21‐01‐2020

WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

Dr. MANOJ K TIWARI
SCHOOL OF WATER RESOURCES, IIT KHARAGPUR

Module 04: Water Storage Structures

Lecture 18 : Raw Water Storage

 Storage of Water
 In‐Stream and Off‐Stream Raw Water Storage Systems
 Capacity of Raw Water Storage Systems
 Design Considerations
 Reservoir Sedimentation and Control

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Storage of Water
 Storage of Water may be required at several stages in a
water supply systems.
 Storage before the intake: Dam or impounding
reservoir may be needed for tapping water streams
with low and inconsistent flow
 Storage after the intake, before the treatment plant:
Reservoirs may be build to store water for
consistent supply to treatment plant
 Storage after the treatment plant: Treated water Image Source:
https://www.britannica.com/explore/savingearth/water‐supply‐system/
must be adequately and safely stored before it https://www.jerseywater.je/about‐us/learn‐more/raw‐water‐storage‐
reservoirs/
reaches the end consumer.

Raw Water Storage

 Raw water may be stored (if required), in‐stream through
dams or off‐stream through reservoirs.

 Diversion of water to a reservoir during periods of high

precipitation / flow, while reservoir water is used during
periods of low precipitation (dry season).

 Raw water storage dams or reservoirs represent major

investments, so are constructed only where there is a strong,
demonstrable need.

 The construction of dams and the blockage of natural rivers,

inevitably have environmental impacts such as resettlement
and rehabilitation, loss of heritage features, destruction or
change of local flora and fauna and changes to local water
quality and groundwater regimes.
Image Source: https://www.rnz.co.nz/national/programmes/afternoons/galleries/auckland%27s‐dams

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Raw Water Storage: Advantages and Disadvantages

 The only major advantage is that the raw water storage of adequate capacity helps in ensuring
uninterrupted supply even in the driest period.

 Reservoirs helps in reducing settleable solids and turbidity from water before it is pumped to
the treatment facility. Thus, it reduces the suspended solids load at treatment units.

 Leads to both, positive and negative, environmental (ecological as well as social) impacts.
However, including externalities, negative impacts are generally considered far more critical
than positive impacts for dams.

 Significantly increases the capital cost of the project including land cost. Additional operation
and maintenance (O&M) cost of these facilities also adds up system’s O&M.

 These structures are prone to siltation. Therefore proper provisions are needed in design or
operation protocol to remove the deposited silts.

Image Source: https://www.rnz.co.nz/national/programmes/afternoons/galleries/auckland%27s‐dams

In‐Stream Raw Water Storage

Jaikwadi Dam, Aurangabad

Lower Nihotupu Dam, Auckland Cantoniera Dam, Sardinia, Italy

Image Source: https://journals.openedition.org/factsreports/4055

https://www.arcgis.com/apps/MapSeries/index.html?appid=1cee559b159b47d9aedf50ad887a4003
Google Images

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Off‐Stream Raw Water Storage

Tampa Bay Water, Florida Eden Valley Raw Water Reservoir, Canada Euroa Raw Water Storage, Victoria, AUS
Image Source: https://www.hazenandsawyer.com/work/projects/long‐term‐master‐water‐plan‐update‐for‐tampa‐bay‐water/
https://www.ae.ca/ae‐today/latest‐updates/details/blog/2019/11/10/eden‐valley‐water‐treatment‐plant‐upgrades‐help‐to‐meet‐
current‐drinking‐water‐guidelines‐and‐increase‐capacity
https://www.gvwater.vic.gov.au/about‐us/news‐centre/‐news‐and‐media‐releases/euroa‐violet‐town‐storage‐works‐continue‐but‐
Raw Water Reservoir, Raigarh conservation‐efforts‐required‐in‐the‐interim
TATA Power, Raigarh

Capacity of Raw Water Storage Systems

 No specific guideline. Availability of suitable
locations/land area are critical for these.
Bagatelle Dam, Port Louis, Mauritius
 The capacity depends on water demand and
availability (consistency) at source.

 Generally large storages are provided for dams

(for meeting a few months to years demand),
and dams may have multiple objectives as well.

 For off‐line storage systems, smaller capacity

reservoirs are designed having storage volume
to meet the demand for a few days to months.

 Various industries also prefer to have a off‐line Image Source: http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018‐07/27/c_137352488_2.htm

raw water storage system, in order to ensure

uninterrupted water supply.

