Ata Elahi

Alex Cushman

Computer
Networks
Data Communications, Internet and
Security
Computer Networks
Ata Elahi • Alex Cushman

Computer Networks
Data Communications, Internet and Security
Ata Elahi Alex Cushman
Southern Connecticut State University Southern Connecticut State University
New Haven, CT, USA New Haven, CT, USA

ISBN 978-3-031-42017-7    ISBN 978-3-031-42018-4 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42018-4

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In the memory of my parents and
father in-law.
Ata Elahi
Preface

This book is the result of teaching various networking courses at Southern

Connecticut State University since 1987. The textbook covers: Digital
Communications, Local Area Networks (LANs), Internet Protocols, Voice Over IP
(VOIP), Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs), Low Power Wireless
Technologies (ZigBee, 6LowPAN, and LoRa), Cryptography, and Network Security.
The beta version of the textbook was tested for use as a text reference for the under-
graduate courses in networking at Southern Connecticut State University.

Intended Audience

This book is written primarily for students majoring in information technology,

computer science, engineering technologies, or computer information systems, as
well as any person interested in learning the concepts of computer networking. The
book covers a broad range of topics and it can be used in higher level courses.

Organization

The materials of this book are presented using a practical approach, as opposed to
using theory only, and thus no special background is required to understand
the topics.
Chapter 1 – Introduction to Communications Networks: Network models,
Network topologies, Types of Networks, the OSI model, the TCP/IP Model,
Standard Organizations, and Communication Protocols
Chapter 2 – Data Communications: Analog Signals, Digital Signals, Binary
Numbers, ASCII code, Full-duplex, Half-duplex, Serial and Parallel Transmission,
Baseband Transmission, Broadband Transmission, Error Detection Methods (Parity

vii
viii Preface

Check, Block Check Character (BCC), One’s Complement of the Sum, and Cyclic
Redundancy Check (CRC))
Chapter 3 – Communications Channels and Media: UTP, Fiber Optic Cabling,
Wireless, Channel Bandwidth, Latency, Synchronous Optical Network (SONET),
SONET Signal Rates, SONET Frame Format
Chapter 4 – Multiplexer and Switching Concepts: Types of Multiplexers (TDM,
FDM, CDM, and WDM), Digitizing Voice, T1 Links, Circuit Switching, Packet
Switching, and Virtual Circuits
Chapter 5 – Error and Flow Control: The Data Link Layer, Frame Transmission
Methods, Flow Control (Stop and Wait ARQ, Continuous ARQ, and Sliding
Window), and IEEE 802 Standard Committee
Chapter 6 – Modulation Methods, Cable Modems, and FTTH: Modem Operation,
Modulation Methods (ASK, FSK, PSK, and QAM), Cable Modems, and Fiber to
The Home (FTTH)
Chapter 7 – Ethernet Technologies: Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, 10
Gigabit Ethernet, and Ethernet Access Methods
Chapter 8 – LAN Interconnection Devices: Repeaters, Bridges, Switches,
Spanning Tree Protocol (STP), Layer 3 Switches, Virtual LAN (VLAN), VLAN
Operation, Routers, and Gateways
Chapter 9 – Internet Protocols Part I: The Internet Architecture Board (IAB),
TCP/IP Reference Model, TCP/IP Application Level, Transport Level Protocols
(UDP and TCP), Internet Level Protocols (IP), IPv4 Addressing, Classless IPV4
Addresses, ARP (Address Resolution Protocol), Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6),
and IPV6 Address Format
Chapter 10 – Internet Protocols Part II and MPLS: Domain Name System
(DNS), Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP), HTTP (Hypertext Transfer
Protocol), Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP), Multi-protocol Label
Switching (MPLS), IP Multicast, Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP),
and Socket Programming
Chapter 11 – Voice over Internet Protocol (Voice over IP): VoIP Operation, VoIP
Protocol, Session Initiation Protocol (SIP), SIP Components, Connection Operation,
and Bandwidth Calculation for VoIP
Chapter 12 – Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN): WLAN Topologies, Wireless
LAN Technology, WLAN Standards (IEEE 802.11 Families), Wireless LAN
Physical Layers, IEEE 802.11g/n/ax, WLAN Medium Access, and MAC
Frame Format
Chapter 13 – Low Power Wireless Technologies for Internet of Things (IoT):
ZigBee Operation and Components, ZigBee Topologies, ZigBee Application
Profiles, ZigBee Protocol Architecture, Physical Layer, IEEE 802.15.4 MAC Layer
ZigBee Security Modes, 6LoWPAN Architecture, LoRa Wide Area Network
Technology (LoRa WAN), LoRaWAN Components, and LoRaWAN Security
Chapter 14 – Introduction to Cryptography: Elements of Network Security,
Introduction to Cryptograph, RC4 Algorithm, Data Encryption Standard, Advanced
Encryption Standard (AES) RSA Algorithm, Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange
Preface ix

Algorithm, Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) Hash Value or Message Digest,

Message Authentication Code (MAC), Digital Signatures, and Kerberos
Chapter 15 – Network Security: Secure Socket Layer Protocol (SSL/TLS),
Virtual Private Network (VPN), IP Security Protocol (IPsec), Secure Shell (SSH),
IEEE 802.1X, Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP), Certificates, Firewalls,
WLAN Security, IEEE 802.11i, WPA, WPA2, WPA3

New Haven, CT, USA  Ata Elahi

  Alex Cushman
Acknowledgments

We would like to express our special thanks to Professor Lancor, Chairman of the
Computer Science Department at Southern Connecticut State University for her
support, and to Mr. Nicholas Brenckle for developing a program to find the points
and the sum of points on an elliptic curve.
We wish to acknowledge and thank Ms. Mary E. James, Senior Editor in Applied
Sciences, Professor Podnar, Mr. Omar Abid, and Vika Konovalenko for helping
develop the manuscript for this text. Finally, we would like to thank the students of
CSC 265 – Computer Networking and Security I and CSC 565 – Computer Networks
for testing the initial versions of this textbook.

xi
Contents

1 
Introduction to Communications Networks������������������������������������������    1
1.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    1
1.2 Computer Networks��������������������������������������������������������������������������    2
1.3 Network Models��������������������������������������������������������������������������������    3
1.4 Network Components ����������������������������������������������������������������������    4
1.5 Network Topology����������������������������������������������������������������������������    5
1.6 Types of Networks����������������������������������������������������������������������������   10
1.7 Communication Protocols and Standard Organizations ������������������   12
1.7.1 Standard Organizations��������������������������������������������������������   13
1.8 Networking Protocol Models������������������������������������������������������������   14
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   16
Review Questions��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   17
2 Data Communications ����������������������������������������������������������������������������   23
2.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   23
2.2 Analog Signals����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   24
2.3 Digital Signals����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   26
2.4 Binary Numbers��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   27
2.5 Coding Schemes��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   29
2.6 Transmission Modes ������������������������������������������������������������������������   31
2.7 Transmission Methods����������������������������������������������������������������������   32
2.8 Communication Modes��������������������������������������������������������������������   33
2.9 Signal Transmission��������������������������������������������������������������������������   34
2.10 Digital Signal Encoding��������������������������������������������������������������������   35
2.11 Error Detection Methods������������������������������������������������������������������   37
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   43
Review Questions��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   45
3 
Communications Channels and Media��������������������������������������������������   49
3.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   49
3.2 Conductive Media ����������������������������������������������������������������������������   50
3.3 Fiber-Optic Cable������������������������������������������������������������������������������   52

xiii
xiv Contents

3.4 Wireless Transmission����������������������������������������������������������������������   56

3.5 Transmission Impairment ����������������������������������������������������������������   56
3.6 Bandwidth, Latency, Throughput, and Channel Capacity����������������   59
3.7 Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) ����������������������������������������   63
3.7.1 Characteristics of SONET����������������������������������������������������   63
3.7.2 SONET Components������������������������������������������������������������   63
3.7.3 SONET Signal Rates������������������������������������������������������������   64
3.7.4 SONET Frame Format����������������������������������������������������������   65
3.7.5 SONET Multiplexing������������������������������������������������������������   66
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   67
Review Questions��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   69
4 
Multiplexer and Switching Concepts ����������������������������������������������������   75
4.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   75
4.2 Types of Multiplexers ����������������������������������������������������������������������   77
4.3 Telephone System Operation������������������������������������������������������������   82
4.4 Digitizing Voice��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   82
4.5 T1 Links��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   83
4.6 Switching Concepts��������������������������������������������������������������������������   84
Summary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   87
Review Questions��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   88
5 
Error and Flow Control��������������������������������������������������������������������������   93
5.1 The Data Link Layer������������������������������������������������������������������������   93
5.2 Error and Flow Control ��������������������������������������������������������������������   94
5.3 Frame Transmission Methods ����������������������������������������������������������   97
5.4 IEEE 802 Standard Committee��������������������������������������������������������   98
Summary���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 100
Review Questions�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 101
6 
Modulation Methods, Cable Modems, and FTTH�������������������������������� 103
6.1 Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 103
6.2 Modem Operation ���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 103
6.3 Modulation Methods������������������������������������������������������������������������ 104
6.4 Cable Modem������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 108
6.5 Fiber to the Home (FTTH)���������������������������������������������������������������� 112
Summary���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 115
Review Questions�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 116
7 Ethernet Technologies������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 119
7.1 Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 119
7.2 Ethernet Operation���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 120
7.2.1 Ethernet II Frame Format������������������������������������������������������ 121
7.2.2 Ethernet Characteristics�������������������������������������������������������� 124
7.2.3 Ethernet Cabling and Components �������������������������������������� 124
7.2.4 UTP Cabling ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 125
7.3 Fast Ethernet Networking Technology���������������������������������������������� 125
Contents xv

7.3.1 Fast Ethernet Media Types���������������������������������������������������� 126

7.3.2 Fast Ethernet Repeaters�������������������������������������������������������� 128
7.4 Gigabit Ethernet Technology������������������������������������������������������������ 128
7.4.1 Gigabit Ethernet Standards �������������������������������������������������� 129
7.4.2 Characteristics of Gigabit Ethernet�������������������������������������� 129
7.4.3 Gigabit Ethernet Physical Layer ������������������������������������������ 129
7.4.4 Gigabit MAC Layer�������������������������������������������������������������� 130
7.5 10 Gigabit Ethernet �������������������������������������������������������������������������� 131
7.5.1 Characteristics of 10 Gigabit Ethernet���������������������������������� 131
7.5.2 Gigabit Ethernet Physical Layer ������������������������������������������ 132
Summary���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 133
Review Questions�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 134
8 LAN Interconnection Devices ���������������������������������������������������������������� 141
8.1 Repeaters������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 142
8.2 Bridges���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 142
8.3 Switch ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 143
8.3.1 Spanning Tree Protocol (STP)���������������������������������������������� 145
8.3.2 Ethernet LAN Switching������������������������������������������������������ 146
8.3.3 Switch Classifications ���������������������������������������������������������� 146
8.3.4 Layer 3 Switch (L3 Switch)�������������������������������������������������� 147
8.4 Virtual LAN�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 147
8.4.1 VLAN Operation������������������������������������������������������������������ 147
8.5 Routers���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 148
8.6 Gateways������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 150
Summary���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 150
Review Questions�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 151
9 
Internet Protocols Part I�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 155
9.1 The Internet Architecture Board (IAB)�������������������������������������������� 158
9.2 TCP/IP Reference Model������������������������������������������������������������������ 159
9.3 TCP/IP Application Level���������������������������������������������������������������� 159
9.4 Transport Level Protocols: UDP and TCP���������������������������������������� 161
9.4.1 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)�������������������������������������������� 161
9.4.2 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)���������������������������������� 162
9.5 Internet Level Protocols: IP and ARP ���������������������������������������������� 165
9.6 IPv4 Addressing�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 168
9.6.1 Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) or Classless IPV4
Address �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 170
9.7 Assigning IP Addresses to a Network���������������������������������������������� 172
9.8 TCP Connection and Disconnection������������������������������������������������ 174
9.9 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) ������������������������������������������������ 175
9.10 Demultiplexing Information ������������������������������������������������������������ 178
9.11 Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6)���������������������������������������������������� 178
9.12 IPV6 Address Architecture �������������������������������������������������������������� 181
9.13 IPV6 Address Format������������������������������������������������������������������������ 182
xvi Contents

9.14 IPV6 Address Types�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 182

9.15 IPv6 Addresses as URLs������������������������������������������������������������������ 187
9.16 IPv6 Address Configuration�������������������������������������������������������������� 187
9.17 ICMPv6 and Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP)�������������������������� 188
Summary���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 189
Review Questions�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 190
10 
Internet Protocols Part II and MPLS���������������������������������������������������� 197
10.1 Domain Name System (DNS)�������������������������������������������������������� 197
10.2 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) ���������������������������� 203
10.3 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)���������������������������������������������� 207
10.4 Internet Control Message Protocol ������������������������������������������������ 210
10.5 Routing�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 212
10.6 Networking Diagnostic Commands������������������������������������������������ 214
10.7 Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) �������������������������������������� 215
10.8 IP Multicast������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 217
10.8.1 Internet Group Management Protocol—IGMP���������������� 218
10.9 Socket Programming���������������������������������������������������������������������� 220
Summary���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 223
Review Questions�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 224
11 
Voice over Internet Protocols (Voice over IP)���������������������������������������� 229
11.1 Voice Quality���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 230
11.2 Applications of Voice over IP (VoIP)���������������������������������������������� 230
11.3 Voice over IP Operation������������������������������������������������������������������ 231
11.4 Voice over IP Protocols and Standards ������������������������������������������ 232
11.5 Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)���������������������������������������������������� 233
11.6 SIP Components����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 234
11.7 SIP Request and Response Commands������������������������������������������ 235
11.8 SIP Addressing�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 237
11.9 SIP Connection Operation�������������������������������������������������������������� 237
11.10 Voice over IP Bandwidth Calculation �������������������������������������������� 238
Summary���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 239
Review Questions�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 240
12 
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) ������������������������������������������������ 243
12.1 WLAN Components ���������������������������������������������������������������������� 244
12.2 WLAN Topologies�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 245
12.3 Wireless LAN Technology�������������������������������������������������������������� 247
12.4 WLAN Standards (IEEE 802.11 Family) �������������������������������������� 249
12.5 Wireless LAN Physical Layer�������������������������������������������������������� 249
12.5.1 IEEE 802.11 Physical Layer Operation���������������������������� 250
12.5.2 IEEE 802.11b Physical Layer ������������������������������������������ 252
12.6 Physical Layer Architecture������������������������������������������������������������ 254
12.7 WLAN Medium Access Control���������������������������������������������������� 255
12.8 MAC Frame Format������������������������������������������������������������������������ 258
Contents xvii

12.9 WLAN Frame Types ���������������������������������������������������������������������� 259

12.10 Station Joining A Basic Service Set������������������������������������������������ 261
12.11 Roaming������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 261
12.12 Wi-Fi Certification�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 261
12.13 WLAN Signal Distortion���������������������������������������������������������������� 261
12.14 IEEE 802.11n���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 262
12.15 IEEE 802.11AC������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 267
Summary���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 268
Review Questions�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 269
13 
Low Power Wireless Technologies for Internet of Things (IoT)���������� 273
13.1 ZigBee�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 274
13.1.1 ZigBee Operation and Components���������������������������������� 274
13.1.2 ZigBee Topologies������������������������������������������������������������ 276
13.1.3 ZigBee Application Profiles���������������������������������������������� 276
13.1.4 ZigBee Protocol Architecture�������������������������������������������� 277
13.1.5 Physical Layer������������������������������������������������������������������ 278
13.1.6 IEEE 802.15.4 Medium Access Control (MAC Layer)���� 279
13.1.7 ZigBee Network Layer������������������������������������������������������ 280
13.1.8 Application Layer������������������������������������������������������������� 282
13.1.9 ZigBee Security Modes���������������������������������������������������� 282
13.2 6LoWPAN Architecture������������������������������������������������������������������ 283
13.3 LoRa Wide Area Network Technology (LoRa WAN)�������������������� 285
13.3.1 LoRa WAN Characteristics and Architecture�������������������� 285
13.3.2 LoRaWAN Components and Functions���������������������������� 285
13.3.3 LoRaWAN Protocol Architecture ������������������������������������ 287
13.3.4 LoRaWAN Security���������������������������������������������������������� 288
Summary���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 289
Review Questions�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 290
14 Introduction to Cryptography���������������������������������������������������������������� 293
14.1 Elements of Network Security�������������������������������������������������������� 294
14.2 Introduction to Cryptography �������������������������������������������������������� 294
14.3 RC4 Algorithm�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 297
14.4 Data Encryption Standard �������������������������������������������������������������� 298
14.5 Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) ������������������������������������������ 300
14.6 Asymmetric Cryptography�������������������������������������������������������������� 304
14.7 RSA Algorithm ������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 305
14.8 Diffie–Hellman Key Exchange Algorithm�������������������������������������� 306
14.9 Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) ���������������������������������������������� 307
14.10 Hash Value or Message Digest�������������������������������������������������������� 313
14.11 Message Authentication Code (MAC)�������������������������������������������� 315
14.12 Digital Signature ���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 317
14.13 Kerberos������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 318
Summary���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 319
Review Questions�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 320
xviii Contents

