 13.5
-
H - 77,800
(108.0.)
101,100 45,000
-
Ibz

STEINMETZ: ON THE LAW OF HYSTERESIS 209

 and Herefrom,
H
calc.
- obs.
H = +lo0 -300 +400 -70 +lo0 H = .012B'.6
H = 14,62019,52025,140 30,020
= per cent. of calc
H - H +20 -380 +140 +420
H + .2 - .4 + .4 - .2 + .2 calc. obs.
calC.
= per cent. of
In Fig. 10 are drawn some of the magnetic curves for both H +.l -1.9 +.6 +1.4
samples. calc.
It is especially interesting to note that though the chemical With regard to hysteresis, this kind of cast-steel is 50 per
constitution of both samples is exactly the same, their mag- cent. worse than the aunealed cast-steel No. 1, but still twice
netic behavior is entirely different,so that the magnetic prop- as good as the hardened sample.But, magnetically, it is poor
erties of iron seem to be determined much more byits physical -that is, oflow conductivity, giving for 40 ampere turns
than its chem'cd constitution. M. M. F. per centimetre length only 6600 lines of magnetic-
forcepersquarecentimetre,whilethe annealed steelgives
ANOTHER SAMPLEOF CAST-STEEL
OF - 14,OOO-that is, more than twice as many, and even the
Low MAGNETIC CONDUCTMTY. hardened steelgives more, 8OOO. -
FIG.11.

TABLE VIII. SOFTMACHINE STEEL.FIG.12.

Br bd Br Bd
Br Bd TABLE E.
* 2.5 k 2.8
- 1.9 + 3.6
f 3.1
-2.1 + 3.9
f 3.4
-2.7 + 4.2 I. III. 11.
10 + .6 4.1 - .4 4.3 - 4.6
.6 -1.3 4.8
F Br Bd Br Bd
15 2.7 4.6 +2.7 4.9 +2.2 5.2 +2.3 5.4 Br Bd
3.9 5.1 4.0 5.5 4.2 5.8 5.93.8
5.64.7 4.9 6.0 5.1 6.2 4.8 6.4 0 i8.3 5 9.6 50 15.9 16.8
6.0 5.5 30 5.6 6.4 5.7 6.6 5.5 6.7 5 -5.7 + 10.2 -7.5 + 11.2 55 17.016.4
35 6.3
6.2 6.2 6.7 6.1 6.9 7.16.0 10 +l.2 11.6 -2.0 12.4 60 16.9 17.4
40 6.38 6.6 7.0 7.26.6 7.46.5 15 +7.2 12.6
7.4
13.5 65 17.3 17.7
45 (37.0) 7.0 7.3 7.57.0 7.77.0 18.017.720
70 14.210.913.411.0
50 7.4 7.5 7.8
7.4 7.97.4 18.218.025
75 14.812.413.812.6
55 7.64 8.17.8 8.27.8 30 13.5 14.2 15.3
13.3 80 18.418.3
60 (52.0) 8.48.1 8.58.1 35 14.5
14.2
15.7
14.0 85 18.718.6
65 8.68.4 8.88.4 40 14.8 18.8 16.0
14.7 90
70 8.7 8.8 8.7 9.0 45 (39.0) 16.4
15.3 (90.0)
75 9.2
9.0
8.95
80 (75.0) 9.59.3 H-
obs.
~,400 64.ooo
85 9.5 9.6 .w ,00928
90 9.8 9.8 'I=

95 I Average, TJ = .00936
14,600 19,900 hence
4 = ,0119 ,0122 H - 64,600
calc
Average, TJ = .001195 A= -400 +600
- .012 = 2 1.0per cent.

210 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 72, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 1984

 FIG.13.
CAST-IRON. TABLE XI.
MAGNETIC CHARACTERISTIC.
TABLE X.
F = M. M. F., in ampere turns per centimetrelength of
I magnetic circuit.
F B = magnetization, in lines of magnetic force per
-
_+ 2.5 * 3.5 50
55
square centimetre.
10 3.9- .6 -1.7 4.7 60 F F B F B
15 + .9
4.4 - .2
5.2 65 8.2 8.9 10 750 70 3770
2930 140
20 2.6 4.9 +1.6 5.7 70 8.6 9.2 20 1510 80 3930
3080 160
25 6.1 3.83.0 5.4 75 9.0 9.4 30 2000 90 3220 180 4070
30 6.5 4.64.0 5.8 80 9.4 9.7 40 2320 100 3350 200 4200
35 5.24.9 6.1 6.8 85 9.1 9.9 50 3470
2560 110 220 4310
40 5.8 6.47.2 5.5 90 10.0 10.1 60 2760 120 3580 240 4400
6.3 45 7.6 6.1 6.6 95 1 I 1
50 6.8 (95.0)
(50.0)
H
&IS.
7-

Average, 7
=

=
22,300ergs

.01616
42,000ergs
,01589 .01647
I I F A d
CYCLIC

I
TABLE XII.

&
MAGNETIZATION.

I F &I
H - 22,000 42,800 0 *m 3740
3640
130
f 1020
CalC.
10 0 + 1520

I
-200 + 1660

1 140 3730
3820

3
20 +1200 1920 +lo00 2020 150 3820 3900
H - H =
Calc. obs.
- 300 +800 30 1800 2280 160 3910 3980
40 2160 2 m
2230 21%
1750 2520 170
= per cent., - 1.5 + 1.9 4050
4120
4110
4170
4190 4230
4250 4280
3280 4320 4uO
MAGNETIC IRONORE. XI.
FIG.14; TABLE 3410 4Mo 4370
3410 3440 3530
In the following are given the magneticcurves of a piece of 3530 3640 (240.)
magnetic iron ore, apparently pure Fe3 04,of the dimensions,
H = 9,340 ergs 13,780 ergs
1 in.x 1 in.x 2 3 in. obS.

STEINMETZ: O N THE LAW OF HYSTERESIS 21 1

 t) = .02049
.02041 t) = .020, ranges between that of cast-iron, t) = .016,and of
Average, t) = .02045 hardened steel, 7 = ,025.
The magnetic conductivity is approximately 20 per cent. of
C w e of hysteresis, that of wrought-iron.
H = .02045 B'.6 In Fig. 15 is given a comparison of the hysteretic curves of
H = 9,320ergs
13,810- Hardened steel,
calc.
he a
ed steel,
l
H - H = -2Oergs +30ergs cast-iroq
calc. obs.
Magnetic iron ore,
= - .2 per cent. + .2 per cent. inthesamesize.
As seen, thecoefficient of hysteresis of magnetic iron ore, This figureshowswellthe three characteristicforms of

21 2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 72, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 1984

 Flu. 15.