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Design Consideration for Raw Water Storage Structures

 For dams, generally earthen dams are preferred. However, water
pressure (depending on depth), dead load of structure, and seismic load
(for earthquake resistance) must be considered in the calculations for
dam design. Thus, if warranted, concrete or stone masonry (gravity
dams) or rockfill dams are also used.

 The areal spread and depth of the reservoir are chosen based on
minimizing cost and environmental effect for providing desired capacity.

 In off‐line storage systems, bottom lining is provided in order to prevent

infiltration. Low cast lining materials, geotextile, HDPE etc many be used
for lining. While, lining in large dam impoundments may not be
provided due to negligible percentage losses through infiltration.

 The bank protections are ensured with proper concrete lining, rock
barrier or gabion barrier. Image Source: http://www.siplast‐international.com/references/pond‐at‐Laughtondale
https://www.fli‐group.com/our‐expertise/case‐studies/geosynthetics/coal‐mine‐raw‐water‐storage‐ponds

Reservoir Sedimentation and Control

 As dams/reservoirs store raw water, it is obvious that over
the time reservoirs would be subjected to deposition of silt,
mud, plant residues etc in its bottom, reducing its capacity as
well as adversely effecting water quality.

 There are preventive and remedial approaches to deal with

the reservoir sedimentation problem.

 Preventive Measures: Reducing sediment inflow by erosion

control measures such as afforestation, and upstream
sediment trapping by providing check dams or alternate
route to sediments.

 Remedial Measures: Desilting and dredging the reservoirs for

the removal of deposited sediments
Source: https://ben‐en.com/pcwa‐clover‐valley‐reservoir/
Handbook for Assessing and Managing Reservoir Sedimentation, Central Water Commission, GoI, Feb 2019

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Sediment Management in Reservoirs

For more details, please refer to:

Handbook for Assessing and Managing
Reservoir Sedimentation,
Central Water Commission, GoI,
Feb 2019

Image Source: Morris, G.L. (2015): Management Alternatives to Combat Reservoir Sedimentation. Proceedings of International Workshop on Sediment Bypass Tunnels. Zurich.

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WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

Dr. MANOJ K TIWARI
SCHOOL OF WATER RESOURCES, IIT KHARAGPUR

Module 04: Water Storage Structures

Lecture 19 : Treated Water Storage

 Storage of Treated Water

 Types of Storage Reservoirs
 Storage Zones in Reservoirs
 Elevated Storage Reservoirs (ESRs)
 Water Quality in Reservoirs

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Storage of Treated Water

 Storage of treated water is an important aspect for water supply
systems, and is mainly needed for meeting peak flow requirements,
equalizing system pressures, and providing emergency water supply.

 The specific functions of treated water storage systems are:

 Providing a reserve of treated water that will minimize

interruptions of supply due to failures of mains, pumps, or other
plant equipment, and would provide extra water during peak
flow requirements.

 Help maintain pressure in the distribution pipelines, and allowing

pumping at the average rate rather than peak flow rate, thereby
reducing pipe sizes. Image Source: https://www.makemebuilder.com/blogs/water‐
storage‐and‐distribution‐system‐in‐buildings

 Assuring reserve of water for emergencies including fire fighting.

Treated Water Storage Reservoirs

 Storage reservoirs are integral components of the water
supply system

 The strategic location of the storage reservoir depends on

the storage requirements within the system to meet the
variations in demand and other functions.

 Storage reservoirs can also be distinguished based on:

 Their location and function within the water supply

system.

 Their elevation with respect to ground level

Image Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_distribution_system

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Types of Storage Reservoirs

 Based on the location and function:
 Clear Water Reservoir are used to store
treated water at WTP before pumping to
distribution

 Distribution or Service Reservoirs store

water at required head before distribution. These
are located close to ‘centre of demand’ of the
distribution network for optimum service.

 Intermediate Tanks or Balancing Reservoir

may also be provided downstream of Distribution Image Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Combined‐gravity‐and‐
pumping‐system_fig3_333776154
Reservoirs (within the distribution network) for
storing water during low demands and supply
during peak demands.