15 Network Security ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 323

15.1 Secure Socket Layer Protocol (SSL)���������������������������������������������� 323
15.2 Virtual Private Network (VPN)������������������������������������������������������ 328
15.3 IP Security Protocol (IPsec)������������������������������������������������������������ 329
15.4 Secure Shell (SSH) ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 330
15.5 IEEE 802.1X ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 333
15.6 Certificates�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 335
15.7 Firewalls������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 337
15.8 WLAN Security������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 339
15.8.1 Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)�������������������������������������� 339
15.9 IEEE 802.11i���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 341
15.9.1 WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access) ���������������������������������������� 341
15.9.2 Wi-Fi Protected Access-2 (WPA2)������������������������������������ 342
15.9.3 WPA3 (Wi-Fi Protected Access-3)������������������������������������ 344
Summary���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 345
Review Questions�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 347

Bibliography ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 409

Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 413
About the Authors

Ata Elahi is a Professor of Computer Science at Southern Connecticut State

University. Dr. Elahi holds a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Mississippi State
University and is also the author of the following textbooks:
Elahi, A. Computer Systems: Digital Design, Fundamentals of Computer Architecture and ARM
Assembly Language, 2nd edition, Springer, 2022
Elahi, A. Computer Systems: Digital Design, Fundamentals of Computer Architecture and ARM
Assembly Language, Springer, 2018
Elahi, A., Arjeski, T. ARM Assembly Language with Hardware Experiments, Springer, 2015
Elahi, A., Gschwender, A. ZigBee Wireless Sensor and Control Network. Prentice Hall, 2010
Elahi, A., Elahi, M. Data Network, & Internet Communications Technology, Thomson Delmar
Learning, 2006
Elahi, A. Communication Network Technology, Thomson Delmar Learning, 2001

Alex Cushman is a graduate student in Computer Science and Cybersecurity at

Southern Connecticut State University with extensive professional experience in
networking and security.

xix
Chapter 1
Introduction to Communications Networks

Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
• Explain the components of a Data Communication System.
• Explain the advantages of computer networks.
• Describe the components of a network.
• Discuss the function of a client/server model.
• Explain various networking topologies.
• Describe different types of networks in terms of their advantages and
disadvantages.

1.1 Introduction

In order to transfer information from a source to a destination, some hardware com-

ponents are required. Figure 1.1 shows the components of a data communication
model for transmitting information from source to destination.
Source The source station can be a computer or server, and its function is to pass
information to a transmitter for subsequent transmission.
Transmitter The function of a transmitter is to accept information from the source
and change the information such that it is compatible with the transmission link.
Information is then transmitted over the communication link. Modems and network
cards are examples of transmitters.
Transmission Link The function of a transmission link is to carry information
from a transmitter to a receiver. The transmission link can be a conductor, fiber optic
cable, or wireless media (air).

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 1

A. Elahi, A. Cushman, Computer Networks,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42018-4_1
2 1 Introduction to Communications Networks

Transmission Link
Transmitter Receiver

Source Destination

Fig. 1.1 A data communication model

Receiver The receiver accepts information from the transmission link. The infor-
mation is then converted to proper form so that it is acceptable to the destination.
Destination The receiver passes information to the destination for processing.
In networking technology, both the receiver and transmitter come in one unit and
are usually installed inside the computer, such as network cards or modems.

1.2 Computer Networks

Networking is a business tool for companies. For example, a bank can transfer funds
between branches by using a network, people can access their bank accounts using
automatic teller machines via a network, and travel agencies use networks to make
airline reservations. Everyday online activities such as shopping and banking trans-
actions are also possible because of computer networks. Students can now access
the Internet in any location on their campus from their laptop computers or smart-
phone, thanks to the rapid growth of networking technology.
Networking is a generic term. Several computers connected to each other are
called a computer network. A network is a system of computers and related equip-
ment connected by communication links to share data. The related equipment may
be printers, fax machines, modems, copiers, and so forth. The following are some of
the benefits of using computer networks:
Resource Sharing: Computers in a network can share resources such as data, print-
ers, disk drives, and scanners.
Reliability: Since computers in a network can share data, if one of the computers on
the network crashes, a copy of its resources might be found on other computers
in the network.
Cost: Microcomputers are much less expensive than mainframes. Instead of using
several mainframes, a network can use one mainframe as a server, with several
microcomputers connected to the server as clients. This creates a client/server
relationship.
Communication: Users can exchange messages via electronic mail or other messag-
ing systems, or they can transfer files.
1.3 Network Models 3

1.3 Network Models

A computer in a network can be either a server, client, or a peer. A server is a com-

puter on the network that holds shared files and the network operating system that
manages the network operation. For a client computer to access the resources in the
server, the client computer must request information from the server. The server will
then transmit the information requested to the client.
The following three models are used, based on the type of network opera-
tion needed:
1. Peer-to-peer network (work group)
2. Server-based network
3. Client/server network
Peer-to-Peer Model (Work Group)
In a peer-to-peer model, there is no special station that holds shared files and a net-
work operating system. Each station can access the resources of the other stations in
the network. Individual stations can act as a server and/or a client. In this model,
each user is responsible for administrating and upgrading the software of his or her
station. Since there is no centralized station to manage network operation, this
model is typically used for a network of fewer than ten stations. Figure 1.2 shows a
peer-to-peer network model.
File Server Model
In a file server model, a server stores all the network’s shared files and applications
such as word processor documents, compilers, database applications, and the net-
work operating system (NOS) that manages network operations. A user can access
the file server and transfer shared files to his or her station.
Figure 1.3 shows a network with one file server and three users or clients. Each
client can access the resources on the server and the resources of other clients.
Clients that are connected on a network may be able to freely exchange information
with one another.
Some of the most popular servers are as follows:
Mail server: A mail server stores all the clients’ mail. The client can access the
server and transfer incoming mail to its station. The client can also use the mail
server to transfer outgoing mail to the mail server of another network.
Print server: Clients can submit files to the server for printing.

Fig. 1.2 Peer-to-peer network

4 1 Introduction to Communications Networks

Client

Sever
Fig. 1.3 Network with one server and three clients

Fig. 1.4 Client/server

model

Server Clients

Communication server: The server is used by clients to communicate with other

networks via communication links.
Client/Server Model
In the client/server model, a client first submits a task to the server. The server then
executes the client’s task and returns the results to the requesting client station. In
comparison with the server-based model, the client/server model makes more effi-
cient use of the network as it requires less information to travel through the network.
This method of information sharing is depicted in Fig. 1.4.

1.4 Network Components

A network is composed of the following basic components:

1. Network Interface Card (NIC): Each computer in a network requires a
Network Interface Card. The NIC allows the stations on the network to commu-
nicate with each other.
1.5 Network Topology 5

2. Transmission Medium: The transmission medium connects the computers

together and provides a communication link between the computers on the net-
work. Some of the more common types are twisted pair cable, coaxial cable,
fiber optic cable, and wireless.
3. Network Operating System (NOS): The NOS runs on the server and provides
services to the client such as login, password, print file, network administration,
and file sharing. Most modern computer operating systems have NOS
functionality.

1.5 Network Topology

The topology of a network describes the way computers are connected. Topology is
a major design consideration for cost and reliability. The following is a list of com-
mon topologies found in computer networking.
• Star
• Ring
• Bus
• Mesh
• Tree
• Hybrid
Star Topology
In a star topology, all stations are connected to a central controller or hub as shown
in Fig. 1.5. For any station to communicate with another station, the source must
send information to the hub, then the hub must transmit that information to the des-
tination station. If station #1 wants to send information to station #3, it must send
information to the hub and the hub must pass the information to station #3.
The disadvantage of the star topology is that the operation of the entire network
depends on the hub. If the hub breaks down, the entire network is disabled. The
advantages of star topology are as follows:

Fig. 1.5 Star topology Station 1 Station 2

HUB

Station 4 Station 3
6 1 Introduction to Communications Networks

• It is easy to set up the network.

• It is easy to expand the network.
• If one link to the hub breaks, only the station using that link is affected.
It is possible for a network to have one topology electrically, or logically, but
another topology physically. For example, Ethernet with unshielded twisted pair
cabling uses the star topology physically, but the stations are connected logically
using a bus topology.
Ring Topology
IBM invented the ring topology, which is well known as IBM Token Ring. In a ring
topology, all stations are connected in cascading order to make a ring, as shown in
Fig. 1.6. The source station transfers information to the next station on the ring,
which checks the address of the information. If the address of the information
matches with the station’s address, the station copies the information and passes it
to the next station. The next station repeats the process and passes the information
on to the next station, and so on, until the information reaches the source station.
The source then removes the information from the ring. The arrows in Fig. 1.6 indi-
cate the direction in which the information flows.
The disadvantages of ring topology are as follows:
• If a link or a station breaks down, the entire network is disabled.
• Complex hardware is required (the network interface card is expensive).
• Adding a new client disrupts the entire network.
The advantages of ring topology are as follows:
• It is easy to install.
• It is easy to expand.

Fig. 1.6 Ring topology

1.5 Network Topology 7

Bus Topology
A bus network is a multi-point connection in which stations are connected to a
single cable called a bus. In the bus topology, all stations share one media as depicted
in Fig. 1.7. The bus topology is one of the most popular topologies used in LAN
networking and Ethernet is one of the most popular LANs that uses bus topology.
The advantages of bus topology are simplicity, low cost, and easy expansion of
the network. The disadvantage of bus topology is that a breakdown in the bus cable
brings the entire network down.
Mesh Topology
Mesh topology can be a full mesh topology (fully connected topology) or partial
mesh topology. In a full mesh topology, each station is directly connected to every
other station in the network, as shown in Fig. 1.8.

Fig. 1.7 Bus topology

Fig. 1.8 Full mesh

topology
8 1 Introduction to Communications Networks

The advantage of a fully connected topology is that each station has a dedicated
connection to every other station. Therefore, this topology offers the highest reli-
ability and security. If one link in the mesh topology breaks, the network
remains active.
A major disadvantage of a fully connected topology is that it uses many connec-
tions and therefore requires a great deal of wiring, especially when the number of
stations increases. Consider, for example, a fully connected network with 100 work-
stations. Workstation #1 would require 99 network connections to connect it to
workstations 2 through 100. The total number of connections is determined by
N(N-1)/2, where N is the number of stations in the network. This type of topology
is seldom used because it is not cost-effective.
In partial mesh topology, some stations are connected to many other stations,
but others are connected only to those stations with which they exchange the most
data. Figure 1.9 shows partial mesh topology.
Tree Topology
The tree topology uses an active hub or repeater to connect stations together. The
hub is one of the most important elements of a network because it links stations in
the network together. The function of the hub is to accept information from one sta-
tion and repeat the information to other stations or hubs, as shown in Fig. 1.10.
The advantage of this topology is that when one hub breaks, only stations con-
nected to the broken hub will be affected. There are several types of hubs as
listed below.

(( )) (( )) (( ))

Internet Service
Provider (( )) (( ))
(( )) (( ))

(( ))
(( ))

(( )) (( ))
(( ))

( ( ))
(( )) (( ))

Fig. 1.9 Partial mesh topology

1.5 Network Topology 9

Fig. 1.10 Tree topology

HUB

HUB

Bridge
Backbone

Bridge Bridge

HUB

Ring
HUB

Fig. 1.11 Hybrid topology

Manageable Hub: Intelligent hubs are defined as manageable hubs, which means
each of the ports on the hub can be enabled or disabled by the network adminis-
trator through software.
Stand-Alone Hub: A stand-alone hub is a type of hub used for workgroups of com-
puters that are separate from the rest of the network. They cannot be linked
together logically to represent a larger hub.
Modular Hub: A modular hub comes with a chassis or card cage and the number of
ports can be extended by adding extra cards.
Stackable Hub: A stackable hub looks like a stand-alone hub, but several of them
can be stacked or connected together in order to increase the number of ports.
Hybrid Topology
Hybrid topology is a combination of different topologies connected together by a
backbone cable as shown in Fig. 1.11. Each network is connected to the backbone
cable by a device called a bridge.
10 1 Introduction to Communications Networks

1.6 Types of Networks

The distance between computers that are connected as a network determines the
type of network, such as a Local Area Network (LAN), Metropolitan Area Network
(MAN), and Wide Area Network (WAN).
Local Area Network (LAN)
A Local Area Network (LAN) is a high-speed network designed to link computers
and other data communication systems together within a small geographic area such
as an office, department, or a single floor of a multi-story building. Several LANs
can be connected together in a building or campus to extend the connectivity. A
LAN is considered a private network. The most popular LANs in use today are
Ethernet, Token Ring, and Gigabit Ethernet.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN) can cover approximately 30 to 100 miles,
connecting multiple networks which are in different locations of a city or town. The
communication links in a MAN are generally owned by a network service provider.
Figure 1.12 shows a Metropolitan Area Network.
Wide Area Networks (WANs)
A Wide Area Network (WAN) is used for long-distance transmission of informa-
tion. WANs cover a large geographical area, such as an entire country or continent.
WANs may use leased lines from telephone companies, Public Switch Data
Networks (PSDN), or satellites for communication links.
The Internet is a collection of globally scattered networks which are connected
through gateways, as shown in Fig. 1.13. Each gateway has a routing table contain-
ing information about the networks to which it is connected as one or more net-
works may be connected to a single gateway. A gateway is designed to accept
information from a source network and check its routing table to determine if the

Metropolitan

Fig. 1.12 Metropolitan Area Network

1.6 Types of Networks 11

G G
G
Internet
G
G

G: Gateway

Fig. 1.13 Internet architecture

destination station is in a network which is connected to the gateway. If the destina-

tion station is in a connected network, it transmits the information to the destination
network. Otherwise, it passes the information to the next gateway, which performs
the same operation. This process continues until the information reaches its
destination.
Wireless Network Technologies
Wireless network technologies can be categorized based on power consumption.
These include the following:
1. Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAN), used for offices and buildings
2. Low-Power Wireless Network technologies for Internet of Things (IoT)
(a) Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Network (LoWPAN) Technologies with
a coverage of up to 100 m such as ZigBee, 6LoPAN, Thread, and Z-Wave
and Bluetooth
(b) Low-Power Wide Area Networks (LPWAN) with coverage of kilometers,
such as LoRa, Sigfox, and Dash
Internet Backbone and Internet Service Providers
The backbone of the Internet is composed of subterranean, transmission media
which allow information to be transmitted globally. These transmission media are
owned by national Internet Service Providers (ISPs) such as AT&T, Verizon, and
Sprint. Figure 1.14 shows the part of the backbone owned by Verizon. To create the
international internetwork known as the Internet, these ISPs are connected to the
national ISPs of other countries. The transmission media owned by national ISPs
are leased to Regional ISPs and Local ISPs which provide consumers with internet
access in their homes and offices. Some Regional ISPs in the United States include
Frontier Communications and XFINITY Comcast as they only provide certain
states with internet access. Local ISPs may be any office or university which pro-
vides its users with internet access.
12 1 Introduction to Communications Networks

Fig. 1.14 Verizon Internet backbone

1.7 Communication Protocols and Standard Organizations

A communication protocol is a set of rules used by computers which allows them

to communicate with each other. Computers must follow certain rules in order to
communicate with each other. Some of the rules that define a protocol are as follows:
• Size of information. Both computers must agree on the minimum and maximum
size of information.
• How to represent information. Information may be Unicode, ASCII, or encrypted.
• Error detection. The method used by the receiver to check the integrity of
information.
• Receipt of information. The transmitter must know that information has been
received at the destination.
• Non-receipt of information. Both computers must know what to do if informa-
tion sent is not received or if it is received but has been corrupted.
Some of the common network protocols are:
TCP/IP: Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol used in the Internet and
many LANs.
NetBEUI: NetBIOS Extended User Interface is a small and fast protocol used for
small LANs.
X.25: X.25 is a set of protocols used in packet switching networks.
IPX/SPX: Novell NetWare uses Internet Packet Exchange/Sequenced Packet
Exchange.
1.7 Communication Protocols and Standard Organizations 13

NWlink: NWlink is a Microsoft version of IPX/SPX.

AppleTalk: AppleTalk developed by Apple for MAC.