TABLE XIII.
H = vB’.~[+
d ZR21l
H in ergspercycleand B in lines of magnetic me per F i n ampere turns per cmI.-
I I
Hysteretic Magnetizationat the M. M. F. Residual MagnetismR. /Coercitive ForceC t
-
Coefficient. C
Material. 9 F=lO =40 -90 ForF-40 =90 F o r F = 4 0 =90 F o r F = 4 0 =90
very soft iron wire @wing) ................... ,0020 12800 14700 16600 (1.9) (1.5)1
WestlngbwEe converter,s h e e t - i r o n ........... ,0024 14400 17800 20800 (1.8) (2.0)
Very thin sheet-iron, standard ................. .00” 13100 17100 20700 (2.3) (2.8)
n i c k sbcet-iron.. ............................... .00333t 13100 17m ... (2.5) (3.1)
Sheet-iron ....................................... 00421$ ... ... ... (3.2) (3.9)
Sheet-iron .......................................
Soft annealed cart-steel ........................
Soft machinc steel. ..............................
.w509
.0080
.oow
251 ...
14OOO
14800
...
8200
16300
18800
5100
8300 11.1
9M)o
(3.4)
6.0
9.1
(4.2)
7.0.00114,00133
.00103**
.00085**
Cast-steel of low mapetic conductivity ...... ,0120 m 6400 9800 3300 2600 9.1 11.6.00104,00132
CaJt-iron ......................................... ,0162 1600 6100 10100 2100
3400 10.4 15.2 .00106
,00156..
Hard& cast-steel ............................ ,0250 1200 8ooo 12903 4 m 7500
23.5 19.0 ,00107,00132
Magnetic iron ore.. ............................. ,02045 750 2320 3220 900 10.0 .XI204
Average .......
.00108,00132

*, For N = 100. II, This, and thefollowingvalues of this c o l u m n are derived as averageof risinganddecreasing branch of themagnetic
characteristic, because at F = 10 the magnetism is still very unstable.
+,€ = .746 x 10-6.
*,c = .2083 X ’,Computed by means of the averagevalues of f L
= .00132 and = .00108.
*, c = 1.16 X **, Left out by takingtheaverage of 3 .
C

curves:
hysteretic tion part of the curve-that is, in stable equilibrium;
therefore permanently magnetizable.
1. The hardened steel m e , of high coercitive force, has the 2. The soft iron curve, with the bend on the positiue side, so
bend or “knee” on the negutiue side, so that for zero that for zero M. M. F. the “remanent” magnetism, though
M. M. F. the ‘‘remanent” magnetismis still in the satura- still very htgh, is already below the range of saturation,

STEINMETZ: ON T H E LAW OF HYSTERESIS 213

 TABLE X I V .
W = yH',6
Win watts per cubic inch and 100 complete periods per second.
H in lirles of magnetic force per square inch.
7 H - 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000
50,000
60,000
70,000 8 0 , 0 0 0 90,000
100,000 110,OOO 120,000
150,000
Very soft iron wire @wing) ...................166 X IO-'' 1.66 1.40 1.16 1.94
3.18 2.23
Watlnghousc convener, sheet-iron ........... 201 2.34
1.412.01 1.70 269 3.84
2.90 2.49 2.11 ............................
Very thin sheet-iron 1.74 249
2.77 i r o n . . ...............................
'Thick k t -2.34 1.94 277
sheet-iron .......................................
6.69 4.69350 4.07 3.50 2.96 2.45 1.98
1.15 1.55

' ' '

sheet-iron ....................................... 374 7.17 5.02 4.36 3.75 3.17 1.23 2.62
1.66 2.12
8.88 7.73 6.63Soft annealed
5.60 4.64
cast-sled 3.75........................
2.93 2.19 663 ~

9.06 Soft7.78 machine 5.45 .............................

6.57 steel.. 4.40 3.44 2.57 778 10.4 14.9
Cast-steel of low magxtic conductivity ...... 994
Cast-iron.. ...................................... I346
Hardened cast-steel .......................... .2077 14.6 11.7 39.8
5.62 4.39 3.28
13.4
10.9
9.41
7.60
5.94
4.44
9.18 27.8 6.85 24.2

H = 25,000; alternate current transformer, American style

(highfrequency).
20.7
6.95

' 8.39

17.5
9.94
25.8
11.6
17.6
15.7
13.3 19.0

H = 35,000; " " European " low "

Only the values smaller than .25 W , can be of practical use; in those larger than 10 the iron gets at least red hot if in larger quantities.

on the branchof unstable equilibre. Therefore the rema- R =the remanent magnetization in lines of magnetic force per
nent magnetism is very unstable and easily destroyed, square centimetre.
the more as the mcitive force is very small.
TABLE X V .
3. The cast-iron c w e , which has no marked knee at all, but
a steady curvature of low remanent magnetization, but Material. coaditiom 1
- B R
with regard to coercitive force ranging between1 and 2. wrought-iron ............ Annealed ........... ,0020218,250 7250
SoftBcJscmrstcel ...... .OM62 1 8 7,860
~
The curve of the magneticiron ore shows all the characteris- Soft Wittworth steel ..... ,00257 7,080 19,840
tics of a cast-iron curve. .00598 18,740 9,840
.a9 " .00786 16,120 10,740
Havingderived,now,alargernumber of values of the .32 '' .00954 18,800 11,040
hysteretic coefficient q for different kinds of iron and other .89
Silicon steel ................ 3.44
" .01844 16,120
,00937
8,740
" 11,070 15,150
material, we shall put them together for comparison in Table 3.44 " ,00784 14,700 8,150
xIn. Manganevsteel .... ....... 4.73
3.44 It ,01282 14,700
.05%3 4,620
8,080
220
It is remarkable, in these results, that for several samplesof 8.74 ... 747 ...
each set the quotientq / C gives almost exactly the same value, 12.36 I' ... 310 ...
4.73 ,04146 10,580 5,850
while other valuesdisagree therefrom. From this average value 8.74 '* .08184 1,985 540
4.73 ,06706 4,770 2,160
of q/C are calculated the values of the coercitive force C of 8.74 '' ... 733 ...
sheet-iron, given in the brackets.
For convenience, in the following table are given the values
W of consumption of energy in watts per cubic inch, for100
I
Chrome-steel ............. .62
1.2
.62
1.2
.62
"
"
"
"

"
"

"
"