Types of Storage Reservoirs

 Based on the elevation with respect to the ground level:

Ground storage reservoirs (GSR) –

 Below the ground – Underground reservoir
 On the ground – Ground‐level reservoir Elevated reservoir

Elevated storage reservoir (ESR) –

 In an elevation – Elevated reservoir

Ground‐level reservoir

Underground reservoir

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Ground Storage vs Elevated Storage

Ground Storage Elevated Storage

Set up when there is a convenient high Used when there is no convenient high
ground ground
Used for large local supplies Can be used for supply with shorter
connection pipelines
Ground storage is more economical Elevated storage is less economical and
needs more maintenance

No limit to the size of the reservoir Practical limit to the size of the reservoir

Storage Zones in Reservoirs

 Operating Storage: Also known as operational storage or
useful or live storage, it is the difference in volume between
the “pump on” and “pump off” levels when the tank is
normally being used and the sources of supply pumps to the
storage tank are off.

 Equalizing Storage: This is used when the source pumping

capacity cannot meet the periodic daily (or longer) peak
demands. This storage allows water production facilities to
operate at a relatively constant rate. Daily peak rates
compared to the average daily demand determine the
volume for this storage.
Image Source:
http://www.nesc.wvu.edu/pdf/dw/publications/ontap/2009_tb/reservoirs_to
wers_tanks_DWFSOM15.pdf

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Storage Zones in Reservoirs

 Standby or Breakdown or Contingency Storage: The purpose
of this is to provide a measure of reliability should sources
fail or when unusual conditions impose higher demands
than anticipated. For systems served by multiple sources,
this may be neglected.

 Emergency or Fire Storage: This storage takes care of the

requirement of extinguishing fire or other unusual
emergencies.

 Dead Storage: The bottom zone of storage in a reservoir is

known as dead storage. Water from dead storage cannot be
drawn out or used beneficially because of piping elevations Image Source:
or low pressures. http://www.nesc.wvu.edu/pdf/dw/publications/ontap/2009_tb/reservoirs_to
wers_tanks_DWFSOM15.pdf

Effective Storage Volume = Total Volume ‐ Dead Storage

Elevated Storage Reservoirs or Elevated Service Reservoirs (ESRs)

 Elevated reservoirs are generally constructed when sufficient
high ground above the distribution area is not available for
the construction of ground reservoirs.

 Water level is maintained in these reservoirs to obtain

gravity flow for the distribution network at adequate
pressure at consumer taps.

 Elevated tanks may be constructed with R.C.C. or steel. Pre‐

stressed R.C.C. tanks are also being used as they are
economical than plain R.C.C. tanks.

 These are made in various shapes depending on the

designing engineers, such as circular, rectangular, egg‐
Image Source: https://www.lntecc.com/homepage/Water/gallery/index.html
shaped etc.

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Water Quality in Reservoirs

 Water quality in reservoirs may deteriorate with longer storage duration due to,
• Progressive decay of disinfectant residuals
• Growth of disinfectant by‐products
• Formation of stagnant regions in the reservoir

 Reservoirs with common inlet and outlet are more susceptible due to water quality deterioration
due to Low turnover of reservoir contents, and high stored water age

 In order to maintain water quality in reservoirs, following may be considered:

• Appropriate positioning of inlet and outlet to create good mixing and prevent stratification
• Installation of baffles to promote plug flow
• Creating diurnal fluctuation in water level using the operational regime
• Optimizing the flow characteristics using computation fluid dynamic modeling

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WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

Dr. MANOJ K TIWARI
SCHOOL OF WATER RESOURCES, IIT KHARAGPUR

Module 04: Water Storage Structures

Lecture 20 : Placement, Design and Construction of Storage Reservoirs

 Locating Storage Reservoirs

 Estimating Capacity of Reservoirs
 Mass‐Curve and Hydrograph Methods
 Design and Constructions of Reservoirs
 Testing Storage Reservoirs

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Locating Storage Reservoirs

 Service reservoirs need to supply water to the farthest point in the
service area. Thus, in view of the cost of pipelines and uniform
pressure distribution, generally the reservoir should be located near
the center of the service area, especially in flat areas.

 However, apart from the center, the storage reservoirs may be placed
to alternate locations depending on the regional geography between
the source and the city.

 In hilly areas, in order to harness the natural potential energy, it may

be more advantageous to built reservoir at the highest point even if it
lie at one end of the area instead of the center.