1.7.1 Standard Organizations

There are several organizations that are constantly working toward developing stan-
dards for computers and communication equipment. The development of standards
for computers enables hardware and software products made by different vendors to
be compatible. Standardization allows products from different manufacturers to
work together in creating customized systems. Without standards, only hardware
and software made by the same manufacturer can work properly together. The fol-
lowing is a list of standards organizations:
IEEE The Institute for Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) is the largest
technical organization in the world. The objective of IEEE is to advance the field of
electronics, computer science, and computer engineering. The IEEE also develops
standards for computers, electronics, and local area networks (in particular, the
IEEE 802 standards).
ITU The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) was founded in 1864 and
became a United Nations Agency with the purpose of defining standards for tele-
communications, Wide Area Networks (WAN), Asynchronous Transfer Mode
(ATM), and Integrated Services Digital Networks (ISDN).
EIA The Electrical Industry Association (EIA) is a trade association representing
high technology manufacturers in the United States. The EIA develops standards for
connectors and transmission media. Some of the well-known EIA standards are
RS-232 and RJ-45.
ANSI The American National Standards Institute was founded in 1918. ANSI is
composed of 1300 members representing computer companies, with the purpose of
developing standards for the computer industry. ANSI is the US representative in
the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Some of the well-known
ANSI standards include optical cabling, programming languages (ANSI C), and the
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI).
ISO The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is an international
organization that comprises national standards bodies of seventy-five countries. The
ISO develops standards for a wide range of products, including the model for net-
works called the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model.
IETF The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) develops standards for the
Internet, such as Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6), HTTP, and DNS. The IETF is
composed of international network designers, network industries, and researchers.
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) The World Wide Web Consortium develops
standards for web technologies, such as HTML.
14 1 Introduction to Communications Networks

1.8 Networking Protocol Models

Two common protocol models, or suites, in use today are the 5-layer TCP/IP
(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) model and the 7-layer OSI
(Open Systems Interconnections) model.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite The TCP/IP Protocol suite consists of the following five
layers as shown in Fig. 1.15.
Layer 1: Physical Layer
The Physical layer defines the type of signal and type of connectors (such as
RS-232 or RJ-45) to be used for the Network Interface Card (NIC). It defines cable
types (such as coaxial cable, twisted pair or fiber-optic cable) to be used for the
transmission media. It accepts incoming signals from the media and converts those
signals bits and converts outgoing data bits to signals for the transmission over media.
Layer 2: Data Link Layer
The Data Link layer defines the frame format, such as the start of a frame, end of
a frame, size of a frame, and type of transmission. The Data Link layer performs the
following functions:
1. On the transmitting side: The Data Link layer accepts information from the
Network layer and breaks the information into frames. It then adds the destina-
tion MAC address, source MAC address, and Frame Check Sequence (FCS)
field, then passes each frame to the Physical layer for transmission.
2. On the receiving side: The Data Link layer accepts the bits from the Physical
layer and forms them into a frame, performing error detection. If the frame is
free of errors, the Data Link layer passes the frame up to the Network layer.
3. Frame synchronization: This layer identifies the beginning and end of each frame.
4. Flow control: Distinguishes between control frames and information frames.
5. Link management: It coordinates transmission between the transmitter and the
receiver.
6. Determine contention method: It defines an access method in which two or more
network devices compete for permission to transmit information across the same
communication media, such as in token passing and Carrier Sense Multiple
Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD).
Layer 3: Network Layer
The function of the Network layer is to perform routing. Routing determines the
route, or pathway, for moving information in a network with multiple LANs. The
Network layer checks the logical address of each frame and forwards the frame to

Fig. 1.15 TCP/IP model Layer 5 Application

Layer 4 Transport
Layer 3 Network
Layer 2 Data link
Layer 1 Physical
1.8 Networking Protocol Models 15

the next router based on a routing table. The Network layer is responsible for trans-
lating each logical address (name address) to a physical address (MAC address). An
example of a Network layer protocol is Internet Protocol (IP).
The Network layer provides two types of services: connectionless and connec-
tion- oriented services. In connection-oriented services, the Network layer makes a
connection between a source and a destination, then starts transmission. In a con-
nectionless service, there is no connection between source and destination. The
source transmits information regardless of whether the destination is ready or not. A
common example of this is e-mail.
Layer 4: Transport Layer
The Transport layer provides the reliable transmission of data in order to ensure
that each frame reaches its destination. If, after a certain period of time, the Transport
layer does not receive an acknowledgment from the destination, it retransmits the
frame and again waits for acknowledgment from the destination. An example of a
Transport layer protocol is Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).
Layer 5: Application Layer
The Application layer enables users to access the network with applications such as
E-mail, FTP (File Transfer Protocol), HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol),
and Telnet.
OSI Model The OSI model is like the TCP/IP model, but with two additional lay-
ers between the Application and Transport layers, as shown in Fig. 1.16.
Layer 5: Session Layer
The Session layer establishes a logical connection between the applications of two
computers that are communicating with each other. It allows two applications on
two different computers to establish and terminate a session. When a workstation
connects to a server, the server performs the login process, requesting a username
and password. This is an example of establishing a session.
Layer 6: Presentation Layer
The Presentation layer receives information from the Application layer and con-
verts it to a form acceptable by the destination. The Presentation layer converts
information to ASCII, or Unicode, or encrypts or decrypts the information.
Layer 7: Application Layer
The Application layer enables users to access the network with applications such as
E-mail, FTP (File Transfer Protocol), HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol),
and Telnet.

Fig. 1.16 OSI model Layer 7 Application

Layer 6 Presentation
Layer 5 Session
Layer 4 Transport
Layer 3 Network
Layer 2 Data link
Layer 1 Physical
16 1 Introduction to Communications Networks

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Layer 7 Application
Application
Layer 6 Layer 5
Presentation
Layer 5
Session
Layer 4 Layer 4
Transport Transport
Layer 3 Layer 3
Network Network
Layer 2 Layer 2
Data link Data link
Layer 1 Layer 1
Physical Physical

Fig. 1.17 OSI and TCP/IP model comparison

Comparing Models Essentially, the first four layers of the OSI and TCP/IP mod-
els serve the same purpose. However, the Application layer of the TCP/IP model
performs all the duties of top three layers of the OSI model as seen in Fig. 1.17.

Summary

• A group of several computers connected by communication media is termed a

computer network.
• Some of the applications of computer networks are file sharing, resource sharing,
media streaming, and e-mail.
• In the client/server model of networking, the client submits the information to
the server, which processes the information and returns the results to the client
station.
• The components of a network are a Network Interface Card (NIC), Network
Operating System (NOS), and the communication link (transmission medium).
• Computers can be connected in the form of Star, Ring, Bus, Mesh, Tree, and
Hybrid Topologies.
• The types of networks are LAN, MAN, WAN, and the Internet.
• Some of the standard organizations that develop standards for networks and data
communications are the IEEE, ITU, EIA, ISO, IETF, and ANSI.
• A communication protocol is a set of rules used by two computers in order to
communicate which each other.
• The most popular communication protocols are Transmission Control Protocol/
Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), NetBEUI, IPX/SPX NWlink, and AppleTalk.
• The International Standard Organization (ISO) developed a model for networks
called the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model.
• The OSI model consists of seven layers, from top to bottom: Application Layer,
Presentation layer, Session layer, Transport layer, Network layer, Data Link layer
and Physical layer.
• The Application layer enables the user to access the network applications.
• The Presentation layer is responsible for the representation of information such
as ASCII encoded data, encryption, and decryption.
Review Questions 17

• The function of the Session layer is to establish a session between a source appli-
cation and destination application and to disconnect a session between two
applications.
• The function of the Transport layer is to ensure that data gets to the destination,
to perform error control and flow control, and to assure quality of service.
• The function of the Network layer is to deliver information from a source to its
destination by routing that information.
• The function of the Data Link layer is framing, error detection, and retransmission.
• The functions of the physical layer are establishing the electrical interface for
transmission and the type of the signal, and the conversion of logical bits to elec-
tronic signals and vice versa.

Key Terms

Bus Network OSI Model

Client Peer-to-Peer Model
Client/Server Model Ring Topology
Computer Network Server
File Server Model Standard Organization
Hybrid Topology Star Topology
Internet TCP/IP Model
Local Area Network (LAN) Topology
Mesh Transmission Medium
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) Tree Topology
Network Interface Card (NIC) Wide Area Network (WAN)
Network Operation System (NOS)

Review Questions

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Several computers connected together are called a ___________.
(a) Computer network
(b) Client
(c) Server
(d) Hub
2. In a ___________ network, the client submits a task to the server, then the
server executes and returns the result to the requesting client station.
(a) Peer-to-peer
(b) Server based
(c) Client/server
(d) All of the above
18 1 Introduction to Communications Networks

3. A computer in a network can function as a __________ or as a _________.

(a) Client, server
(b) Client, user
(c) a and b
(d) All of the above
4. A ___________ stores all the client’s mail.
(a) File server
(b) Print server
(c) Communication server
(d) Mail server
5. A ___________ uses a modem or other type of communication link to enable
clients to communicate with other networks.
(a) Mail server
(b) Communication server
(c) a and b
(d) None of the above
6. In a __________ topology, all stations are connected to a central control-
ler or hub.
(a) Star
(b) Ring
(c) Bus
(d) Mesh
7. In a ___________ topology, all stations are connected in cascade.
(a) Star
(b) Ring
(c) Tree
(d) Bus
8. A _____________ topology is a combination of different topologies connected
together by a backbone cable.
(a) Star
(b) Ring
(c) Bus
(d) Hybrid
9. Which network topology uses a hub? __________
(a) Ring
(b) Bus
(c) Star
(d) Mesh
Review Questions 19

10. Which type of topology uses multi-point connections? __________

(a) Bus
(b) Star
(c) Ring
(d) Full mesh
11. How many connections are required by a fully connected network with five sta-
tions? __________.
(a) 5
(b) 10
(c) 20
(d) 15
12. Which of the following networks is used for office buildings? ___________.
(a) LAN
(b) MAN
(c) WAN
(d) Internet
13. Which of the following topologies is used for Ethernet? ___________.
(a) Bus
(b) Star
(c) Ring
(d) a and b
14. The Internet is a collection of LANs connected together by ___________.
(a) Routers
(b) Switches
(c) Gateways
(d) Repeaters
15. Computers on a campus are connected by a/an __________.
(a) LAN
(b) WAN
(c) MAN
(d) Internet
16. The IEEE developed the _________ standard for LAN.
(a) IEEE 802
(b) RS232
(c) OSI Model
(d) All of the above
20 1 Introduction to Communications Networks

17. The __________ defines standards for telecommunications.

(a) IEEE
(b) ITU
(c) EIA
(d) ISO
18. The ____________ defines standards for programming languages.
(a) IEEE
(b) ISO
(c) ANSI
(d) IETF
19. The ____________ protocol is used on the Internet.
(a) TCP/IP
(b) X.25
(c) IPX/SPX
(d) NWLink
20. Microsoft’s version of IPX/SPX is called ___________.
(a) Net BEUI
(b) TCP/IP
(c) NWLink
(d) X.25
21. The OSI model contains _________ layers.
(a) 4
(b) 3
(c) 7
(d) 6
22. The __________ layer establishes a connection.
(a) Network
(b) Physical
(c) Data Link
(d) Application
23. The _____________layer defines the format of the frame.
(a) Transport layer
(b) Data Link layer
(c) Network layer
(d) Physical layer
Review Questions 21

24. Which layer of the OSI model is responsible for forming a frame?
(a) Data link
(b) Transport
(c) Session
(d) Physical
25. Which layer of the OSI model performs encryption? ________
(a) Session layer
(b) Presentation layer
(c) Data Link layer
(d) Transport layer
26. The function of the network layer is________.
(a) Error detection
(b) Routing
(c) To set up a session
(d) Encryption
27. Which layer of the OSI model converts electrical signals to bits?
(a) Physical
(b) Data link
(c) Network
(d) Application
28. Which layer determines the route for packets transmitted from source to desti-
nation? ______.
(a) Data Link
(b) Network
(c) Transport
(d) Physical

Short Answer Questions

1. What are the components of a communication model?
2. Explain the function of a server.
3. What is the function of the client in a file server model?
4. Explain the term “client/server model.”
5. What are the advantages of a client/server model?
6. What are the three components of a network?
7. A Network Operating System runs on the ___________.
8. List the six networking topologies.
9. What is the disadvantage of a fully connected mesh topology?
10. What is a hub?
11. What are the three types of area networks?
12. What does MAN stand for?
22 1 Introduction to Communications Networks

13. What is the Internet?

14. What does WAN stand for?
15. What are the advantages of the bus topology?
16. List the layers of the OSI Model.
17. List the layers of the TCP/IP Model.
18. List three applications of TCP/IP Model.
19. What is the function of the Transport layer?
20. What layer deals with frames?
21. What layer converts bits to electronic signals?
Chapter 2
Data Communications

Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
• Distinguish between analog and digital signals.
• Distinguish between periodic and non-periodic signals.
• Convert decimal numbers to binary and hexadecimal and vice versa.
• Represent characters and decimal numbers in the 7-bit ASCII code.
• Compare serial, parallel, asynchronous, and synchronous transmission.
• List the communication modes.
• Explain the different types of digital encoding methods.
• Calculate a Block Check Character (BCC).
• Calculate a Frame Check Sequence (FCS).
• Learn different error detection methods.

2.1 Introduction

In order to understand network technology, it is important to know how information

is represented for transmission from one computer to another. Information can be
transferred between computers in one of two ways: an analog signal or a digi-
tal signal.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 23

A. Elahi, A. Cushman, Computer Networks,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42018-4_2
24 2 Data Communications

2.2 Analog Signals

An analog signal is a signal whose amplitude is a function of time and changes

gradually as time changes. Analog signals can be classified as non-periodic and
periodic signals.
Non-periodic Signal In a non-periodic signal, there is no repeated pattern in the
signal as shown in Fig. 2.1.

Periodic Signal A signal that repeats a pattern within a measurable time period is
called a periodic signal, and the completion of a full pattern is called a cycle. The
simplest periodic signal is a sine wave, which is shown in Fig. 2.2. In the time
domain, a sine wave’s amplitude a(t) can be represented mathematically as
a(t) = A Sin(ω t + θ), where A is the maximum amplitude, ω is the angular fre-
quency, and θ is the phase angle.
A periodic signal can also be represented in the frequency domain, where the
horizontal axis is the frequency and the vertical axis is the amplitude of signal.
Figure 2.3 shows the frequency domain representation of a sine wave signal.
Usually an electrical signal representing voice, temperature or a musical sound,
is made of multiple waveforms. These signals have one fundamental frequency and
multiple frequencies that are called harmonics.
Characteristics of an Analog Signal
The characteristics of a periodic analog signal are frequency, amplitude, and phase.
1
Frequency Frequency (F) is the number of cycles in one second, F = , and is
T
represented in Hz (Hertz). If each cycle of an analog signal is repeated every one
second, the frequency of the signal is one Hz. If each cycle of an analog signal is
repeated 1000 times every second (once every millisecond), the frequency is:

1 1
f   3  1000 Hz  1kHz
T 10

Voltage

0
Time

Fig. 2.1 Representation of a non-periodic analog signal

2.2 Analog Signals 25

Fig. 2.2 Time domain Volt

representation of a
sine wave

Time

Fig. 2.3 Frequency Amplitude

representation of a
sine wave
A

ω ω

Table 2.1 shows different values for frequency and their corresponding periods.
Amplitude The amplitude of an analog signal is a function of time (as shown in
Fig. 2.4) and may be represented in volts (unit of voltage). In other words, the
amplitude is a signal’s voltage value at any given time. At the time of t1, the ampli-
tude of signal is V1.

Phase Two signals with the same frequency can differ in phase. This means that
one of the signals starts at a different time from the other one. This difference can
be measured in degrees, from 0 to 360 degrees, or in radians, where 360o = 2π radi-
ans. A sine wave signal can be represented by the equation a(t) = A Sin(ω t + θ),
where A is the peak amplitude, ω (omega) is the frequency in radians per second, t
is the time in seconds, and θ is the phase angle. Cyclic frequency fcan be expressed

in terms of ω according to f  . A phase angle of zero means that the sine wave
2
starts at time t = 0 and a phase angle of 90 degrees means that the signal starts at 90
degrees as shown in Fig. 2.5.