Oil-hard.
,01179 15,780
,01851 14,680
,00897 14,850
,01638 13,230
,03958 13,960
9,320
7,570
7370
6,490
8,600
completeperiods(magneticcycles)persecond,andforthe 1.2 " " "
,04442 12,870 7,890
Tungsf.=sf=l ............ ,01516 15,720 10,140
magnetization of H lines of force per square inch, giving as ,01435 16,Mo 11,010
coefficient of hysteresis the value 7 = 8.3 x 10-6q ,04776 14,480 8,640
2.35 very hard ,05778 12,130
In Table XIV., I havegiven anumber of experimental Grey cast-iron............ 3.45 p. c. C.;
6,820

values of the consumption of energy by hysteresis and believe White cast-iron........... 2.04
............
..
.17 p. c. Me
C.: .34 " "
..
,01826 9,150
,01616 9,340
... 385
3,160
5,550
77
to have shown that this consumption of energy can fairly well -
be expressed by the empirical formula,
These valuesof the hysteretic resistance vary from .002up to
H = qBX 082,41 times the first value.
But especially markedis, that q depends much lessupon the
where the exponent x is equal, or at least very nearly, to 1.6, chemical constitutionof the iron sample, than upon its physi-
and the coefficient q a constant of the material, which ranges cal condition, annealing decreasing, and hardening increasing
from .002 up to .025 and more, and may possibly have aslight the hysteresis very considerably.
dependence upon the velocity wherewith the magnetic cycle is So far as the chemical constitution is concerned, the purer
performed, as thesecondsetof alternate-ament readings the iron the lower is its hysteresis, while any kind of foreign
seems to indicate. matter increases the hysteresis. Especiallymanganese increases
In the following table, I give the valuesof the hysteretic the hysteretic loss enormously, much less wolfram and chre
resistance TJ for some iron samples, subjected to a magnetic mium, least silicon and carbon. Comected with the increak
cycle between F = +190 and -190 ampere tums per centi- of hysteresis is always a decrease in magnetic conductivity.
metre, calculated from Hopkinson's tests' by the assumption I wish to add a few remarks on twoallegedphenomena
of the lawof hysteresis. connected with hysteresis, which have been talked about con-
siderably,withoutyetbeingmadeclear;thedecreaseof
q = the coefficientof hysteresis. hysteresisfor open magneticcircuit,andthedecrease of
B =the maximum magnetization in lines of magnetic force per hysteresis of a transformer with increasing load.
square centimetre. With regard to the first, as shown, actual tests do not show
a smaller valueof hysteresis foropen than for closedmagnetic
5From"Mender ftu Electrotechniker," by Uppenborn, &rlin, Germany. circuit.

21 4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 72, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 1964

 And it can not be understood how that could be. if a sudden and abrupt change in the primary current OCCUTS,
For consider an iron moleculeof the magnetic circuit ex- just as suddenly the secondary current increases in the oppe
posed to the harmonically varying M. M. F. and performing a site direction, and therebymakes a sudden changeof resulting
magnetic cycle. Evidently it can make no difference for this M. M. F. and magnetism impossible, so that the fully loaded
iron molecule, whether some trillion of molecules distant the transformer compares with the elastic spring which oscillates
magneticcircuitendsin air, or is closedentirely in iron, freely, while the open-circuited transformer compares with a
supposing that the M. M. F. and the magnetism, and therefore spring,wherethemotion is determinedbyarigidly-acting
also the magnetic reluctivity, are thesame in both cases. outside force.
Neither can it make any difference whether the M. M. F. is Hence, if the shape of thealternatingprimarycurrent
causedonlybyonesine-wave of electriccurrent, or is the differs considerably from the sine law, a certain decrease of
resultant of several M. M. F.’s, as in the loaded transformer. It the hysteretic lossfor increasing load can be expected, though
is the same as with theelectriccurrent,wheretheenergy certainly not such an enormous decrease as some former tests
converted into heat in each molecule of the conductor does seemed to point out.These tests must undoubtedlyhave given
not depend either, whether the material of the conductor on erroneous results, perhaps caused by the neglect of the sec-
some other point changes, or whether one or more E. M. F.’S ondary self-induction, which, even if very small and causing
are acting upon the circuit. onlyaslighterror in thesecondaryenergy,mustcause an
Hence, until absolutely exact and undoubtable determina- enormouserrorinthehystereticloss,thesmalldifference
tions of the hysteretic loss for fully loaded transformers are at between the two large values-primary and secondary energy.
hand, the assumption of a decrease of hysteresis with increas- That an electremagnet without keeper loses its magnetism
ing load must be rejected. quickerthanamagnetwithkeeper, or a closedmagnetized
That an apparent decreasewithincreasingloadhas been iron ring, is a phenomenon, which hasnothing whatever to do
observedseveraltimesmay be conceded,forbesidesthe with this loss of energy by hysteresis, but is merely due to the
exceedingly great liability to errors in these tests, where the demagnetizingforce of theremanentmagnetism. For the
hysteretic loss comes out as the small difference of two large remanent magnetism in an open magnetic circuit causes be-
values, primary energy and secondary energy, and therefore is tween itspolesacertaindifference of magneticpotential,
verymuchaffectedbytheslightest error in any one of the whichinthemomentof breaking the electric circuit acts as
components, it mustbeunderstoodthatthemainpossible demagnetizing M. M. F., and, if the coercitive force is small,as
errors in the determinations on fully loaded transformers all in wrought-iron or annealed steel, almost entirely destroys the
point this way. Neglect of secondary self-induction, decrease remanent magnetism, while in aniron of large coercitive force
of magnetization with increasing load, slowing down of the it affects the permanent magnetism very little. In the closed
dynamealternator, etc., all cause an apparent decrease in the magnetic circuit the remanent magnetism causes no or very
hysteretic loss for increasing load. At least in one set of tests, littledifference of magneticpotential,andtherefore no de-
those made by Prof. Ryan, at Cornell University, on a small struction of the remanent magnetism by its own demagnetiz-
Westinghouse converter, I was able to show in my “Elemen- ing M. M. F. takes place. But with the hysteretic loss of energy
tary GeometricalTheory of theAlternateCurrentTrans- this phenomenon has nothing to do.
former”6thattheobserveddecrease of thehystereticloss To combine the results, whatI believe to have proved isthat
disappears by reducingthedifferentreadingstothesame loss of energy in iron caused by reversals of magnetism can be
magnetization and the samefreq~ency.~ expressed by the analytical formula:
If, indeed, the shape of the waveof M. M. F. varies, then a
certain difference in thevalue of the hysteretic loss can be +
H = vB’.~ r N B 2 .
imagined. Compare it with a mechanical or elastic cycle. A where
moving pendulum, or an oscillating spring, for instance, con- q =the cuefficient of hysteresis,
tinuouslyconvertspotentialenergy into kineticenergyand e -the cuefficient of eddy currents,
back; in each oscillation consuming, that is, converting into N =the frequency of the altemations of magnetism,
heat, a part of the energy by internal and external friction. q B’.6 =the loss of energy by hysteresis proper,or by
Now, if this motion of spring or pendulumis truly harmonic, molecular friction, and
less energy is converted into heat than if the motion varies eN, B2 =the loss of energy by eddy currents,per magnetic
abruptly, is jerking, etc. S o , in a magnetic cycle, between the cycle andperproportional to thefrequency N.
same limits of magnetizationthehystereticlossmight be
smallest, when the cycle is entirely harmonid, but mght be TABLE X V I .
larger if the M. M. F. varies abruptly; forinstance, when caused -n m
B 81.6 per 100
by an intermittent current. Pa 1 w pcr 1 w
Now, in a transformer with open secondary the M. M. F. 42 9ooo 2122 378 55
85 9500 2313 389 56
acting upon the iron is that of the primary current, and this 115 10.000 2.511 400 57
current is rigidly determined in its shape by the E. M. F. of the 142 10,500 2.716 41 58
164 llp00 2.925 42 59
d ~ and the
~ E. M.oF. ofSelf-indUctiOn.But in a loaded 185 11,500 3.141 43 59
205 12.000 3.363 44 60
transformer the secondary current is proportional to the 223 12,500 3.589 45 63
changes of the magnetism, therefore increases very consider- 2u) 13,000 3.821 46 66
258 13,500 4.060 47 70
ably in the moment of a sudden changeof magnetism. Hence, 275 14,000 4.303 48 73
292 14Joo 4.580 49 76
308 15,000 4.807 50 82
324 15,500 5.062 51 89
6 D e c 1891. Electrid Engineer, New Yoh 339 16,000 5.329 53 96
7~ latest tests of prov~that, in a w - wtraaJfm
the 353
366
16,500 5.598 54 103
lossbyhystacJisisnotsmaIkrthanforopensccondaycircrdt