 When water is sourced from higher level reservoir, the service

reservoir may function as a pressure‐reducing device, reducing the
possibility of damage to the pipes due to high hydrostatic pressure.
Image Source: http://www.nesc.wvu.edu/pdf/dw/publications/ontap/2009_tb/reservoirs_towers_tanks_DWFSOM15.pdf

Capacity of Storage Reservoirs

 Capacity of Reservoirs to be provided depends on the economic analysis of various
alternatives ensuring uninterrupted supply for meeting demand and fluctuations.

 The minimum service or balancing capacity depends on hours and rates of pumping
in a day, the daily variations in the demand, and hours of supply. Also factors such
as type of network (loop or branched), and reliability of source and pumping
capacity (standby pumps) helps deciding on reservoir capacity.

 In case of continuous supply, reservoir capacity is usually about 25‐35% of quantity

of water to be supplied in a day, while larger storage capacity is needed for
intermittent supply systems.

 Typically, the storage capacity of balancing or service reservoirs is worked out with
the help of demand and pumping budget, by mass curve method, hydrograph Image Source:
method, or by analytical tabular solution. https://www.lcepl.com/services/

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Estimating Reservoir Capacity: Hydrograph Method

 Hourly Water Demand on a maximum day is plotted
against the respective hours of the day for obtaining a
hydrograph.

 For a uniform 24 hours pumping, the constant pumping

rate (equal to the mean hourly demand) is also plotted.

 The storage required for distribution reservoir is then

obtained by determining the area representing required
storage between the supply and demand lines.

 The demand hydrograph also indicates the required

pumping rate in absence of a a distribution reservoir
(peak of the demand curve). Thus, by providing a
Image Source: http://www.engineeringenotes.com/water‐engineering‐
distribution reservoir of suitable capacity, the required 2/distribution‐reservoirs/distribution‐reservoirs‐purpose‐types‐and‐location‐
water‐engineering/44320
rate of pumping may be reduced by almost 30‐40 %.

Estimating Reservoir Capacity: Mass Curve Method

 A mass curve is the plot of accumulated supply through pumping
(inflow) or demand (outflow) versus time.

 The ordinate of mass curve at any time t represents the cumulative

volume of inflow or outflow (V = . The slope at any point of
the curve (dV/dt =Q) represents rate of flow at that instant.

 The mass curve of inflow (supply line) and outflow (demand line)
are superimposed over each other, and the amount of balancing
storage is determined by adding the maximum ordinates between
the demand and supply lines.

 First hourly demand for all 24 hours from the day of maximum
requirement is determined. Supply and demand lines are plotted.
supply line will be straight if the supply is constant. The storage
required is calculated as the sum of the two maximum ordinates Image Source: http://www.engineeringenotes.com/water‐
engineering‐2/distribution‐reservoirs/distribution‐reservoirs‐
between demand and supply lines. purpose‐types‐and‐location‐water‐engineering/44320

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Estimating Reservoir Capacity: Analytical Tabular Method

 The concept is similar to mass curve method, but exercise is performed numerically using a Table
in place of curves.

 Cumulative hourly demand and cumulative hourly supply are tabulated for all the 24 hours. The
hourly excess demand and hourly excess supply are worked out. The summation of maximum of
the excess of demand and the maximum of excess of supply gives the required storage capacity.

Period In Average Cumulative Constant Cumulative Excess of Excess of

Hrs Hourly av. Hourly Pumping Pumping Demand supply
Demand demand Rate Rate (+ve values) (+ve values)
1 2 3 4 5 6=3‐5 7=5‐3
1
2
3
4

Reservoir Designing and Construction: Surface Reservoirs

 Surface Reservoirs are typically circular, square or rectangular tanks.

 Usually, shape of the land available is often determining factor in built up areas. A circular tank is
geometrically the most economic in shape (least amount of walling), but needs flat ground.

 Many times, rectangular tanks prove more economical by making best use of available land.

 Service reservoirs with two compartments are suitable as they can be drained for maintenance,
this is very difficult attain in circular shape.

 The economic depths of the reservoir may be determined considering the cost per unit area (such
as land, earthwork, lining, cover etc.) and unit cost of exterior walls. Generally, depths are
preferred in the range of 2.5‐3.5 m for reservoir capacity up to 3500 m3, 3.5‐5 m for reservoir
capacity ranging between 3500‐15000 m3, and 5‐7 m for reservoirs of higher capacity.

 When not limited by other considerations, the locations and elevation of the bottom are so
chosen as to secure the most economical relation between excavation and filling.

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