Example 2.1 Find the equation for a sine wave signal with frequency of 10 Hz,
maximum amplitude of 20 volts, and phase angle of zero.
26 2 Data Communications

Table 2.1 Typical units of frequency and period

Units of frequency Numerical value Units of period Numerical value
Hertz (Hz) 1 Hz Second (s) 1s
Kilo Hertz (kHz) 103 Hz Millisecond (ms) 10‐3 s
Mega Hertz (MHz) 106 Hz Microsecond (μs) 10‐6 s
Giga Hertz (GHz) 109 Hz Nanosecond (ns) 10‐9 s
Tera Hertz (THz) 1012 Hz Picosecond (ps) 10‐12 s

a(t)

V1=+A

T/2 3T/4 T
t
t1= T/4

-A

Fig. 2.4 A sine wave signal over one cycle

rad
  2 f  2  3.1416  10  62.83
sec
a  t   20 sin  62.83t 

2.3 Digital Signals

Modern computers communicate by using digital signals. Digital signals are repre-
sented by two voltages: one voltage represents the number 0 in binary, and the other
voltage represents the number 1 in binary. An example of a digital signal is shown
in Fig. 2.6, where 0 volts represents 0 in binary and + 5 volts represents 1.
2.4 Binary Numbers 27

Signal A Signal B Signal C

90°

270°

Fig. 2.5 Three sine waves with different phases

+5
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
0 time
Fig. 2.6 Digital signal

2.4 Binary Numbers

Binary, or Base-2 numbers, are represented by 0 and 1. A binary digit, 0 or 1, is

called a bit. Eight bits are equal to one byte. Two or more than two bytes are called
a word. The hexadecimal number system has a base of 16 and, therefore, has 16
symbols (0 through 9 and A through F). Table 2.2 shows the decimal numbers, their
binary values from 0 to 15, and their hexadecimal equivalents.
Converting from Hex to Binary
Table 2.2 can also be used to convert a number from hexadecimal to binary and from
binary to hexadecimal.
Example 2.2 Convert the binary number 001010011010 to hexadecimal. Each 4
bits are grouped from right to left. By using Table 2.2, each 4 bit group can be con-
verted to its hexadecimal equivalent.

0010 1001 1010

2 9 A
28 2 Data Communications

Example 2.3 Convert (3D5)16 to binary. By using Table 2.2, the result in binary is

3 D 5
0011 1101 0101

The resulting binary number is 001111010101.

Example 2.4 Convert 6DB from hexadecimal to binary. By using Table 2.2, the
result in binary is

6 D B
0110 1101 1011

The resulting binary number is 011011011011.

Converting from Binary to Decimal
In general, any binary number can be represented by Eq. 2.1.

 a 5 a 4 a 3 a 2 a1 a 0 .a 1 a 2a 
3 2 (2.1)

where ai is a binary digit or bit (either 0 or 1).

Equation 2.1 can be converted to decimal number by using Eq. 2.2.

Table 2.2 Decimal numbers with binary and hexadecimal equivalents

Decimal Binary (base 2) Hexadecimal (Base 16) or HEX
0 0000 0
1 0001 1
2 0010 2
3 0011 3
4 0100 4
5 0101 5
6 0110 6
7 0111 7
8 1000 8
9 1001 9
10 1010 A
11 1011 B
12 1100 C
13 1101 D
14 1110 E
15 1111 F
2.5 Coding Schemes 29

a 5 a 4 a 3 a 2 a1 a 0 a 1 a a a0 20 a1 21 a 2 22 a3 23
     
Interger Fraction 2
a 2 1
a 2 . ..
1

Example 2.5 To convert (110111.101)2 to decimal:

110111.101 2 1 2 0 1 21 1 2 2 0 23 1 2 4 1 2 5 1 2 1
02 12 55.625

2.5 Coding Schemes

Since computers can only understand binary numbers (0 or 1), all information (such
as numbers, letters, and symbols) must be represented as binary data. One com-
monly used code to represent printable and non-printable characters is the American
Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII).
ASCII Code
Each character in ASCII code is represented by 8 bits where the most significant bit
is used for a parity bit. Table 2.3 shows the ASCII code and its hexadecimal equiva-
lent. Characters from hexadecimal 00 to 1F and 7F are control characters which are
nonprintable characters, such as NUL, SOH, STX, ETX, ESC, and DLE (data link
escape).
Example 2.6 Convert the word “Network” to binary and show the result in hexa-
decimal. By using Table 2.3, each character is represented by seven bits and results in

1001110 1100101 1110100 1110111 1101111 1110010 1101011

N e t w o r k

or in hexadecimal

4E 65 74 77 6F 72 6B

Universal Code or Unicode

Unicode is a new 16-bit character encoding standard for representing characters and
numbers in most languages such as Greek, Arabic, Chinese, and Japanese. The
30 2 Data Communications

Table 2.3 American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)

Binary Hex Char Binary Hex Char Binary Hex Char Binary Hex Char

0000000 00 NUL 0100000 20 SP 1000000 40 @ 1100000 60 ’

0000001 01 SOH 0100001 21 ! 1000001 41 A 1100001 61 a
0000010 02 STX 0100010 22 “ 1000010 42 B 1100010 62 b
0000011 03 ETX 0100011 23 # 1000011 43 C 1100011 63 c
0000100 04 EOT 0100100 24 $ 1000100 44 D 1100100 64 d
0000101 05 ENQ 0100101 25 % 1000101 45 E 1100101 65 e
0000110 06 ACK 0100110 26 & 1000110 46 F 1100110 66 f
0000111 07 BEL 0100111 27 ‘ 1000111 47 G 1100111 67 g
0001000 08 BS 0101000 28 ( 1001000 8 H 1101000 68 h
0001001 09 HT 0101001 29 ) 1001001 49 I 1101001 69 i
0001010 0A LF 0101010 2A * 1001010 4A J 1101010 6A j
0001011 0B VT 0101011 2B + 1001011 4B K 1101011 6B k
0001100 0C FF 0101100 2C , 1001100 4C L 1101100 6C l
0001101 0D CR 0101101 2D - 1001101 4D M 1101101 6D m
0001110 0E SO 0101110 2E . 1001110 4E N 1101110 6E n
0001111 0F SI 0101111 2F / 1001111 4F O 1101111 6F o
0010000 10 DLE 0110000 30 0 1010000 50 P 1110000 70 p
0010001 11 DC1 0110001 31 1 1010001 51 Q 1110001 71 q
0010010 12 DC2 0110010 32 2 1010010 52 R 1110010 72 r
0010011 13 DC3 0110011 33 3 1010011 53 S 1110011 73 s
0010100 14 DC4 0110100 34 4 1010100 54 T 1110100 74 t
0010101 15 NACK 0110101 35 5 1010101 55 U 1110101 75 u
0010110 16 SYN 0110110 36 6 1010110 56 V 1110110 76 v
0010111 17 ETB 0110111 37 7 1010111 57 W 1110111 77 w
0011000 18 CAN 0111000 38 8 1011000 58 X 1111000 78 x
0011001 19 EM 0111001 39 9 1011001 59 Y 1111001 79 y
0011010 1A SUB 0111010 3A : 1011010 5A Z 1111010 7A z
0011011 1B ESC 0111011 3B ; 1011011 5B [ 1111011 7B [
0011100 1C FS 0111100 3C < 1011100 5C \ 1111100 7C /
0011101 1D GS 0111101 3D = 1011101 5D ] 1111101 7D }
0011110 1E RS 0111110 3E < 1011110 5E ^ 1111110 7E ~
0011111 1F US 0111111 3F ? 1011111 5F - 1111111 7F DEL

ASCII code uses eight bits to represent each character in Latin, and it can represent
256 characters. The ASCII code does not support mathematical symbols and scien-
tific symbols. Unicode uses 16 bits, which can represent 65,536 characters or sym-
bols. A character in Unicode is represented by a 16-bit binary, equivalent to four
digits in hexadecimal. For example, the character B in Unicode is U0042H (U rep-
resents Unicode). The ASCII code is represented between (00)16 and (FF)16. For
converting ASCII code to Unicode, two zeros are added to the left side of ASCII
code; therefore, the Unicode to represent ASCII characters is between (0000)16 and
(00FF)16. Table 2.4 shows some of the Unicode for Latin and Greek characters.
Unicode is divided into blocks of code, with each block assigned to a specific lan-
guage. Table 2.5 shows each block of Unicode for some different languages.
2.6 Transmission Modes 31

Table 2.4 Unicode values for some Latin and Greek characters
Latin Greek
Character Code (Hex) Character Code (Hex)
A U0041 φ U03C6
B U0042 α U03B1
C U0043 γ U03B3
0 U0030 μ U03BC
8 U0038 β U03B2

Table 2.5 Unicode block Start code (Hex) End code (Hex) Block name
allocations U0000 U007F Basic Latin
U0080 U00FF Latin supplement
U0370 U03FF Greek
U0530 U058F Armenian
U0590 U05FF Hebrew
U0600 U06FF Arabic
U01A0 U10FF Georgian

2.6 Transmission Modes

When data is transferred from one computer to another by digital signals, the receiv-
ing computer has to distinguish the size of each signal to determine when a signal
ends and when the next one begins. For example, when a computer sends a signal as
shown in Fig. 2.7, the receiving computer has to recognize how many ones and
zeros are in the signal. Synchronization methods between source and destination
devices are generally grouped into two categories: asynchronous and synchronous.
Asynchronous Transmission
Asynchronous transmission occurs character by character and is used for serial
communication, such as by a modem or serial printer. In asynchronous transmis-
sion, each data character has a start bit which identifies the start of the character, and
one or two bits which identifies the end of the character, as shown in Fig. 2.8. The
data character is 7 bits. Following the data bits may be a parity bit, which is used by
the receiver for error detection. After the parity bit is sent, the signal must return to
high for at least one bit to identify the end of the character. The new start bit serves
as an indicator to the receiving device that a data character is coming and allows the
receiving side to synchronize its clock. Since the receiver and transmitter clocks are
not synchronized continuously, the transmitter uses the start bit to reset the receiver
clock so that it matches the transmitter clock. Also, the receiver is already pro-
grammed for the number of bits in each character sent by the transmitter.
Synchronous Transmission
Some applications require transferring large blocks of data, such as a file from disk
or transferring information from a computer to a printer. Synchronous
32 2 Data Communications

Fig. 2.7 Digital signal

Start D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 Parity Stop Stop

Bit Bit Bit Bi t
LSB MSB
One Character

Fig. 2.8 Asynchronous transmission

Fig. 2.9 Synchronous transmission

transmission is an efficient method for transferring large blocks of data by using

time intervals for synchronization.
One method of synchronizing a transmitter and receiver is through the use of an
external connection which carries a clock pulse. The clock pulse represents the data
rate of the signal, as shown in Fig. 2.9, and is used to determine the speed of data
transmission. The receiver of Fig. 2.9 reads the data as 01101.
Figure 2.9 shows that an extra connection is required to carry the clock pulse for
synchronous transmission. In networking, one medium is used for transmission of
both information and the clock pulse. The two signals are encoded in a such way
that the synchronization signal is embedded into the data. This can be done with
Manchester encoding or Differential Manchester encoding.

2.7 Transmission Methods

There are two types of transmission methods used for sending digital signals from
one station to another across a communication channel: serial transmission and par-
allel transmission.
2.8 Communication Modes 33

1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1

Ground Line
Fig. 2.10 Serial transmission

Fig. 2.11 Parallel transmission

Serial Transmission
In serial transmission, information is transmitted one bit at a time over one wire as
shown in Fig. 2.10.
Parallel Transmission
In parallel transmission, multiple bits are sent simultaneously, one byte or more at
a time, instead of bit by bit as in serial transmission. Figure 2.11 shows how com-
puter A sends eight bits of information to computer B at the same time by using
eight different wires. Parallel transmission is faster than serial transmission, at the
same clock speed.

2.8 Communication Modes

A communication mode specifies the capability of a device to send and receive data
by determining the direction of the signal between two connections. There are three
types of communication modes: simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex.
Simplex Mode
In simplex mode, the transmission of data goes in one direction only, as shown in
Fig. 2.12. A common analogy is a commercial radio or TV broadcast where the
sending device never requires a response from the receiving device.
34 2 Data Communications

Fig. 2.12 Simplex transmission

Fig. 2.13 Half-duplex

transmission

Fig. 2.14 Full-duplex

transmission

Half-Duplex Mode
In half-duplex mode, two devices exchange information as shown in Fig. 2.13;
however, information can be transmitted across the channel one direction at a time.
A common example is Citizen Band radio (CB) or ham radio where a user can either
talk or listen, but both parties cannot talk at the same time.
Full-Duplex Mode
In full-duplex mode, both computers can send and receive information simultane-
ously, as shown in Fig. 2.14. An example of full-duplex is our modern telephone
system, in which both users may talk and listen at the same, with their voices carried
two ways simultaneously over the phone lines.

2.9 Signal Transmission

There are two methods used to transfer information over media: baseband and
broadband transmission.
Baseband Transmission Mode
When the entire bandwidth of a cable is used to carry only one signal, the cable
operates in baseband mode. Many digital signals use baseband transmission.
2.10 Digital Signal Encoding 35

Broadband Transmission Mode

When the bandwidth of a cable is used to carry several signals simultaneously, the
cable operates in broadband mode. For example, cable TV transmission works in
broadband mode because it carries multiple channels using multiple signals over the
cable. Broadband mode frequently uses analog signals.

2.10 Digital Signal Encoding

Digital signal encoding is used to represent binary values in the form of digital sig-
nals. The receiver of the digital signal must know the timing of each signal, such as
the start and end of each bit. Following are some methods used to represent digital
signals:
• Unipolar encoding
• Polar encoding
• Bipolar encoding
• Non-return to zero (NRZ)
• Non-return to zero inverted (NRZ-I)
• Manchester and differential Manchester encoding
Manchester and differential Manchester, and non-return to zero inverted (NRZ-I)
encoding schemes are used in LANs and non-return to zero is used in WANs. Each
encoding technique is described below.
Unipolar Encoding
In unipolar encoding, only positive voltage or negative voltage are used to repre-
sent binary 0 and 1. For example, + 5 volts represents binary 1 and zero volts repre-
sents 0, as shown in Fig. 2.15.
Polar Encoding
In polar encoding, positive and negative voltages are used to represent binary one
and zero, respectively. For example, +5 volts represents binary one and −5 volts
represent binary zero, as shown in Fig. 2.16.
Bipolar Encoding
In bipolar encoding, signal voltage varies in three levels: positive, zero, and nega-
tive voltage. One of the most popular bipolar encoding methods is Alternate Mark

Fig. 2.15 Unipolar Voltage

encoding signals

+5
1 0 1 1
0 Time
36 2 Data Communications

Fig. 2.16 Polar encoding Voltage

signals

5
1 0 1 1 0
0

-5

Voltage

5
1 0 1 1 0 0 1
0
Time
-5

Fig. 2.17 Bipolar encoding signals

Inversion (AMI). In AMI encoding, binary 0 is represented by zero volts and binary
1 is represented by alternating swings between positive and negative voltages, as
shown in Fig. 2.17.
Non-return to Zero Encoding (NRZ)
NRZ is a simple format of polar encoding, which uses two voltage levels for repre-
senting 1 and 0, with binary 0 represented by a positive voltage and binary 1 repre-
sented by a negative voltage, as shown in Fig. 2.18.
Non-return to Zero Inverted Encoding (NRZ-I)
In NRZ-I, there is a transition at the start of logic 1 (low to high or high to low) and
no transition at start of 0, as shown in Fig. 2.19.
Manchester and Differential Manchester Encoding
In Manchester and differential Manchester encoding, the clock pulse is embed-
ded into the signal. Therefore, the receiver does not require any additional signal to
represent the clock pulse. This self-clocking feature and low error rates have made
Manchester and differential Manchester encoding the most popular line coding
methods for wired LANs and WANs. According to the IEEE standards, Manchester
encoding is used in Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) networks and differential Manchester
encoding is used in Token Ring (IEEE 802.5) networks.
2.11 Error Detection Methods 37

Fig. 2.18 NRZ encoding Voltage

signals

0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
Time

0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 NRZI
Time

Fig. 2.19 NRZ-I encoding signals

Table 2.6 Conversion methods of digital signal to Manchester and differential Manchester
Digital
signal Manchester encoding Differential Manchester
Logic 1 Transition from high to low at the Transition only in the middle of the signal
middle of the signal
Logic 0 Transition from low to high at the Transition at the start of zero and at the
middle of signal middle of zero (original signal)

Table 2.6 describes how to convert digital signals to Manchester encoding and
differential Manchester encoding, and Fig. 2.20 shows the Manchester and differen-
tial Manchester encoding of a digital signal.