STEINMETZ: ON THE LAW OF HYSTERESIS 215

 For convenience, I give in Table XVI, the values of the 1.6th therefore it is very interesting to me, and I think that we ought
powerof the numbers, from 500 to 50,OOO with the parts to congratulateourselves upon havinga member who can
proportional, or the increaseof B’.6 for 100 lines of magnetic tacklesuchasubject. It is veryseldom that in America,
force. anything of this kind is taken up. We see it very often in
YonLca N.Y..Dmmber 7th 1891. Europe, but ourcommercialage will hardly permit us to
devote our time to such experiments and carry them out as
they should be.
DISCUSSION.* MR. JOSEPH WETZLER:-Agentleman who is present but
who is not a member, has asked me to inquire of the author
THECmuwm:-Gentlemen, thepoet has informed us whether he made any experiments on mitis iron and, if so,
that “better Gfty years of EuropethanacycleofCathay.” what his results were.
What he would have done had he met a cycle of magnetism, MR. STEINMETZ:-~m e r made any experiments with re-
we can but conjecture. “he Institute has therefore good rea- gard to hysteresis, on mitis iron-only on different kinds of
son, I conceive, to congratulate itself that one of its members cast-iron.
does not shrink from such a conflict. I am sure I shall but MR. A. E. KENNELLyz-Mr. Pr&dent and gena- I
express the sentiments of every member present, when I say think that we have to congratulate ourselves upon a magnetic
that we are much obligedto Mr. Steinmea for his very elegant and physical treat in the paper that we have just listened to.
and exhaustive treatment of a subject whose title, to say the Mr.Steinmekhasbeen,Ithink,thefirsttopointoutthis
least,hasamostunpromisinganduninterestingsound-a remarkablelawofhysteresis-thevariation of theenergy
subject d e d q with the causes of those indspositions of iron consumed per cycle, with the total flux per square centimetre
to change its magnetic conditionwhich in our old telegraphic that passes through it. I think that it is perhaps preferable to
days wewerewont to s u m up by theunscientificterm of expresstheexponent in theequation as a vulgar fraction
“ residual magnetism.” instead of as a decimal-not that it alters the factsin any way,
Beforecallingforgeneral discussion, I wouldliketo ask but merely because it gives us a little more hope of being able
M r . Steinmetz whether, in his experiments and tests, he had to understand whatthe equation means,if not now, at least let
determined whether or not there was any real foundation in us say in thefuture. If, instead of writing the energy-
factforthedistinction whichProfessor Ewing has drawn ~ rsteinmetz
. calls it H,as q ~ 1 . 6 we
, write it q ~ fit, gives us
between the molecular friction, which hecalls “static hystere- some hopeof being able to transform that in a simpleh e r ,
sis,’’ andtherealtime-lag,whichhedenominated “viscous which will give us thefundamental law concerned I think
hysteresis.” there is very little doubt that the law Mr. Steinmek giva is
MR. STEINMEIZ:--I. really am not yet prepared to answer the true one. It is, first of aU, as he showed us some time ago,
the question whether viscous or time hysteresis exists or not. in accordance with the values observed by Professor Ewing,
My tests in only one setof determinations gave me an increase and so far as my own knowledge goesI am able to corroborate
of hysteretic loss with increasing frequency, which seems to it, for I have observed the same law in the case of one sample
point to the existence of a viscous hysteresis. For if a viscous of wrought-irontakenbyaballisticmethod, and another
hysteresis exists,it would show by an apparent increase of the sample of wrought-irontakenbywattmetermethcd,both
coefficient of hysteresis, with increasing frequency. But most giving the 9 power, although I do not know what the exact
of the tests do not show this, but give the same coefficient of value of the coefficient q was in those particular instances.It
hysteresis for different hequencies. is very puzzling to understand what that peculiar fraction 9
At any rate, if there exists such a time-hysteresis-which I means. It is rather too high and unwieldy a fraction to be
shall try to find out-it follows the law of the 1.6th power understood at a glance. But whatever its inner meaning may
also. be, its outward and visible indications are clear enough, be-
But I think, only at much higher frequencies than those I cause if you double the flux density in a piece of iron you will
have used in my tests, can we hope to meet with viscous trebletheenergywhich is consumed init per cycle, by
hysteresis. I hope to be able at a future meeting to give more hysteresis, independentof the energythat is umsumed in it by
detailed informationon this and some other phenomena con- eddy currents. Of course, if you have any m e which starts
nected with the magnetic hysteresis. from the zero point andrises up in that way, and if you take
THE Cmmwm-Gentlemen, thesubject is beforeyou. arbitrary distances like this in the formof u, u2, u3, and so on,
While a fewof us were in the parlor, prior to the reading of then if you want to find out whether that curve follows any
the paper, I heard Mr. Steinmek condolmgwithhimself in such law as
relationtotheweatherandexpressingthehope that there
would still be a very considerable discussion.It is therefore to Y - bX”
be hoped that any of us who may feel able to grapple with you have only got to mark off the ordinates corresponding to
such a subject will not hesitate to do so. those abscissae, and to see if with the powers ofu along Xyou
MR. CHAWS S. BRADLEY:-I do not feel able to discuss have a constant ratio from one to another in the ordinates. If
this paper, but I know it will prove very valuable to us. Our you do, that ratio will be un. In this case, if u is 2, un is almost
work of late has been upon transformers. I am connected with exactly 3. For the 1.6thpower of 2 is 3.03, which means that if
the Fort Wayne Electric Company, whose transformers now youdoublethe maximum magnetization in a piece of
use about 2,000 lines of force to the square centimetre, andwe wrought-iron, you will have 3.03 times the hysteresis loss, and
have been trying to increasethelines offorce.We en- this is a simple way of stating the resultswhich Mr. Steinmek
counteredthe veryphenomenatreated in this paper,and has pointed out.
MR. STEINMETZ:-~ pointed out by Mr. Kennelly, this law
*Discussionby Messrs. Bradley, Kenuelly, Lochvood and Pupin. of hysteresis gives a very simple numericalmeaning. It means

21 6 P R O C E E D I N G S O FTHE IEEE, VOL. 72, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 1%

that by doubling the magnetization you approximately treble In the alternating electromagnetism we have such a cyclic
thehystereticloss and quadrupletheeddy loss. So if you conversion of energy from electric into magnetic energy and
make but two tests therefrom, you can find out the amount of back. Magnetism represents a certain amount of stored up or
energyconsumedbyeddiesandtheamountconsumedby potential energy determined by the integral
hysteresis for any magnetization.
And, in general, youwill see at once whether theratio of the
iron lossfordoubledmagnetization is nearer to three, or
1FdB
rather 3.031, or to four, that is, whether hysteresis or eddies Now, as long as the magnetism increases, electric energy is
consume more energyin the iron. transferred from the electric current and converted into poten-
I would like to add a few remarks regarding the results of tial magnetic energy. While the magnetism decreases, potential
the tests given in the paper.This law of hysteresis is of interest magnetic energy is reumverted into electric energy, and ap-
from another pointof view: pears in the electric CirCUit aS E. M. F.
We all know,now, that energy is always the same and But the full amount ofenergy is not givenback to the
indestructible, and merely changes its form and appearance, electric circuit, but less. Less by that amount that has been
so that a certain quantity of any kindof energy converted into converted into heat by hysteresis.
any other kind of energy always gives an exactly determined Hence the lawof hysteresis is the dependenceof the integral
amount of the other form of energy, which we call the law of of entropy in the electromagnetic cycle, upon the intensity of
conservation of energy. magnetization, and thereforeof interest.
But this lawof conservation of energy needs a certain DR M. 1. Pwnc-I agree fully with Mr. Steinmetz's last
restrictionor,rather, addition, because everyconversionof remarks that no process in nature is perfectly reversible and
one formof energy into another is not possible, but only those that the phenomenon of magnetic hysteresis is only a special
where the value of a certain integral, called by Clausius the case of theirreversibility of ~ ~ processes.
a Itl is onlya
"entropy," is positive or more correctly, is not negative, though special case of the general law which was first announced by
the case, that the integralof entropy equals zero, hardly exists the late Professor Clausius, thelaw namely that the entropyof
in nature otherwise but as mathematical fiction, or, in plain the universe is tending toward a maximum, that is, that there
FJ1PljSh. only those conversions whereby the sum of the latent is a certainfunction of the propertiesof matter of the universe
heat of the universe increases. which increases as the amount of heat energy increases in the
Accordmg to this law of entropy, if the complete conversion universe. Now, as in every process thereis a certain amountof
of one form of energy into another is possible, the opposite energy convertedinto heat, the amountof heat in the universe
conversion is notcompletelypossible. Or if we converta is continually increasing. "herefore the entropy is continually
certain amount of one formof energy into another form of increasing and therefore steadily approaching its maximum.
energy,and this back again into thefirstform ofenergy, Professor Rankine made aguess as to how many years would
whichwe call a cyclic conversion of energy-we do not get elapse before the whole energy of the universe will be con-
back the origrnal amount of energy, but less, and a part of the verted into heat, when there will be no life, no natural phe-
energy has been lost;that means, converted into and dis- nomena excepting heat vibrations.It is very far off yet.
sipated as heat. Closely connected with this magnetic hysteresis is, I think
Therefore no complete cyclic conversion of energy exists, the so called electrestatic hysteresis. Of course experimental
but byanysuchcycletheamountofavailableenergy has researches in this field have not been carried on far enough
decreased by that fraction that was converted into heat. yet, to enable us to speak with any definiteness, but stin it is
Now, these cyclic conversionsof energy are of great impor- beyond all doubt that if youpolarizeadielectricandde-
tance in nature. polarize it again, a certain amount of heat is developed. I
For instance, a moving pendulum, an osciuating spring, a think oneof the obstacles to the commercial introduction of
discharging condenser completes cyclic processes. In the mov- the condenser,is its getting hot.Now some think it gets hot on
ing pendulum, continuously kineticmechauical energy is con- account of the convection currents which are passing between
verted into potential d ecal energy, when it moves from the plates of the condenser by means of the air currents and
the vertical position into its greatest elongation, while when the dust that is in the air; but if you use paraffine so that it
movingfromelongation into verticalposition its potential will preventthoseconvectioncurrents,eventhenyou will
energy is reconverted into kinetic e n e r g y , thereby completing a 0bseri.e heat developed in the paraffine which must be attri-
cycle, so that in vertical position all the energy is kinetic, in buted to the same cause whichdevelopsheatwhen iron is
elongation all the energy potential. magnetized and demagnetized; that is hysteresis. Polarization
In the same way, in the oscillating spring, a cycle is per- and depolarization of paraffine, and in fact any other dielec-
formed between potentialenergy of elasticity and kinetic tric, is not a perfectly reversible process.
energy of motion, in the discharging condenser between elec- Allow me now to commentupon a few points broughtup in
trostatic and electrodynamic energy, and that the pendulum Mr. Steinmetz's paper. I always believed thoroughlyin Profes-
and the spring come to rest, and the condenser discharges, is sor Ewing's views with regard to the following experimentally
due to the continuous lossof energy by dissipation as heat, well supported assumption, namely that in very low magneti-
caused by the law of entropy. zations the actof magnetizing and demagnetizing is practically
Now, in none of these cyclic conversionsof energy, so far as reversible,and that when a high point of saturation,say
I know, was the law known, which determines and analy-hcally 24,000 or 25,000 lines per square centimetre is reached, that
formulates the lossof energy by conversion into heat. The after that the loss dueto hysteresis doesnot increase. I do not
electromagneticcycle is thefirstone where in the lawof see why it should increase,because after that the iron does not
hysteresis, this law of dissipation of energy by heat, finds an receiveanystrongermagnetization.Theadditional lines of
analytical formulation. forceafterpassingthesaturationpointaredue to thein-