2.11 Error Detection Methods

When the transmitter sends a frame to the receiver, the frame can become corrupted
due to external and internal noise. The receiver must first check the integrity of the
frame. Some possible sources of error are as follows:
Impulse Noise: A non-continuous pulse for a short duration is called impulse noise.
It may be caused by a lightning discharge or a spike generated by a power switch
being turned off and on.
Crosstalk: This type of noise can be generated when a transmission line carrying a
strong signal is coupled with a transmission line carrying a weak signal. The
transmission line with the strong signal will produce noise (crosstalk) on the
transmission line with the weak signal.
38 2 Data Communications

Voltage

Clock

Time

Original 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
Signal Time

M anchester
Encoding
Time

Differential
M anchester
Encoding Time

Fig. 2.20 Manchester and differential Manchester encoding

Attenuation: When a signal travels on a transmission line, the strength of the signal
is reduced over distance. This reduction is called attenuation. A weak signal is
more affected by noise than a strong signal.
White Noise or Thermal Noise: This type of noise exists in all electrical devices and
is generated by moving electrons in the conductor.
The following methods can be used to detect an error or errors:
• Parity Check
• Block Check Character (BCC)
• One’s Complement of the Sum
• Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
Parity Check
The simplest error detection method is the parity check. The parity check method
can detect one error and is used in both the asynchronous transmission method and
the character-oriented synchronous transmission method. A parity bit is an extra bit
that the transmitter adds to the information before transmitting to the receiver. The
value of parity bit selected by the transmitter determines whether the data is given
an even number of ones (even parity) or an odd number of ones (odd parity). For
example, if a transmitter uses even parity to transmit the ASCII character 1000011
(upper case e), the transmitter adds parity bit 1 to the character so that the number
of ones in the character becomes even: 11000011. The transmitter would then trans-
mit 11000011 to the receiver. The receiver checks number of the ones in the charac-
ter. If the number of the ones is even, there is no error detected in the character.
Otherwise, the character contains an error. Parity error detection is used in serial
communications. Figure 2.21 shows the logic diagram for a parity bit generator
using Exclusive-OR gates.
2.11 Error Detection Methods 39

B6 B5 B4 B3 B2 B1 B0

+
+
+
Exclusive OR
+

+ Odd Parity Bit

Even Parity Bit

Fig. 2.21 Logic diagram of parity bit generator

Block Check Character

Block Check Character (BCC) uses vertical and horizontal parity bits in order to
detect double errors. Remember, the parity check is limited to detection of only one
error and is used only for transmitting single characters. When a block of characters
is transmitted, BCC can be used to correct one error and detect two errors. A parity
bit is added to each character (row parity) in a block of characters, then a column
parity is computed. As illustrated in Table 2.7, the result of the column parity bits is
called the Block Check Character (BCC). Table 2.7 shows that using odd parity for
the rows and even parity for the columns results in a BCC of 01011110. For exam-
ple, if two bits are changed in row one, such as B5 from 0 to 1 and B2 from 1 to 0,
the row parity does not change, but the BCC will change, indicating the detection of
two errors in one row.
One’s Complement of the Sum
The One’s Complement of the Sum method is used for error detection of the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) header and Internet Protocol (IP) header. At
the transmitter side, the 16 bit one’s complement sum of the header is calculated.
The result of this calculation is transmitted with the information to the receiver. At
the receiver side, the 16 bit one’s complement of the header is calculated and com-
pared to the result with the one’s complement of the transmitter. If the two results
are equal, no error is detected. Otherwise, there is an error in the information.
Figure 2.22 shows the one’s complement of the sum for a four-byte header.
Cyclic Redundancy Check
The parity bit and BCC can detect single and double errors. The Cyclic Redundancy
Check (CRC) method is used for detection of single error, more than a single error,
and burst error (when two or more consecutive bits in a frame have changed). The
CRC uses modulo-2 addition to compute the Frame Check Sequence (FCS). In
modulo-2 addition:
40 2 Data Communications

Table 2.7 BCC calculation for word “NETWORK”

Parity B6 B5 B4 B3 B2 B1 B0
1 1 0/1 0 1 1/0 1 0 N
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 E
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 T
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 W
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 O
0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 R
1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 K
0 1 0/1 1 1 1/0 1 0 BCC

Transmitting Side Receiving Side

1000010 1000010
1111101 1111101
0000001 0000001
+ 0111100 + 0001100
1111100 (the carry is added) 1001100 (the carry is discarded)

Therefore:One’s Therefore: One’s

Complement is 0000011 Complement is 0110011

Fig. 2.22 One’s complement of the sum

1  1  0,1  0  1, and 0  0  0.

The following procedure is used to calculate FCS.

At the transmitter side, the Frame M is k bits, P is a divisor of n + 1 bits, and the
FCS is n bits and is equal to the remainder of 2n∗ M/P using modulo-2 division.
At the transmitting side, the FCS, which is the remainder from 2n∗ M/P, is calcu-
lated. The transmitter will transmit frame T = 2n∗ M + FCS to the receiver, where T
is k + n bits.
At the receiving side, the receiver divides T by P using modulo-2 division. If the
result of this division generates a remainder of zero, no error is detected in the
frame. Otherwise, the frame contains one or more errors.
Example 2.7 Find the Frame Check Sequence (FCS) for the following message.
The divisor is given.

=
Message =
M 111010, K 6 bits

Divisor P  1101 n  1  4 bits

Therefore, 2n∗M = 111010000.

By dividing 2n∗M by P using modulo-2 division, FCS = 010 as shown in Fig. 2.23.
At the transmitter side, the FCS is added to 2n∗M, and the transmitter transmits
frame T = 111010010 to the receiver.
2.11 Error Detection Methods 41

Fig. 2.23 Frame Check 101010 Quotient

Sequence calculation 1101 111010000
1101
1110
1101
1100
1101
010

Remainder of FCS is 010

At the receiver side, the receiver divides T by P, and if the result has a remainder
of zero, there is no error in the frame. Otherwise, the message contains an error.
Since the above division takes time, special hardware is designed to generate FCS.
CRC Polynomial and Architecture
A binary number is represented by b5b4  b3b2  b1b0, where bi represents each bit that
can be represented by a polynomial:

b 5 X 5 + b 4 X 4 + b3 X 3 + b 2 X 2 + b1 X + b 0

Example 2.8 Represent P = 1101101 by polynomial.

P  X   1.X 6  1.X 5  0.X 4  1.X 3  1.X 2  0.X  1  X 6  X 5  X 3  X 2  1


The following CRC polynomials are IEEE and ITU standards:

CRC 12 X12 X11 X3 X1 1

CRC 16 X16 X15 X2 1

CRC ITU X16 X12 X5 1

CRC 32 X 32 X 26 X 23 X 22 X16 X11 X10 X8 X7 X5 X4 X2 X 1

The CRC method uses a special integrated circuit (IC) to generate the FCS. The
design of this IC is based on the CRC polynomial. In general, a CRC polynomial
can be represented by:

P  X   X n .  a 4 X 4  a 3 X 3  a 2 X 2  a1 X  1

Figure 2.24 shows the general architecture of a CRC integrated circuit (IC). Ci is
a one-bit shift register and the output of each register is connected to the input of an
Exclusive-OR gate; ai is the coefficient of a CRC polynomial. In Fig. 2.24, if ai
equals zero, then there is no connection between the feedback line and the XOR
42 2 Data Communications

Clock

Message

C n-1 + + + + +
C3 C2 C1 C0

an-1 a3 a2 a1

Fig. 2.24 General architecture of CRC polynomial

Message

C4 + C3 C2 + C1 C0 +
a4 a2

Fig. 2.25 CRC circuit for polynomial P(X) = = X5 + X4 + X2 + 1

gate. In order to find the FCS, the initial value for Ci is set to zero, and the message
2n∗M is shifted k + n times through the CRC circuit. The final content of Cn‐1, ….
C4 C3, C2, C1, C0 is the Frame Check Sequence (FCS).
Example 2.9
Show CRC circuit for polynomial:

P  X   X 5  X 4  X 2  1

In the above polynomial the value for a1, a3 are zero and Fig. 2.25 shows the
CRC circuit for above polynomial.
Example 2.10 Find FCS.

Message M = 111010

Assume P = 1101

P  X   X3  X2  1

The circuit for P(X) is shown in Fig. 2.26, where a1 = 0, a2 = 1, and a3 = 1.

Summary 43

Input 111010000

C2 + C1 C0 +

Fig. 2.26 CRC circuit for P = 1101

Table 2.8 FCS value for message M = 111010 and P = 1101

C2 C1 C0 Input
0 0 0 Initial value
0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0
1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0

Table 2.8 shows the contents of each register after shifting one bit at the time.
After shifting 9 (k + n) times, the contents of the registers is the FCS.

Summary

• Information transfer between two computers occurs in one of two types of sig-
nals: digital or analog.
• Modern computers work with digital signals.
• A digital signal is represented by two voltages.
• Binary numbering is the representation of a number in Base-2.
• One digit in binary is called a bit, and eight bits are equal to one byte. More than
one byte is called a word.
• Information is represented and processed inside the computer in binary or
Base-2 form.
• Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) is used for representing decimal numbers
from 0 to 9.
• ASCII code is used to represent character information inside the computer;
ASCII code is made of 7 bits.
• There are two methods used for transmission of data: synchronous and asynchro-
nous transmission.
44 2 Data Communications

• Parallel transmission is a method by which data is transmitted byte by byte.

• Serial transmission is a method by which data is transmitted one bit at a time
over a single transmission media.
• Asynchronous transmission adds extra bits (start bit and stop) to the character for
synchronization.
• With synchronous transmission, clock pulses are used for synchronization.
• There are three types of communication modes: Simplex transmission, Half-­
Duplex transmission, and Full-Duplex transmission.
• Baseband mode uses the bandwidth of a transmission media to carry only
one signal.
• Broadband mode uses the bandwidth of a transmission media to carry multiple
signals.
• Digital information can be represented by several forms of digital signal, such as
non-return to zero (NRZ), non-return to zero inverted (NRZ-I), Manchester
encoding, differential Manchester and bipolar encoding.
• Some sources of error for digital communications are impulse noise, crosstalk,
attenuation, and white noise.
• Parity Check, Block Check Character (BCC), One’s Complement of the Sum,
and Cyclic Redundancy Checks (CRC) are used for error detection in networking.

Key Terms

Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) Full-Duplex Mode

Analog Signal Half-Duplex Mode
ASCII Manchester Encoding
Asynchronous Transmission Non-return to Zero Encoding
Attenuation One’s Complement of the Sum
Baseband Mode Parallel Transmission
Binary Parity Check
Bipolar Encoding Polar Encoding
Bit Serial Transmission
Block Check Character (BCC) Simplex Mode
Broadband Mode Synchronous Transmission
Byte Thermal Noise
Crosstalk Unicode
Cyclic Redundancy Check Unipolar Encoding
Differential Manchester Encoding White Noise
Digital Signal Word
Review Questions 45

Review Questions

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Frequency (F) is the number of cycles in one second and can be represented as:
(a) F = 1/T
(b) F=T
(c) F = −1/T
(d) F = −T
2. Modern computers work with __________ signals.
(a) Digital
(b) Analog
(c) a and b
(d) None of the above
3. Unicode is a new ____________ bit character encoding standard code.
(a) 16
(b) 18
(c) 8
(d) 12
4. ___________ transmission transmits data character by character.
(a) Asynchronous
(b) Synchronous
(c) Full duplex
(d) Half-duplex
5. ___________ transmission uses asynchronous transmission.
(a) Serial
(b) Parallel
(c) Broadband
(d) Full duplex
6. In__________ mode, transmission of data goes only in one direction.
(a) Simplex
(b) Half duplex
(c) Full duplex
(d) Serial
7. In _____________ mode, both computers can send and receive information
simultaneously.
(a) Simplex
(b) Half duplex
(c) Full duplex
(d) Serial
46 2 Data Communications

8. The ____________ of a communication signal is the range of frequencies that

the signal occupies.
(a) Data rate
(b) Bandwidth
(c) Baud rate
(d) Broadband
9. What is the bandwidth of each computer for an Ethernet LAN with 20 comput-
ers? _______.
(a) 1 Mbps
(b) 10 Mbps
(c) 500 Kbps
(d) 2 Mbps
10. Cyclic Redundancy Check can__________.
(a) Detect a single error and correct it
(b) Detect double errors and correct them
(c) Detect one or more
(d) Correct more than one error
11. Which of following digital encodings carries clock pulse________.
(a) Manchester encoding
(b) NRZ
(c) RZ
(d) RS-232
12. What is decimal value for (111101)2?_________.
(a) 44
(b) 63
(c) 61
(d) 52
13. What is hexadecimal value for (111110111)2?_______.
(a) 1F6
(b) 1F7
(c) FB1
(d) FB2
14. The binary value for 45 is _______.
(a) 101011
(b) 101101
(c) 101111
Review Questions 47

(d) 011111
15. A range of frequencies carried by a medium is called.
(a) Broadband signal
(b) Baseband signal
(c) Analog signal
(d) A digital signal
16. Asynchronous communication uses:
(a) Stop and start bits to indicate start of the character and end of the character
(b) Start bit is used to synchronize transmission
(c) Start and stop bits used for clocking
(d) None of the above
17. What is the efficiency of serial connection using asynchronous transmission
with 1 start bit, 2 stop bits, and 7 data bits?
(a) 70%
(b) 75%
(c) 80%
(d) 65%

Short Answer Questions

1. Sketch an analog signal.
2. What is frequency?
3. What is the unit of frequency?
4. What is the frequency of an analog signal that is repeated every 0.02 ms?
5. Explain the definition of the amplitude of an analog signal.
6. Sketch a digital signal.
7. What is a bit?
8. What is a byte?
9. What is a word?
10. Convert the following binary number to Hex.

1110001110012   _________ 16
11. Convert the following binary numbers to decimal.

111111112   __________ 10

101100012   __________ 10

12. Convert the following number to binary.

 FDE6 16   _________ 2
48 2 Data Communications

13. Convert the word DIGITAL to binary using the ASCII table (Table 2.3).
14. Convert the word NETWORK to hexadecimal using the ASCII table
(Table 2.3).
15. Write your name in binary ASCII, then change the result to hexadecimal.
16. What is serial transmission?
17. What is parallel transmission?
18. What is the advantage of parallel transmission over serial transmission.
19. Explain the following terms:
(a) Simplex
(b) Half Duplex
(c) Full Duplex
20. What is a synchronous transmission?
21. Why is a clock pulse needed for transmission of a digital signal?
22. Show the format of asynchronous transmission.
23. Sketch a clock pulse.
24. List two types of digital encoding methods in which the clock is embedded to
the data signal.
25. List methods of error detection.
26. List sources of error in networking.
27. Represent binary 110101 with a polynomial.
28. Find the BCC for word “ETHERNET.”
29. Show the CRC Circuit for 1011.
30. Find the FCS for message 10110110 using circuit in question 29.
31. Find the One’s Complement of the Sum for word “NETWORK.”
32. Show the digital wave form for 0101011110.
33. Draw the Manchester encoding and differential Manchester encoding for the
binary number 010110110.
34. Calculate the frequency of a signal repeated every 0.0005 seconds.
35. Find the FCS for data unit 111011 with divisor 1011.
36. What is burst error?
Chapter 3
Communications Channels and Media

Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
• List the types of communication media currently in use.
• Distinguish between the different types of unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable.
• List the different types of coaxial cable and their applications.
• Discuss the different types of fiber-optic cables and their usage.
• Explain the operation of wireless transmission.
• Explain signal attenuation and channel bandwidth.
• Describe the characteristics of a synchronous optical network (SONET).
• List the components of SONET and define the function of each component.
• List SONET ‘s optical signal rates.
• Show the SONET frame format and explain the function of each overhead field.

3.1 Introduction

A transmission medium is a path between the transmitter and the receiver in a trans-
mission system. The type of transmission medium is defined by the various charac-
teristics of the digital signal, including the signal rate, data rate, and the bandwidth
of a channel. The bandwidth of a channel determines the range of frequencies that
the channel can transmit. There are three types of communications media cur-
rently in use:
1. Conductive, such as twisted-pair wire and coaxial cable.
2. Fiber-optic cable.
3. Wireless.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 49

A. Elahi, A. Cushman, Computer Networks,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42018-4_3
50 3 Communications Channels and Media

3.2 Conductive Media

The most popular conductive media used in networking are unshielded twisted-­
pair (UTP) cable, shielded twisted-pair cable (STP), and coaxial cable.
Twisted-Pair Cable
Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable is the least expensive transmission medium
and is typically used for LANs. Electrical interference, such as external electromag-
netic noise generated by nearby cables, can have a devastating effect on the perfor-
mance of a UTP cable. One way of improving the effect of noise on a UTP cable is
to shield the cable with a metallic braid. A shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable pro-
vides better performance but is more difficult to work with. Figure 3.1a, b shows
illustrations of UTP and STP cables.
The unshielded twisted-pair cable is divided into categories CAT-1 through
CAT-8. Only CAT-1 through CAT-6, however, are recognized by the Electronic
Industries Association (EIA) as CAT-7/7a and CAT-8 have not yet been standard-
ized. Even so, CAT-7/7a cables are currently used in datacenters, and while CAT-8
is still largely in development, CAT-8 cables are projected for use in extremely high-­
bandwidth applications in the near future.
The EIA provides specifications for CAT-1 through CAT-6 UTP cables, as shown
in Table 3.1. These standards apply to four-pair UTP which uses RJ-45 and RJ-11
connectors, as shown in Fig. 3.2. In addition to these specifications, certain propri-
etary enhancements to CAT-5 allow for improved performance over longer
distances. Table 3.1 also shows the specifications for the non-standardized CAT-7/7a
and CAT-8 UTP cables.