STEINMETZ: ON THE LAW OF HYSTERESIS 217

creased magnetization of the air itself, and that magnetization sudden rise of the impressed E. M. F., already a small rise of
is practically re~ersible.~ I see that M r . Steinmetz has found theprimarycurrentand,therefore, of themagnetism, will
out anincrease,independent of thedegree of saturation. induce sufficient counter E. M. F. to make a rapid increase of
There is a discrepancy, and I am inclined to side with Profes- the primary current impossible.
sorEwing, until I am convincedby Mr. Steinmetzthathis Hence, in the open circuited transformer, the waveof the
method of measurement and observationcouldnot be ob- magnetism will resemble the sine wave more thanthe wave of
jected to in any particular whatever. Unfortunately impressed E. M. F. But, nevertheless, it must differ from the
Mr. Steinmetz has not discussed his method so that one can sine wave if the impressed E. M. F. differs from sine shape.
examine it critically. He has given the general idea, theinstru- For, as before said, the resulting or current producingE. M. F.
ments employed, etc.,but there is no discussion of the theory and, therefore, the current, is rigidly determined by the small
of themethod,and also of the probable percentage of his difference of impressed and induced E. M. F., and the induced
errors of observation. I am sure that Mr. Steinmetz will do E. M. F. must therefore have a shape very similar to the im-
that at some future time. It would be very interesting andvery pressed E. M. F., hence differing from sine shape the more the
important indeed to knowwhetherthatdisagreement is in impressed E. M. F. differs therefrom.
favor of Mr. Steinmetz orof Professor Ewing. Now, the induced E. M. F. is the diffexential quotient of the
There is on page 49 a discussion of the variation of the magnetism.Hence, if themagnetism is asinewave its dif-
hysteresis loss with the load." In that discussion M r . Stein- ferential quotient, the induced E. M. F., has to be a sine wave
metz says as long as the secondary currentis open, the form of also and, on the other hand, the more the induced E. M. F.
the wave of the primary currentmay not be a sine curve; but differs fromsine shape, the more its integralfunction,the
that when the secondary current is started, the waveof the magnetism, is forcedtodiffer.Indeed,themagnetismmay
magneto-motiveforce is forced into theshape of thesine apparently differ, in its absolute value, less from sinusoidal
curve on account of the reaction of thesecondarycurrent. form than the impressedE. M. F., for it is not the instantaneous
Now I would beg to disagree with M r . Steinmetz; I think it is values of the magnetism which are directly influenced by the
just the opposite. It does not make any difference what the shape of impressed E. M. F., but thegreatersteepness or
electromotiveforceis, as long as thereisaverylargeself- flatness of the curve of magnetism which is directly caused by
induction in the circuit,-as there certainly is in the primary theimpressed E. M. F. But it is just this difference in the
circuit as long as thesecondary is open,the waveof the velocity of change, that is, in the quickness of rise or decrease
primary circuit is independent of the waveof the impressed of the magnetism, and not the magnetism itself which would
electromotive force and is practically a sine wave.Butwhen have to account for an increased loss by hysteresis. Hence, it is
the secondary circuit is closed, then the impressed electromo- really not the difference of the curve of magnetism, from sine
tiveforce,beingassistedbytheelectromotiveforces in the shape, but that of thecurve of inducedand,therefore of
secondary circuit, asserts itself and gives the primary current impressed E. M. F., which may possibly cause an increase in the
its own shape,andthestrongerthesecondarycurrent,the loss by hysteresis.
largerassistancetheprimaryimpressedelectromotiveforce Qute different in the transformer at full load. Indeed, its
getsfrom it. Thesecondarycurrent aids theprimaryim- apparent self-induction is essentially decreased and the primary
pressed E. M. F. to assert itself and force the primary current current will thereforeresemble the shape of theimpressed
into its shape, that is, the shapeof the impressed E. M. F. That E. M. F., and differ from the sinusoidal form, much morethan
can be proved very easily both from theoretical and practical for open circuit.
standpoints. So that I do not see the force of Mr. Steinmetz's But at fullloadthe waveofmagnetism and of resulting
argument. M. M. F. is much more independent of that of primary current
MR. SnINMETz:-Themethod used in my tests was the and primary E. M. F. It is caused by the combined action of
well-known electredynamometer method, as explained in the the instautanmus values of primary and of secondary current,
paper, withsomeslightmodifications to insure the greatest and thesecondarycurrent, again, is inducedbythemag-
possible exactnessin the results. netism.Hencetheresult will be, if asudden changeof
With regard to the difference between open circuited and impressed E. M. F. occurs and produces a sudden change of
fullyloadedtransformers,I think ProfessorPupin misun- primary current,just as suddenly as the opposite changeof the
derstood me. I didnotsaythatthe waveof theprimary secondary currents will take place,so that the resultantM. F. M.
crurenr in the transformer under full I d resembles the sine of both combined currents will not change perceptibly, but
wave more than with open circuit, for that would have been practically independent of tither current, will alternate freely
wrong. WhatI said was that thewave of the magnetism and of in sinusoidal waves, in spite of any difference in the wave
the resulting M. M. F. in the transformer underfull load resem- shape of primary and secondary current from the sine law.
blesmore the sine wave than it does in the open circuited And, indeed, a glance over the curves of instantaneous
transformer. values of the electric quantities in the transformer, as they
Suppose theimpressed E. M. F. at the terminals of the have been determined, for instance+by ProfessorRyan, at
transformer differs from the sineshape, differs even consider- Cornell University, and communicated to this Institute some
ably. Then the primary current, which at open circuit repre- time ago:' shows a considerable discrepancy at open circuit
sents the resulting M. M. F., will differ much less from the sine betweentheprimarycurrentandthesinewave,whileinthe
Shape than the impressed E. M. F., Smoothed out and loaded tranSfOlTtler the secondary E. M. P. and, therefore, the
rounded off to a very great extent by the heavy self-induction magnetism,almost universally resemblessine shape.
of the open circuit transformer. For in the moment of any With regard to Ewing's theory of the molecular magnets, I
do not say that I disbelieve in it, wither that I believe in it. At
thefirst view, this theory did not seem to agree with the
9AE Kenwlly, on "Magnetic ReluaancC" W s c n o ~ svol
, viii. No.
m.
lli'kw%cnO~ vol ix, p. 49 (
thi
sissuc p. 215).