Fig. 3.1 (a) Unshielded

twisted-pair UTP) cable.
(b) Shielded twisted-pair
(STP) cable

Table 3.1 UTP Specifications

Type of UTP Performance Application
CAT-1 None None
CAT-2 1 MHz Telephone wiring
CAT-3 16 MHz 10 Base-T, 100 BaseT4
CAT-4 20 MHz Token Ring 16
CAT-5/5e 100 MHz 100 Base-T, 1000 Base-T 20 Mbps Token Ring
CAT-6 250 MHz 10 Gbase-T (10 Gigabit Ethernet)
CAT-6a 500 MHz 10 Gbase-T (10 Gigabit Ethernet)
CAT-7 600 MHz 10 Gbps at 100 m
CAT-7a 1 GHz (1000 MHz) 40 Gbps at 50 m/100 Gbps at 15 m
CAT-8 2 GHz (2000 MHz) 25 Gbps/40 Gbps
3.2 Conductive Media 51

RJ-45 Female RJ-45 Male RJ-11 Male

Fig. 3.2 RJ-45 and RJ-11 connectors

Fig. 3.3 Coaxial cable

PVC Coating

Wire mesh shield

Plastic insulator
Conductor

Fig. 3.4 BNC connector

Coaxial Cable
A coaxial cable is used to transmit high-speed digital and analog signals over long
distances. Figure 3.3 shows a coaxial cable that has an outer insulating cover made
of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), or Teflon, protecting the coaxial cable. Under the outer
cover is a wire mesh shield, which provides excellent protection from external elec-
trical noise. This shield is made of mesh wire or foil, or both. Under the shield is a
plastic insulator, which isolates the center conductor from the shield. The center
conductor is a solid copper or aluminum wire that is shielded from external interfer-
ence signals. There are different types of coaxial cable, categorized by the Radio
Government (RG) rating. RG represents a set of specifications for cables such as the
conductor diameter, thickness, and type of insulator. Coaxial cables use BNC con-
nectors as shown in Fig. 3.4.
52 3 Communications Channels and Media

3.3 Fiber-Optic Cable

A fiber-optic cable is made of fiber that is covered by a buffer and a jacket. The
fiber is composed of a core of thin glass or plastic covered by cladding which may
also be glass or plastic. This fiber (the core and the cladding) is then covered by a
buffer to strengthen it. The buffer is finally covered by a plastic outer layer, called
the jacket, which acts as a protective coating or shield. Figure 3.5 illustrates the
structure of a fiber-optic cable.
To transmit information using optical fiber, the digital information is converted
to light pulses by light-emitting diodes (LED) or injected-laser diodes (ILD) and
sent through the fiber-optic cable. An LED is a diode which generates a low power
light. At the receiving end, a photodiode or a photo transistor is used to convert the
light pulse signals back into electrical signals.
The following are the advantages of fiber-optic cables:
• Longer distance transmission due to reduced signal loss (attenuation).
• Greater bandwidth up to the Gigahertz range.
• Immunity from any kind of noise or external interference such as electromag-
netic signals.
• Smaller size.
• Secure media.
Some disadvantages of fiber-optic cables are as follows:
• Network interface cards and cabling can be expensive.
• Connection to the network is more difficult.
Characteristics of Light
The source of signals for a fiber-optic cable is light. The characteristics of light are
propagation speed, wavelength, and attenuation.
Propagation Speed Light propagates through a vacuum at a speed of 3.0*108 m/s.
Wavelength The length of a wave is measured in meters and is represented by λ
(lambda). The wavelength is the distance between two successive peaks of a wave
or the distance traveled by one cycle of a wave as shown in Fig. 3.6.
Equation 3.1 describes the wavelength in terms of the speed of light and the fre-
quency of a signal.

 C/f (3.1)
Fig. 3.5 Fiber-optic cable

Fiber
Buffer Jacket
3.3 Fiber-Optic Cable 53

voltage

W avelength

meters

Fig. 3.6 Wavelength of a sine wave

where:
C = the speed of light (3*108 m/s)
f = frequency of the signal
Attenuation of Light Attenuation is the reduction of the strength of a signal.
When light travels through a fiber, it loses energy. The greatest loss of energy is
often caused by absorption. Absorption is caused by fiber materials as the optical
power is converted to another form of energy such as heat. Attenuation is defined in
Eq. 3.2.

Pt (3.2)
A = 10 log10
Pr

where:
A is the attenuation in decibels.
Pt is the power of light at the transmitter side.
Pr is the power of light at the receiver side (after transmission).
The attenuation of a fiber-optic cable is specified by the manufacturer. Figure 3.7
shows the attenuation of a 1 km fiber-optic cable with different signal wavelengths
and two windows with the least attenuation (1300 nm and 1550 nm). The 850 nm
wavelength window offers the most economical solution as it uses the less-­expensive
emitting diode. Fiber-optic systems operate at the wavelength defined by one of
these three windows.
A. The first window is centered at a wavelength of 850 nm
(nanometers = 10−9meters).
B. The second window is centered at 1300 nm.
C. The third window is centered at 1550 nm.
54 3 Communications Channels and Media

Fig. 3.7 Attenuation of fiber cable versus wavelength

Types of Fiber-Optic Cable

In a fiber-optic cable, the angle of light reflection is directly dependent upon the
diameter of the fiber. As the diameter increases, the light is reflected more, and it
takes more time to travel a given distance. There are two types of fiber-optics cable:
single-mode fiber (SMF) and multimode fiber (MMF).
1. Single-Mode Fiber (SMF): In single-mode fiber, only one light ray propagates
through the fiber as shown in Fig. 3.8. The core diameter of single-mode fiber is
between 7 and 10 microns or micrometers (1 micron = 10 −6 meters) and the
cladding diameter of a single-mode fiber is 125 microns. The light wavelengths
that are used for SMF are 1300 and 1550 nanometers. Manufacturers of fiber
optic cables represent the fiber cable by ratio of core over cladding diameters
such as 8/125 for single mode. The single mode fiber uses laser diode injection
(LDI) as the source of light.
2. Multimode Fiber (MMF): In multimode fiber, more than one light ray can
propagate through the fiber since each light ray propagates at a different wave-
length. Multimode fiber has a core diameter larger than the wavelength of the
light source being used, which ranges from 50 micrometers to 1000 microme-
ters, where the wavelength of the light is about 1 micrometer. This means light
can propagate through the fiber in many different ray paths or modes. A single-­
3.3 Fiber-Optic Cable 55

Cladding
Diameter

Core Diameter

Fig. 3.8 Light propagation in single-mode fiber-optics (SMF)

Fig. 3.9 Light propagation in multimode graded index fiber

mode fiber cable has a smaller diameter than a multimode fiber cable. The MMF
uses a light emitting diode (LED) as the source of light.
Multimode Graded Index Fiber: In multimode fiber, the index of refraction
across the core is gradually changed from maximum at the center to a minimum
near the edges. This type of fiber causes the light to travel faster in the low index of
refraction material than in the high-refraction material. Typical bandwidth for
graded index fibers ranges from 100 MHz*km to 1 GHz*km. Figure 3.9 shows a
multimode graded index fiber-optic cable.
Modal Bandwidth
Modal bandwidth is specified in units of MHz*km. The modal bandwidth indi-
cates the amount of bandwidth supported by a fiber cable for a 1 km (0.625 miles)
distance and is given by the manufacturer of the optical cable. For example, a cable
with a modal bandwidth of 500 MHz*km can support end-to-end bandwidth of
250 MHz at a maximum 2 km (1.25 miles) distance.
Fiber-Optic Connectors
There are three common types of fiber-optic connectors used for networking. These
connectors are listed below.
1. Subscriber Channel (SC) Connector: The SC connector, shown in Fig. 3.10,
uses a push-pull locking system. SC connectors are used for CATV, telephone
connections, and networks.
2. Straight Tip (ST) Connector: ST connectors use bayonet locking and are val-
ued for their high reliability. The ST connector is also shown in Fig. 3.10.
3. MT-RJ Connector: The MT-RJ is a duplex connector, as shown in Fig. 3.11.
The size of a MT-RJ connector is equal to that of an RJ-45 connector.
56 3 Communications Channels and Media

SC connector ST connector

Fig. 3.10 Fiber-optic ST and SC connectors

Fig. 3.11 MT-RJ

connector RX
TX

3.4 Wireless Transmission

Wireless transmission does not use any transmission media, such as a conductor or
optical cable, to transmit and receive information. Microwave, radio, infrared light,
and laser are forms of wireless communication.
When electrons accelerate, they generate electromagnetic waves. Wireless trans-
mission uses these electromagnetic waves. Table 3.2 shows the electromagnetic
wave spectrum and its applications.

3.5 Transmission Impairment

In a communication system, the transmitter sends information in the form of signals

such as optical, electrical, or radio frequency to the receiver. The signals are sent on
a communication channel. The receiver side of the signal has a different shape from
the transmitter side. This difference can be caused by attenuation, distortion,
or noise.
Attenuation When a signal travels from source to destination, the signal loses
energy. The amount of lost energy depends on the type of the channel, the length of
the channel, and the frequency of the signal, as shown in Fig. 3.12. A longer channel
will result in a higher loss of energy than a shorter channel. If a signal attenuates too
much, then it becomes undetectable by the receiver.
To increase the length of a communication channel, one must use an amplifier to
strengthen the signal. The attenuation is measured in decibels (dB) and it is defined
by Eq. 3.3.
3.5 Transmission Impairment 57

Table 3.2 The electromagnetic frequency spectrum and its applications

Frequency range Name Application
3–30 KHz Very low frequency (VLF) Telephone
30–300 KHz Low frequency (LF) Radio frequency for navigation
300–3000 KHz Medium frequency (MF) AM radio frequency
3–30 MHz High frequency (HF) CB radio, shortwave radio
30–300 MHz Very high frequency (VHF) TV and FM radio
300–3000 MHz Ultra high frequency (UHF) TV, military
3–30 GHz Super high frequency (SHF) Terrestrial and satellite microwave
30–300 GHz Extreme high frequency (EHF) Experimental
>300 GHz Infrared light, lasers TV remote control, laser surgery

Amplifier

Transmitter
side
Communication channel Receiver side

Fig. 3.12 Attenuation and amplification of a signal as it travels through a communication channel

Pt (3.3)
A p = 10 log10
Pr

where:
Ap is the power attenuation.
Pt is the power of the signal at the transmitter side.
Pr is the power of the signal at the receiver side.
Example 3.1 A signal with a power of 500 mW is transmitted over a communica-
tion channel. At the receiver side, the power of the signal is 50 mW. Calculate power
attenuation of the signal.

500
= =
Ap 10 log10 10 dB
500

Electrical signals are used for transmission of information over a conductive

medium that acts as a communication channel. The electrical signal travels through
the conductor. As a result of the resistance of the conductor, the signal loses some
voltage. This loss of voltage is called a voltage drop. Attenuation of an electrical
signal is calculated by Eq. 3.4:

Pt  Vt  I, where I  Vt / R, then
58 3 Communications Channels and Media

Pt   Vt  / R
2

Pr   Vr  / R
2

Substitution of Pt with (Vt)2 / R and Pr with (Vr)2 / R results in Eq. 3.4

Vt
Av = 20 log10 (3.4)
Vr

where:
Av is the voltage attenuation.
Vt is the voltage of signal at the transmitter side.
Vr is the voltage of signal at the receiver side (after transmission).
The attenuation of a cable is published by the cable manufacturer. Table 3.3
shows the attenuation of UTP Cat-5 and Cat-6 cables at different frequencies. It is
notable that attenuation increases as frequency increases.
The network designer uses attenuation data to find the maximum cable length
that can be used without using a repeater.
Example 3.2 Find the maximum length of a Cat-6 cable that transmits a signal
with 250 MHz, assuming the voltage of the signal at the transmitter side is 5000 mV
and at the receiver side is 200 mV.

5000
= =
Av 20 log10 27.8dB
200

From Table 3.3, attenuation for 100 meters of Cat-6 at frequency 250 MHz is
31 dB; thus, the maximum cable length is 89.6 meters. If the transmitter transmits
information at 20 MHz using Cat-6, then the maximum length of the cable would be
347.4 meters.

Table 3.3 Attenuation of Cat-5 and Cat-6 cables for various frequencies
Cat-5 Cat-6
Frequency (MHz) Attenuation Attenuation
(dB/100 m) (dB/100 m)
1 MHz 2 1.9
10 6.5 5.6
20 9.3 8.0
100 22 18.7
250 NA 31.0
3.6 Bandwidth, Latency, Throughput, and Channel Capacity 59

3.6 Bandwidth, Latency, Throughput, and Channel Capacity

Bandwidth
In general, bandwidth is the maximum rate of data transferred over a communica-
tion link. It is categorized by the type of signal over the communication link.
Analog Bandwidth Analog bandwidth is the difference between the highest and
the lowest frequency in a communication channel. For example, the highest fre-
quency of the human voice is 3300 Hz and the lowest frequency of the human voice
is 300 Hz. Therefore, the bandwidth of the human voice is simply:

3300 Hz  300 Hz  3000 Hz

Digital Bandwidth The bandwidth of a digital link is the maximum number of bits
per second that can be transmitted over the communication link. For example, the
bandwidth of a T1 link is 1.54 Mbps meaning that it can transfer up to 1.54 million
bits per second. Ethernet’s bandwidth is 10 Mbps meaning each bit takes 0.1 μs to
get transmitted.
Latency (Delay)
Latency defines the time it takes to transmit one packet (unit of information) from
source to destination. Latency delay consists of propagation delay, transmission
time, and buffering time. Latency is defined in Eq. 3.5. Also, the two-way latency is
called round trip time (RTT).

Latency  Tx  Tp  Tb (3.5)

where:
Tx is the transmission times.
Tp is the propagation delays.
Tb is the buffering times.
Transmission Time Transmission time is the time that it takes to put a message on
media. If the data rate of a link is 1000 bits per second, then each bit takes 0.001 sec-
onds to put on the media. Transmission time is defined by Eq. 3.6:

Packet Size  bits 

Transmission Time Tx  (3.6)
Bandwidth  bps 

Example 3.3 Find the transmission time for transferring 1500 bytes using a com-
munication link with a data rate of 10 Mbps.
60 3 Communications Channels and Media

 bit 
1500  byte    8 
Tx   byte   0.0012 sec
bit
10  106
sec

Propagation Delay Propagation delay or propagation time is the time taken by

the signal to travel from source to destination. Propagation delay is defined by
Eq. 3.7.

Length of the Communication Link  meters 

Tp  (3.7)
Speed of Light in the medium

where:
Speed of light = 3 × 108 m/s in a vacuum and less in wire and fiber medium.
Electrical and optical signals travel considerably less than almost at the speed of
light and are generally taken as 2.3 × 108 m/s and 2 × 108 m/s, respectively.
Example 3.4 Find the propagation time for transferring 100 bytes over 200 km of
fiber-optic cable.

2  10 5 m
Tp   0.001 sec
m
2  108  
s

Buffering Time A transmitted packet might be stored in several locations before

reaching its final destination. The time a packet spends in a temporary location
(known as a buffer) is called buffering time or queue time.
Throughput
The throughput of a communication channel is defined by the number of bits trans-
mitted over a communication link and can be shown by Eq. 3.8.

Transfer Size
Throughput = (3.8)
Latency

Example 3.5 Calculate the transmission time and the throughput of a communica-
tion link for a user to download 1500 bytes of information from a server. The user’s
computer is connected to the server by a modem with the data rate of 50 Kbps and
the distance between the two computers is 4000 km. Assume there is no buffer-
ing delay.
3.6 Bandwidth, Latency, Throughput, and Channel Capacity 61

 bit 
1500 byte  8  
Tx   byte   0.24 sec
50, 000 bps

4  106 m
Tp   0.018 sec
m
2.3  108  
 s

Latency  0.24  0.018  0.258 sec

 bit 
1500 byte  8  
Throughput   byte   46.51 kbps
0.258 sec

Channel Capacity
The bandwidth of a channel is defined as the range of frequencies that pass through
 bits 
the channel. Nyquist’s theorem is defined as the maximum data rate   in a
noiseless channel and is represented mathematically by Eq. 3.9.  sec 

max Data Rate  MDR   2 W  log 2 N bps (3.9)

where:
W is the bandwidth of the channel.
N is the number of signal levels or voltage levels.
Example 3.6 Find the maximum data rate of a channel with a bandwidth of 4000 Hz
transmitting two voltages (e.g., binary = two levels, 0 and 1).

MDR  2 4000 log 2 2

MDR  8000 bps

Equation 3.9 is valid only when using a noiseless channel. Noise affects the data
rate of a channel. Figure 3.13 shows transmission of a digital signal through a noisy
channel.
Figure 3.13 indicates that the presence of noise in a communication channel may
cause distortion of the incoming signal such that the output signal is no longer a
square wave. When the amplitude of the noise is larger than expected, total destruc-
tion of the original signal occurs and affects the data rate of the communication
channel. The capacity of a channel may be obtained using Shannon’s theorem and
is represented mathematically by Eq. 3.10.
62 3 Communications Channels and Media

Transmitter Signal Receiver Signal

Communication Channel

Fig. 3.13 Transmission of a digital signal through a noisy channel

 S
max Data Rate  MDR   W  log 2  1   bps (3.10)
 N

where:
S
is the signal-to-noise ratio(SNR), the ratio of average signal power to average
N
noise power at the receiver, which is usually given in decibels(dB)by Eq. 3.11.
A decibel is defined as:

S
Decibels  10 log10   (3.11)
N
S
For example, if    10 , then (SNR) in decibels is:
N
SNR  10 log10 10
 10 dB

Example 3.7 Find the maximum data rate of a channel with a bandwidth of
4000 Hzand a signal-to-noise ratio of30 dB.
S
30 dB  10 log10
N

Therefore,

S
= 103
N

Subsequently,


MDR  W  log 2 1  103 
3.7 Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) 63

 4000 9.967 bps

3.7 Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)

SONET is a high-speed optical carrier that uses fiber optic-cable as the transmission
media. The term SONET is used in North America and is a standard established by the
American National Standards Institute (ANSI). The International Telecommunication
Union (ITU) has also set a standard for SONET called Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
(SDH), which is used in Europe.
SONET optical architecture is based on a four-fiber bidirectional ring to provide
the highest possible level of service assurance. New application software, such as
Medical Images and CAD CAM applications, require more bandwidth than other
applications and rely on SONET for high-speed transmission with a large
bandwidth.

3.7.1 Characteristics of SONET

The most significant characteristics of SONET are as follows:

• SONET uses byte multiplexing at all levels.
• SONET is a high-speed transport (carrier) technology with a self-correcting path.
• SONET uses multiplexing and demultiplexing.
• SONET provides operation administration and maintenance (OAM) func-
tions for network managers.
• The basic electrical signal for SONET is synchronous transport signal level
one (STS-1).
• SONET transmits STS-1 at a rate of 8000 frames per second.
• Slower signals can be multiplexed directly onto higher speeds.

3.7.2 SONET Components

Figure 3.14 shows SONET’s components, which consist of an STS (synchronous

transport signal) multiplexer (MUX), a regenerator, an add/drop multiplexer, an
electrical-to-optical converter, and an STS demultiplexer. These components are
described in the following list:
64 3 Communications Channels and Media

Electrical to optical
Converter Regenerator
STS-1 ADM
ADD/DROP STS
STS-1 OC-3 Multiplexer O/E
MUX E/O DEMUX
STS-1 Optical cable
STS-3

Fig. 3.14 SONET components

1 2 3 4 5 90
1
Section 2
Overhead
3
4
Path
5
Overhead
Data
Line 6
Overhead 7
8
9

Synchronous Payload Envelop

Fig. 3.15 Multiplexing three STS-1 s to generate STS-3

STS Multiplexer: The function of the STS MUX is to multiplex electrical input
signals to a higher data rate and then convert the results to an optical signal, as
shown in Fig. 3.15.
Regenerator: The regenerator performs the functions of a repeater. If the optical
cable is longer than standard, the regenerator will be used to receive the optical
signal and then regenerate the optical signal.
Add/Drop Multiplexer: Add/drop multiplexers are used for extracting, or insert-
ing, lower rate signals from, or into, higher rate multiplexed signals without
completely demultiplexing the SONET signals.
STS Demultiplexer: STS demultiplexers convert and demultiplex optical signals to
electrical signals.

3.7.3 SONET Signal Rates

The lowest level signal in SONET is the Synchronous Transport Signal Level One
(STS-1), which has a signal rate of 51.84 Mbps. The STS-1 is an electrical signal
which is converted to an optical signal called OC-1. The higher SONET data rates
are represented by STS-n, where n is 1, 3, 9, 12, 18, 24, 34, 48, 96, and 192. Table 3.4
shows SONET and SDH signal rates.
3.7 Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) 65

Table 3.4 Data rate for OC, STS, and STM signals
Fiber-Optic (OC) Synchronous transport signal Synchronous transport module data
signal OC-n Level (STS) for SONET rate (STM) for SDH (Mbps)
OC-1 STS-1 51.84
OC-3 STS-3 STM-1155.52
OC-9 STS-9 STM-3446.56
OC-12 STS-12 STM-4622.08
OC-18 STS-18 STM-6933.12
OC-24 STS-24 STM-8 1244.16
OC-36 STS- 36 STM-12 1866.24
OC-48 STS-48 STM-16 2488.32
OC-96 STS-96 STM-32 4976.64
OC-192 STS-192 STM −64 9953.28
OC Optical carrier, STS Synchronous transport signal (electrical signal for SONET), STM
Synchronous transport module (electrical signal for SDH)

STS-1 1 MUX

3 2 1
STS-1 2 STS-3

STS-1
3

Fig. 3.16 SONET STS-1 frame format

3.7.4 SONET Frame Format

The basic transmission signal for SONET is the STS-1. The STS-1 format is shown
in Fig. 3.16. It is made up of 9 rows and 90 columns of bytes. The frame size is 90
* 9 = 810 bytes, or 810 * 8 = 6480 bits. SONET transmits 8000 frames per second.
The data rate for STS-1 is 6480 * 8000 = 51.84 Mbps.
The first three columns are referred to as transport overhead, which is 3 * 9 = 27
bytes. 9 of these 27 bytes are used for section overhead, 18 bytes are used for line
overhead, and 9 bytes are used for path overhead. The actual data rate is 86 columns
* 9 rows * 8 bits * 8000 frames/sec = 49.536 Mbps.
66 3 Communications Channels and Media

The STS-1 frame is transmitted by the byte from row 1, column 1 to row 9, col-
umn 90 (scanning from left to right).
Path Overhead Path overhead is part of SPE (synchronous payload envelope) and
contains the performance monitor of synchronous transport signal, path trace, parity
check, and the path status.
Section Overhead Section overhead contains information about frame
synchronization.
(informing the destination of incoming frame) and frame identification. It also
carries information about operation administration and maintenance (OAM), han-
dles frame alignment, and separates data from the voice.
Line Overhead Line overhead carries the payload pointers to specify the location
of SPE in the frame and provides automatic switching for standby equipment. It
separates voice channels and provides multiplexing, line maintenance, and perfor-
mance monitoring.

3.7.5 SONET Multiplexing

Higher levels of synchronous transport signals can be generated by using byte inter-
leave multiplexing. The STS-3 is generated by multiplexing three STS-1 signals as
shown in Fig. 3.15. The output of STS-3 is converted to an optical signal called
OC-3. The STS-3 frame is made up of 3 * 90 = 270 columns, and 9 rows, containing
2430 bytes. The STS-3 is transmitted at 8000 frames per second and, therefore, the
bit rate of STS-3 is:

2430 bytes 8 bits 8000 frames / sec  155.52 Mbps.

Figure 3.17 shows the STS-3 frame format. The transport overhead is made up of
9 columns and 9 rows. The SONET payload envelope is 260 * 9 bytes. The STS-9
is generated by multiplexing three STS-3 s, as shown in Fig. 3.18.

1 9 10 11 270
1
2
3 STS-3 Synchronous Payload Envelop
4 Transport (SPE)
5
Overhead
6
7
8
9

Fig. 3.17 Frame format of STS-3

Summary 67

STS-3 1 MUX

3 2 1
STS-3 2 E/O
OC-9
STS-9
STS-3
3

Fig. 3.18 Generating an STS-9 frame

Summary

• Transmission media are used to connect computers.

• The types of communication media are conductors, optical cable, and wireless.
• The types of conductors used for networking are unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
cable, shielded twisted pair (STP) cable, and coaxial cable.
• UTP cable contains several pairs of wires and is divided by EIA into categories
such as Cat-1, Cat-5, and Cat-6.
• Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) uses an RJ-45 connector.
• A coaxial cable is used for transmitting high-speed information over relatively
long distances.
• A fiber-optic cable transfers information in the form of light.
• Light emitting diodes (LED) and laser diodes are used to convert a digital signal
to an optical signal for transmitting information over optical cable.
• There are two types of optical cable: single-mode fiber (SMF) and multimode
fiber (MMF).
• Single-mode fiber (SMF) only uses one ray of the light source.
• In MMF-grade index fiber, the index of refraction changes from maximum at the
center to minimum near the edge of the core, causing the light to bend in a
curved shape.
• Wireless transmission uses microwave, radio, or infrared light signals to transmit
information.
• Microwave communication uses radio waves in the range of 1 GHz to 23GHz.
• Channel bandwidth is defined as the range of frequencies that passes through the
channel.
• Analog bandwidth is the difference between the highest and the lowest frequency
in a communication channel.
• Digital bandwidth is the maximum number of bits per second that can be trans-
mitted over a communication link.
• Latency (delay) defines the time it takes to transmit one packet (unit of informa-
tion) from source to destination.
• Attenuation is the loss of energy in a signal after transmission.
68 3 Communications Channels and Media

• The synchronous optical network (SONET) is a high-speed data carrier. The

term SONET is used in North America and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
(SDH) is used in Europe.
• SONET uses fiber-optic cable for transmission media since optical transmission
is immune to interference and can transmit data over a long distance.
• SONET converts the synchronous transport signal (STS-1) to an optical signal.
It is called OC-1 (optical carrier) and is transmitted at a rate of 8000 frames
per second.
• SONET components are the STS multiplexer, the regenerator, the add/drop mul-
tiplexer (ADM), and the STS demultiplexer.
• The basic transmission signal for SONET is the STS-1. The frame format of
SONET is made of 9 rows and 90 columns of bytes. The frame size is 810 bytes
and this frame is transmitted at a rate of 8000 frames per second, which gives a
bit rate of 51.84 Mbps for STS-1.
• Three STS-1 signals can be multiplexed and converted to an optical signal to
generate an OC-3 with a data rate of 155.52 Mbps.

Key Terms

Add/Drop Multiplexer Optical Carrier Signal (OC)

Attenuation Path Overhead
Bandwidth Propagation Delay
Channel Capacity Regenerator
Coaxial Cable RJ-45 and RJ-11 Connectors
Conductive Media Section Overhead
Decibel Shielded Twisted pair
Fiber-Optic Cable Single Mode Fiber (SMF)
Injected-Laser Diode (ILD) SONET Frame Format
Latency STS Demultiplexer
Light-Emitting Diode (LED) STS Multiplexer
Line Overhead Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)
Microwave Synchronous Payload Signal (SPE)
Modal Bandwidth Synchronous Transport Signal (STS)
MT-RJ Connector Synchronous Transport Signal Level One
(STS-1)
Multimode Fiber (MMF) Transmission Time
Multimode Graded Index Fiber Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
Nyquist Theorem Wavelength
Operation Administration and Maintenance Wireless Transmission
(OAM)
Review Questions 69

Review Questions

Multiple Choice Questions

1. A ____________ cable is the least expensive transmission media.
(a) UTP
(b) STP
(c) Fiber-optic
(d) Coaxial
2. ___________ cable is used to transmit high-speed and analog signals.
(a) UTP and coaxial
(b) STP and UTP
(c) Coaxial and fiber-optic
(d) Fiber-optic and STP
3. ______________ connector(s) is/are used in fiber-optic cable.
(a) SC and BNC
(b) ST and SC
(c) RJ-11 and ST
(d) BNC and SC
4. ____________ transmission does not use any transmission medium.
(a) WAN
(b) LAN
(c) Wireless
(d) Internet
5. Wireless transmission uses __________ waves.
(a) Optical true
(b) Electrical
(c) Electromagnetic
(d) Digital
6. Which of the following UTP cables is suitable for a data rate of 100 Mbps?
(a) Cat-2
(b) Cat-4
(c) Cat-3
(d) Cat-5
7. Which of the following transmission media is used for high-speed transmission?
(a) Coaxial cable and fiber-optic cable
(b) Fiber-optic cable and UTP CAT-2 cable
(c) Microwave and fiber-optic cable
(d) UTP CAT-2 cable and microwave cable
70 3 Communications Channels and Media

8. What type of fiber-optic cable is used for long distance transmission?

(a) Multimode graded index
(b) Single-mode
(c) UTP
(d) STP
9. What is the speed of light in a vacuum?
(a) 3*108 m/s
(b) 5*108 m/s
(c) 3*102 m/s
(d) 6*1020 m/s
10. What is the maximum length that a fiber cable with a modal bandwidth of
1000 MHz*km can be in order to transmit information with a 200 MHz speed?
(a) 1 km
(b) 10 km
(c) 5 km
(d) 20 km.
11. __________ sets the standard for SONET.
(a) IEEE
(b) ANSI
(c) ITU
(d) ISO
12. SONET uses byte multiplexing in __________ levels.
(a) Upper
(b) Mid
(c) All
(d) None of the above
13. The basic electrical signal for SONET is _________
(a) STS-1
(b) STS-2
(c) STS-3
(d) STS-n
14. SONET transmits the STS-1 at a rate of _________ frames/second
(a) 6000
(b) 7000
(c) 8000
(d) 1000
Review Questions 71

15. The __________ performs the function of a repeater.

(a) Regenerator
(b) STS multiplexer
(c) STS demultiplexer
(d) SONET
16. STS-1 has data rate of ___________ Mbps.
(a) 810
(b) 8000
(c) 51.84
(d) 1.54.
17. SONET is a/an_________
(a) LAN
(b) WAN
(c) Optical carrier
(d) Internet
18. An STS-1 frame is made of________________.
(a) 9 columns and 90 rows
(b) 9 rows and 90 columns
(c) 10 rows and 100 columns
(d) None of the above.
19. The optical signal for STS-1 is ___________.
(a) OC-3
(b) OC-1
(c) OC-2
(d) OC-n
20. An STS-3 is generated by multiplexing________.
(a) Three STS-1s
(b) Six STS-1s
(c) Five STS-1s
(d) Two STS-1s
21. An STS-9 is generated by multiplexing.
(a) 6 STS-1s
(b) 3 STS-3s
(c) 3 STS-1s
(d) Two STS-3s
72 3 Communications Channels and Media

22. An STS-3 frame format is made up of ____________

(a) 270 rows and 9 columns
(b) 9 rows and 270 columns
(c) 10 rows and 300 columns
(d) None of the above

Short Answer Questions

1. List the major communications media.
2. What does UTP stand for?
3. What does STP stand for?
4. Which organization defines standards for cables?
5. What is the performance of a Cat-5 UTP cable?
6. What type of light source is used for fiber-optic cables?
7. What are the advantages of fiber-optic cables over conductive cables?
8. What are the types of fiber-optic cables?
9. What does SMF stand for?
10. What does MMF stand for?
11. What is the application of single-mode fiber?
12. What is the application of multimode fiber?
13. What are the types of microwave communication?
14. What is the range of microwave frequencies?
15. What are the signal sources for optical cabling?
16. What are the advantages of optical cables over coaxial cables?
17. What are the advantages of STP cables over UTP cables?
18. Explain digital bandwidth.
19. Explain latency and the causes of latency.
20. Find the transmission time of a packet of 1500 bytes transmitted over a 100
Mbps channel.
21. For the following cases, what should the transmitter voltage be for 100 meters
of Cat-5 cable with a receiver voltage of 500 mV?
(a) Transmitted signal at 20 MHz
(b) Transmitted signal at 100 MHz
22. 2000 bytes of data are to be transferred between a server and a host computer,
which are connected via a 1000-meter Cat-5 cable with a transmission rate of
10 Mbps. Calculate the following:
(a) Transmission time
(b) Propagation delay
(c) Round trip time
Review Questions 73

23. A packet of 100 bytes is transmitted over a 100 km cable with bandwidth of 100
Mbps. Calculate the following:
(a) Propagation delay of the link
(b) Transmission time
(c) Latency of the packet
(d) RTT.
24. What is the bandwidth of a 20 km link for transmitting 500 bytes of information
such that the propagation delay is equal to transmission delay?
25. Find the time that it takes to transmit 1000 kByte-files from a server that is
located 4000 km away from a host computer. Assume you are using a modem
with a data rate of 52 Kbps and size of each packet is 1000 bytes.
26. Calculate the latency for transmitting 1500 bytes of data over the follow-
ing links:
(a) 100 meters copper with a bandwidth of 10 Mbps
(b) 4000 meters optical fiber with a bandwidth of 10 Mbps
27. 500 bytes of data are transmitted over 200 km of a fiber-optic cable.
(a) Find the data rate such that the transmission time becomes equal to the
propagation time.
(b) What is throughput of this communication link?
28. Find the maximum data rate of a communication link with a bandwith of
3000 Hzusing 8 signal levels.
29. Find the bandwidth of communication channel in order to transfer data at a rate
S
of 100 Mbps, assume ratio is(50 dB).
30. What does SONET stand N for?
31. What does SDH stand for?
32. What is an application of SONET?
33. What is the basic electrical signal for SONET?
34. What is the transmission media for SONET?
35. List some of the advantages of SONET.
36. List the SONET components.
37. What does STS-1 stand for?
38. What is OC-1?
39. What is the data rate for STS-1?
40. How many bytes is STS-1?
41. How many STS-1 must be multiplexed to generate an STS-3?
42. SONET transmits how many frames per second?
43. Show the SONET frame format.
44. Explain the function of add/drop multiplexing.
45. What is STS-n?
46. Why is the STS-1 bit rate 51.84 Mbps?
Chapter 4
Multiplexer and Switching Concepts

Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
• Explain the operation of multiplexers and demultiplexers.
• List the types of multiplexers.
• Discuss how a telephone system operates.
• Explain how pulse code modulation converts voice to digital signals.
• Explain T1 Link technology and how to calculate its data rate.
• Discuss switching concepts.
• List the types of switching methods.