218 P R O C E E D I N G S O F T H EIEEE, VOL. 72, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 1'3%

results ofmy tests, as I said in my paper, but I did not take greater, the induced E. M. F. is therefore much more indepen-
the time to think it over more completely whether this theory dent of the impressed E. M. F., the more, the greater the load
could be made to agree with the tests; my aim was to gather is, hence the curve of magnetism alternating freerthan at open
facts, being convincedthatbased upon alargenumber of circuit, and thereforemore approximating the harmonic vibra-
facts, a theory will be found in duetime to explain them. [ S e e tion of the sine-wave.
appendix, p. 221.1 DR.PUPIN:-It does not by anymeans follow that at every
DR hrpIN:-hbgnetiC force is certainly a resultant of the moment the difference between theimpressed E. M. F. and the
primary and secondary currents. As long as the sewndary is back E. M. F. is smallwhenaveragevalueof the current is
open, the primary current wiU be a sine wave, practically. It small, and that is the pointin your argument. And evenif it is
does not make any difference what the impressed electromo- I do not see how that can prove that the shape of the current
tive force is ofthe alternator, and therefore the magneto-motive and the impressed E. M. F. are the same.
force will be a sine wave and the magnetic inductionwill vary MR. S ~ ~ : - Whave e seen that the effective value of
like
sine
a wave. If you dose the secondary circuit, the current, and therefore the effective or average value of the
the self-inductionin the primary is reduced, and therefore the difference of primary impressed and primary induced E. M. F.
backelectromotiveforce in theprimary is smallerandthe must be small. This indeed does not prove that some of the
impressed electromotive forcebegins to assert itself more and instantaneous values of this difference may not be consider-
moreandgives to theprimarycurrent its ownshape.‘The able. But first, this couldbeonlythe case withveryfew
shape of thesecondarycurrent, as long as thesecondary‘s values,because, if for any great length of time the current
resistance is very large and secondary
the current is small-that were considerable, this would show in the average or effective
too is practically a sine wave, the primary current being also value,themore, as this is the averageof thesquares of
practically a sine wave, the resultant of the two-that is, the instantaneous values.
magneto-motive force-must also be a sine wave. But now, if On the other hand, to make the current considerable only
you diminish the resistance in the secondary circuit, that is, for a moment, while immediately before and after it is small,
increase the load, then theshape of the primary currentbegm eithertheinduced E. M. F. mustsuddenlydecreaseenor-
to correspondtothe shape of theimpressedelectromotive mously, and the next moment increase just as suddenly-which
force,and also theshape of secondarycurrentbeginsto is impossible, because it is the differential quotient ofmag-
correspond to theimpressedelectromotiveforce, and the netism-or the primaryE. M. F. had to rise and decrease again
resultant of the two, the magnetizing current, must also begin verysuddenly,andsuchasudden rise, andimmediately
tocorrespondmoreandmore in shape to theimpressed afterwards decreaseof primary impressed E. M. F., not only is
electromotive force-that is, the magnetemotive force begins an electredynamic alternator unable to produce, but no elec-
tocorrespondtothe shape of\,the impressedelectromotive tric circuit would permit a current ofsuch enormously large
force. The same is trueof the magnetic induction. We are not value and short duration topass. Hence we can from thesmall
to forget that the secondary current does not depend on the value of effectiveprimarycurrent,conclude that also its
rate of change of the primary current only. The relation is a instantaneous values without exception must be small.
little more complicated. ‘Thereis a differencein phase between DR. F”IN:-I do not suppose that a wave which is not a
theprimaryand secondary, varyinganywhere between 90 sine, must neceSSarily be a wave that goes up and down with
degreesand180degrees.Whenthedifference in phase is suddenvariations. I think that everygoodcommercialma-
nearly180degrees, that is, at full load,thentheprimary chine is constructedin such a way that the electromotive force
current and the secondary current correspond to each other is a perfectly smooth curve. There may be small comers, but
almostexactlyinshape,andhavethesame shape as the even those comers are very nicely rounded. Generally speak-
impressed electromotive force. ing it is a sign of good construction of the machine when the
MR. STEINMETZ:-I can not yet quite agree with Dr. Pupin. impressedelectromotiveforce is asmoothcurve-certainly
‘Iheresultant Of two M. M.F.’S Of s h a p e , but different not a curve that has kinks in it. Kinks in the current curve are
phase, need not have the same shape, but can have an entirely produced by a harmonically varying resistance. It would be
differentform. So forinstancetheresultant oftwovery almost impossible to construct a machine so badly as to give
ragged-looking waves can be acompletesinewave.Let us kinks in the electromotive force curve. ‘Ihe current may run
come down to numerical values. Take for instance a loo0 volt smoothly, but still be very far from a sine wave.A sine wave is
alternator, feeding into the primary coil of a transformer. ‘The not the only smoothly running wave. There are many other
internal resistance of the primary coil is 20 o. The current waves that are nice and smooth. The only possibility of having
flowing through theprimary, at open secondary circuit,a such a current as Mr. Steinmetz described, would be simply to
small fraction of an ampere. Hence, what I call the “resulting introduce into the circuit a harmonically variable resistance.
E. M. F.,” that is the E. M. F. which sends the current through An arc light circuit represents a harmonically variable resis-
the resistance, is only a few volts. tance, and introduces those complications, the kinks. An arc
But this “resulting E. M. F.,” is the difference of this instan- lightmachineviolatesmost of the well establishedrules in
taneous values of primaryimpressed, and primaryinduced dynamo construction, but it does the workof the arc light
E. M. F. The difference is only a fewvolts,the primary im- circuit admirably, and it does it because it encourages kinks
pressed E. M. F. = loo0 volts,hencetheprimaryinduced and other irregularities in the currentwave.
E. M. F. must be almost like the impressed E. M. F., and must I v l ~STEINMETZ-Ientirely agree withProfessorPupin,
differ fromsine-shape,therefore, if theimpressed E. M. F. that there is really nowadays almost no possibility of getting
differs;and if thedifferentialquotient of magnetism,the such sharp pointed wavesof alternating E. M. F. that a dif-
induced E. M. F., is non-sinusoidal, the curve of magnetism is ference of the hysteretic loss between open circuit and closed
non-sinusoidal also. circuit couldbe expected. And I did not believe myselfin this
In the transformer at full load the current and therefore the cause of the discrepancyof former testson transformers under
differencebetweeninducedandimpressed E. M. F. is much full load and with open secondary circuit.I made this remark

STEINMETZ: ON THE LAW OF HYSTERESIS 21 9

 only to be absolutely just, and not entirely to reject as e rr* circuitanE.M.~.,E~isconsumed,whi~lagsonoquartcrofa
neous, determinations made by others butat least to point out phase, or 90 degrees, behind the current, and is proportional
a cause which might produce, though not at all likely, a slight to the current C , with a coefficient of proportionality I , which
difference between the values found under full load and with I callthe Inductance of the circuit:
open circuit. E2 s= IC
Indeed, all our modern alternatorsproduce wavesvery
much resembhg sine curves, and the only way to get from This inductance, I , is of equal dimension with the resistance
them such rapidly changing E. M. F.’s is, as Dr. pupin pointed R,hencemeasuredinohmsalso.
out, the introductionof variable resistances, as arc lamps, into This inductance, I , is proportional also to the frequency of
the circuit. the alternating current. Hence, if I call the inductance for 100
But some of the older types of alternators, as, for instance, complete periods per second the N d inductunce I,, for any
the Klimenko alternator at the Vienna exhibition,1882,’2 gave other frequency N the inductance is simply
evidently sharp pointed E. M. F.’S, as 1 found by drawing the
curve of instantaneous values of E. M. F. of an alternator of a
similar type, where induction was produced by making and
breaking the magnetic circuit.As you see, this is a verysimilar Now, the “normal inductance”is a constant of the circuit
case to that referred to by Dr. Pupin, only that in this case a just as well as the“resistance” or the “coefficient of self-
variablemagneticreluctanceandnotavariableelectrical induction,” and only dependsupon the latter by the equation,
resistance was introduced into the circuit. z, = 200rrL
MR. KENNEuY:-It is unfair, perhaps, when we have such
a good paper, to offer criticisms upon it, but when it is as only that “inductance” is measured in ohms also, therefore
likely as this is to become classical I think that in self defense most easily combined with the resistance.
we ought to try to keep it as free from all imperfections as The combination of theresistance-which determine the
possible. I am taking the liberty of makmg a criticism on one E. M. F. of equal phase with the current-with the inductance,
term Mr. Steinmetz has used. He has spoken of the normal which determines the E. M. F. lagging onequarter phase be-
inductance of the coil of his ammeter as so many ohms, and I hind the current,is the “impedance,”or “apparent resistance.”
would suggest that it would be preferable to employ the word Hence,
impedance, instead of inductance, because an inductance is a
henryandanimpedanceisanohm,andIthinkitisapityto +
Impedance = {(Resistan~e)~ (Inductance)2
confuse the two ideas. The quotient of inductance and resistance is the angle of
MR. STEINMETZ:-I didnot use theterminductance as difference of phase between current and impressed E. M. F.
synonymous with coefficient of self-induction, where it would
be expressed in henrys,but I used inductance in the verysense Inductance
tancp =
that Mr. Kennelly means with impehnce. Resistance
I intentionally used the term inductance, following a pro- You see, it is easy to make a person understand that he has
positionwhichIreadonce,Idonotrememberwhere, but in an alternatingcurrentcircuit two kinds of resistancesa
which seemed to meso highly commendable, that I should like “resistance” which consumes energyand an “inductance”
to see it introduced in practical engineering. which does not consume energy, and make him calculate the
Indeed,the“coefficient of self-induction”givesallthe apparent resistance or “impedance” as the hypothenuse of a
information needed for determining the electric phenomena in right-angled triangle, with resistance and inductance as catheti;
inductivecircuits.Buteverybcdy will concedethat it is a while the coefficientof self-induction will frighten the “practi-
tedious, cumbersomework,fromthe“coefficientof self- cal man” still for quite awhile.
induction” to- calculate, for instance, the instrument correc- On the other hand, “inductance” is more convenient than
tions for a whole set of tests made with somewhat differing “coefficient of self-induction,” because expressed in the same
frequencies. Besides, I think it will be some time before the dimensions as resistance, in ohms.
“practical electrician” will handle the “coefficient of self-in- I used the term “normal inductance,” because in reducing
duction” just as easily as he now does ohms and amperes. the rea- I found it much more convenient than the use of
Let us considersomewhatcloserthephenomena in an the “coefficient of self-induction,” and therefore recommend
inductive circuit. If a sine waveof alternating current flows its use.
through an inductive circuit, a certain E. kf. F. is consumed by MR. WETzLER:-Before moving to adjourn, I would like to
Opposing E. M. F.’S. move a vote of thanks to Mr. Steinmetz for his admirable and
First, by the electric resistance of the circuit, an E. M. F. E, interesting paper this evening.
is consumed, which is proportional to the current C, with a THE Chmww:--Gentlemen, it is with fee@ of peculiar
coefficient of proportionality, R , which is called the true or gratification that I put this motion. I was very glad indeed to
ohmic resistance, or, in short, the Resirtance of the circuit. hear Mr. Bradley,in his initiatory remarks speak of the
This E. M. F. is of equal (but opposite) phase with the cur- marked excellences of the paper wehave heard read, and I
rent C: was pleased also to hear him remark upon the rarity of such
E1 = RC papers in America Mr. Bradley, I think,did our sister socie-
ties of Europe more thanjustice, because it is in but few of the
Then by the action of the changing magnetic field of the societiesoverthere, and I am speaking of Englishspeaking
countries of course, that we find such papers as this-leaving
‘2Aremarkabkfeaturewasthatitconsumcd4w.~.whcnmnning~~ outthePhysicalSociety and that other in which the most
M load, but almost 6 R P. when running M y excited but without taking
m t off, that is, without load. distinguished member of our own profession now presides so

220 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 72, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 1964

ably (I mean the Royal Society), thereis none in which papers This is exactly thecase, when the hysteretic loss,follows the
of this character are of high frequency. law of the 1.6th of the magnetizm'on B, as shown best by the
[A vote of thanks was carried and the meeting adjourned.] affixed m e Fig. 16.13
- In Fig.16the dorred m e gives the magnetization B, in
lines of magnetic forceper cm.*,as function of theM. F. M.F,
APPENDIX in ampere turnsper cm.
[COMMUNICATED BY MR SEXNMXZ AFTER ADJOURNMENT.] ?he drawn m e gives the hysteretic loss, in ergs per
Having had time in thelast fewdays to considermore and cycle, calculated by the equation:
deeply the relation of this law of hysteresis to Ewing's theory H = .003507B1.6")
of magnetism, I found that this law of hysteresis agrees very
nicelywith Ewing's theory, giving just the phenomena this but not plotted, as in the former curves, with the magnetiza-
theory leadsus to expect. tions B as abscisste, but with the M. M. F.'s: F as ab&, that
According to Ewing's 'Iheory, for very low M. M. F.'s, forces is in the form:
too small to affectthechains of molecularmagnets,the H = f( F).
magnetic cycle should be almost reversible, that is, the hys-
teresis very small or almost nil. As seen, the hysteresis H for low M. M. F.'s, F = 0 1, is -
For medium M. M. F.'s, that is M. M. F.'S largeenough to verylow and almost nil, increases very rapidly for medium
break up the chains of molecular magnets, the magnetic cycles -
M. M. F., F = 2 5, andthenincreasesslower again and
mustbecomemarkedlyirreversible,andthehysteresis as always slower, just as Ewing's theory leads us to expect.
function of the M. M. F., must rapidly increase. Yonkers, N.Y., February 7th, 1892.
For high M. M. F.'s, where the chains of molecular magnets
are mostly broken by the superior outsideM. M. F., the hyster- curve corresponds to a set of tests n o t contained in the paper,
etic loss, as function of the M. M. F., should be expected to being made after its completion. I chose this particular set of tests, because
it covers a larger range of magnetization than any set of tests given in the
increase slower again and always slower. Paper.

STEINMETZ: ON THE LAW OF HYSTERESIS 221