4.1 Introduction

Long-distance transmission lines are expensive, so a method that allows several

devices to share one transmission line is necessary to defray the cost of wiring. The
multiplexer provides a solution to this problem. Figure 4.1 shows four terminals
sharing one transmission line to send information to the host computer by using a
multiplexer instead of four transmission lines.
A multiplexer (MUX) is a device that combines several low-speed data chan-
nels and transmits all the data on a single high-speed channel. A common applica-
tion of multiplexing is long-distance communication using high-speed point-to-point
links for transferring large quantities of voice signals and data between users.
Figure 4.2 shows the basic architecture of a multiplexer. A multiplexer that has N
inputs and one output is called a N-to-1 multiplexer. Figure 4.2 shows a 4-to-1
Multiplexer. The internal switch selects one input line at a time and transfers the
input to the output. When the switch is in position A, it transfers input A to the
output. Then, the switch moves to position B and transfers input B to the output.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 75

A. Elahi, A. Cushman, Computer Networks,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42018-4_4
76 4 Multiplexer and Switching Concepts

B
Terminals DCBA
C
Multiplexer
D

Host Computer

Fig. 4.1 Application of multiplexer

A
B 4*1 Output DCBA
Inputs
C MUX

Select lines

Fig. 4.2 4-to-1 multiplexer

0 A
1 B
Input DCBA 1*4 2 C
DMUX D
3

Select Lines

Fig. 4.3 1-to-4 demultiplexer

This method continues until the switch moves to position D and transfers input D to
the output. After this function is completed, the switch starts over from input A.
The opposite of a multiplexer is a demultiplexer (DMUX), as shown in Fig. 4.3.
The switch moves to send each input to the appropriate output. A DMUX has one
input and N outputs – this is called a 1-to-N demultiplexer. When the switch is in
position 0, it transfers A to output port 0, then moves to output port 1 and transfers B
to this port. This process continues until the switch moves to output port 3 and trans-
fers D to port 3. Once the cycle is complete, the transfer of data starts over from port 0.
4.2 Types of Multiplexers 77

4.2 Types of Multiplexers

Multiplexers are categorized into the following types, where each type has a specific
application:
1. Time division multiplexing (TDM)
2. Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)
3. Statistical packet multiplexing (SPM)
4. Fast packet multiplexing (FPM)
5. Code division multiplexing (CDM)
6. Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM)

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

In time division multiplexing (TDM), multiple digital signals can be carried on a
single transmission path by interleaving each input of the multiplexer. A TDM oper-
ates with a preassigned equal time slot to each input. It divides the bandwidth of the
multiplexer’s output into fixed segments, and each input to the MUX is given a fixed
unit of time. First, information from input one is transmitted, then from input num-
ber two, and so on in a regular sequence, as shown in Fig. 4.4.
One disadvantage of TDM is that the bandwidth of any one input is not available
to other inputs when that input to the TDM is inactive. In Fig. 4.4, the inputs to B
and D are inactive at times t1 and t2, respectively, and thus the outputs in frame #2
and #3 have idle times. Another disadvantage of TDM is that it is not able to change
the bandwidth of the input dynamically and, therefore, cannot transport a combina-
tion of voice, fax, and data.
Frequency Division Multiplexing
Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) divides the bandwidth of a transmission
line into channels, where each channel transmits specific information. Figure 4.5
shows the multiplexing of several TV channels using FDM. The bandwidth of a
coaxial cable is about 500 MHz and it can carry 80 TV channels. Each TV channel
is assigned a different frequency, each using 6 MHz of bandwidth. Therefore, FDM
combines several signals for transmission on a single transmission line.
Statistical Packet Multiplexing
Statistical packet multiplexing (SPM) dynamically allocates bandwidth to the
active input channels, resulting in very efficient bandwidth utilization. In SPM, an

t2 t1 t0
AAA Frame #2 #1 #0
B-B 4*1 Output -CBA DC-A DCBA
Inputs MUX
CCC
-DD
- no data

Fig. 4.4 TDM multiplexer

78 4 Multiplexer and Switching Concepts

Channel 2
0 6Mhz

Channel 2 Channel 3 Channel 4 Channel 5

Channel 3 FDM
50 56 62 68 Coaxial Cable
0 6Mhz

Channel 4

Fig. 4.5 Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)

AAA

-BB Output DCA DCBA DBA

SPM
CC-

DDD

Fig. 4.6 Statistical packet multiplexer

idle channel does not receive any time allocation, as shown in Fig. 4.6. SPM uses a
store-and-forward mechanism in order to detect and correct any error from incom-
ing packets.
Fast Packet Multiplexing
Fast packet multiplexing (FPM) uses the same method as SPM and can assign
maximum bandwidth to any input needed. FPM does not use a store and forward
mechanism and, therefore, cannot perform error detection and correction. FPM will
forward a packet before it has been completely received by the multiplexer.
Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
In time division multiplexing (TDM), each end user is allocated a time slot for
transmission. For instance, if 10 users are connected to a TDM and the bandwidth
of the transmission link is 10 Mbps, then each user can transmit at the rate of only
1 Mbps. One disadvantage of TDM is that each user must wait for its turn to trans-
mit its information. Code division multiplexing (CDM) is similar to TDM but
allows all users to transmit simultaneously.
CDM Operation In CDM, each bit is divided into multiple bits that are called chip
bits. This is done by multiplying logical 1 with a chip sequence, or by assigning chip
bits to each node to represent logical 1. Table 4.1 shows the chip bits that have
4.2 Types of Multiplexers 79

Table 4.1 Chip bits for nodes A and B

End node Chip bits for logical 1 Bipolar representation of chip bits
A 0101 −1 +1 −1 +1
B 1100 +1 +1 −1 −1

assigned to each node to represent logical 1. The complement of the chip bits repre-
sents logical zero. Chip bits can be represented by a bipolar value, so that +1 repre-
sents logical 1 and −1 represents logical zero.

Characteristics of Chip Bits In general, the chip bit sequence for A can be repre-
sented by A = (A4 A 3 A2 A 1) and the chip bit sequence for B can be represented by
B = (B4 B3 B2 B1). One property of chip bits is that the inner product of two different
chip bit sequences is zero and the inner product of the two identical chip sequences
bits is one.
The inner product A and B is represented by and is defined by Eq. 4.1:

1 4 1
A B   Ai Bi   A1 B1  A2 B2  A3 B3  A4 B4  (4.1)
m i 1 4
1 1
Therefore, A  B   1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1   1  1  1  1  0 .
4 4
And the inner product A with itself A ⋅ A is:

1 1
A A   1  1  1  1  1  1  1  1   1  1  1  1  1
4 4

CDM Architecture Fig. 4.7 shows the general architecture of CDM with three
inputs and one output. The nodes A, B, and C are the inputs, and the chip bit
sequences for each input are 4 bits each. The chip bits of each input are added, and
that sum is then transmitted over the communication link. At the receiver side, the
inner product of the sum of the chip bits and the chip sequence of an input node is
used to determine the data bits for a specific node.

Example 4.1 Table 4.2 shows data to be transmitted by the nodes A, B, and C, and
their chip sequences.
(a) Find the output of CDM.
(b) Find the data bit that is transmitted by node A at the receiver side.
The chip bit sequence for each data node is represented by Table 4.3.
The sum of the data is then transmitted to the receiver side. At the receiver side,
the receiver uses the chip sequence of a specific node to recover the original data by
using the inner product. In order to recover user A’s data, the inner product of A’s
chip bit sequence and the sum of the chip bits is shown by Table 4.4, where +1 rep-
resents 1 and −1 represents 0.
80 4 Multiplexer and Switching Concepts

A4A3A2A1
B4B3B2B1
ΣA+B+C Data Bit
Σ Σ
i i i

C 4C 3 C 2C 1

Transmission Side Receiver Side

Ci

Fig. 4.7 General architecture of code division multiplexing

Table 4.2 Chip bits and data Node Chip bit sequence Data to be transmitted
bits for nodes A, B, and C
A −1 −1 −1 −1 101
B −1 +1 −1 +1 110
C +1 +1 −1 −1 001

Table 4.3 Chip bits for Data of Node A, B, and C

Node A −1 −1 −1 −1 = (1) +1 +1 +1 +1 = (0) −1 −1 −1 −1 = (1)
Node B −1 +1 −1 +1 = (1) −1 +1 −1 +1 = (1) +1 −1 +1 −1 = 0
Node C −1 −1 +1 +1 = (0) −1 −1 +1 +1 = (0) +1 +1 −1 −1 = (1)
Sum −3 −1 −1 +1 −1 +1 +1 +3 +1 −1 −1 −3

Table 4.4 Inner product of the sum and node A’s chip bits
Sum −3 −1 −1 +1 −1 +1 +1 +3 +1 −1 −1 −3
Node A chip sequence −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1
Inner product (+3−1 +1−1)/4 = +1 (+1 −1 −1 −3) (−1 +1 +1 +3)/4 = +1
/4 = −1

Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) is used to transmit multiple rays of
light with different wavelengths in one optical cable in order to increase the capacity
of the optical cable, rather than using multiple optical cables. The concept of wave
division multiplexing is similar to frequency division multiplexing. Figure 4.8
shows two optical rays with different wavelengths multiplexed and transmitted over
an optical fiber cable.
Components of a WDM The components of a WDM are optical transponder, opti-
cal multiplexer, optical amplifier, and optical demultiplexer.

Optical Transponder The function of an optical transponder is to change the

incoming ray’s wavelength to another wavelength. Figure 4.9 shows the block dia-
gram of an optical transponder.
4.2 Types of Multiplexers 81

1310 nm 1310 nm
Optical Channel
Optical Optical
1330 MUX DeMUX 1330
nm

Fig. 4.8 Schematic diagram representing a simple form of WDM

Optical Electrical Optical

Fig. 4.9 Block diagram of an optical transponder

1490 nm
1470 1490 Transponder
Transponder 1490
1470 1510 Optical Cable 1490 nm
MUX DeMUX 1510
Transponder Transponder
1470 1490 nm
Transponder 1530 1530 Transponder

Fig. 4.10 Coarse division multiplexing

There are two types of WDM: dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM)
and coarse wave division multiplexing (CWDM).
Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) In DWDM, the wavelengths
of the optical signals are close together. Current DWDM can transmit 60–80 wave-
lengths per channel with the wavelength spacing about 0.8 nm.

Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing (CWDM) CWDM can transmit 4–8

wavelengths of optical signals which are spaced 20 nm apart from each other. The
ITU specifies 18 channels that use wavelengths from 1270 to 1610 nm for CWDM;
however, some channels are not useable due to high signal attenuation. Figure 4.10
shows three optical rays with the same wavelengths connected to three optical tran-
sponders. The optical transponders change the wavelength of the incoming signals
and are connected to the MUX. The outputs of the DMUX are connected to the
three optical transponders in order to convert the signal wavelength back to their
original values.
82 4 Multiplexer and Switching Concepts

4.3 Telephone System Operation

The wired telephone system transmits information in analog form from a telephone
set to the central office (CO). At the CO, the analog signal is converted to a digital
signal, which is then transferred to the next central office as shown in Fig. 4.11. This
digital signal is then converted to an analog signal and transmitted to the user. The
method of conversion from analog to digital is called pulse code modulation (PCM).

4.4 Digitizing Voice

Voice is an analog signal. In the central office of the telephone company, voices are
digitized by a device called a codec (coder-decoder). The function of a codec is to
digitize the voice signal and convert an already digitized signal to analog. According
to the Nyquist theorem, in order to convert an analog signal into a digital signal, the
analog signal must be sampled at least at the rate of two times its highest frequency.
The voice signal must be sampled at 8000 samples per second because human
speech is below 4000 Hz, as shown in Fig. 4.12. This method is called pulse ampli-
tude modulation (PAM).
Each PAM sample is represented by eight bits. In Fig. 4.13, it is represented by
four bits. Remember, this method of converting voice to digital signal is called pulse
code modulation (PCM). Since voice is digitized at the rate of 8000 samples per
second and each sample is represented by 8 bits, the data rate of the human voice is
8000*8 = 64 kbps.

Central Digital Signal Central

Office Office

Analog Signal
Analog Signal

Telephone Telephone

Fig. 4.11 Telephone system architecture

4.5 T1 Links 83

Voltage Voltage

Time Time

Analog Signal Pulse Amplitude Modulation

Fig. 4.12 Analog signal and pulse amplitude modulation (PAM). (a) Analog signal and (b) pulse
amplitude modulation

0111
0110
0101
0100
0011
0010
0001
0000
1001
1010
1011
1100
1101
1110
1111

Fig. 4.13 Binary value for each PAM

4.5 T1 Links

Long-distance carriers use TDM to transmit voice signals over high-speed links.
One of the applications of TDM is the T1 link. A T1 link carries a level-1 digital
signal (DS-1). A DS-1 is generated by multiplexing 24 voice digital signals (digital
signal level-0 or DS-0), as shown in Fig. 4.14. Pulse code modulation (PCM) is used
to convert each analog signal to a digital signal. Each frame is made of 24 signals *
8 bits = 192 bits, with one extra bit added to separate each frame, making each
frame 193 bits. Each frame represents 1/ 8000th of a second. Therefore, the data rate
of T1 link is 193 * 8000 = 1.544 Mbps.
Table 4.5 shows TDM carrier standards for North America. Look at the table and
you will see that a DS-2 can carry 96 voice channels with 168 Kbps overhead.
84 4 Multiplexer and Switching Concepts

Analog Digital
1 PC
DS-0
M
Analog Digital
2 PC 1.544 Mbps
Voice Inputs DS-0
TDM DS-1
M
Digital
Analog
24 PC
DS-0
M

Fig. 4.14 Architecture of T1 Link

Table 4.5 TDM carrier standards for North America

Frame format Line Number of voice channels Data rate (Mbps)
DS-1 T1 24 1.544
DS-1C T-1C 48 3.152
DS-2 T2 96 6.312
DS-3 T3 672 44.736
DS-4 T4 4032 274.176

1 bit Byte#24 Byte#23 Byte#2 Byte#1

Fig. 4.15 DS-1 frame format

Therefore, the data rate for DS-2 is 6.312 Mbps (96 channels * 64Kbps + 168 Kbps
overhead). Figure 4.15 shows the DS-1 frame format where the 1-bit gap is used to
separate each frame.

4.6 Switching Concepts

A communication network that has more than two computers must establish links
between computers in order for them to be able to communicate with each other.
One way to connect these computers is via fully connected network (mesh), as
shown in Fig. 4.16.
The advantage of this method is that all stations can communicate with each
other. The disadvantage is large number of connections are required when the num-
ber of stations is greater than four. To overcome this disadvantage, a device called a
switch is used to connect stations, as shown in Fig. 4.17.
4.6 Switching Concepts 85

Computer Computer

Computer Computer

Fig. 4.16 Fully connected network

Switch 3
Switch 2

Switch 1
Switch 4

Fig. 4.17 Stations are connected by switches

The following types of switching are used in networking:

• Circuit switching
• Message switching
• Packet switching
Circuit Switching
In circuit switching, also called a connection-oriented circuit, a physical connec-
tion must be established for the duration of the transmission, such as in a telephone
system. The application of circuit switching is for real-time communications. By
dialing a telephone system, a connection is established, communication begins, and
disconnection occurs at the end of the communication. Figure 4.18 shows circuit
switching with multiple stations.
86 4 Multiplexer and Switching Concepts

C
Switch 1 Switch 2

B
A

D
Fig. 4.18 Circuit switching

Advantages of Circuit Switching Circuit switching is used for real-time commu-

nication. There is no delay or congestion in the communication link because a phys-
ical connection exits between the source and the destination.

Disadvantage of Circuit Switching In circuit switching, only two stations can

use the communication link at the same time. Therefore, it is not cost-­effective. For
example, in Fig. 4.18, if station A and B are communicating with each other, station
D cannot communicate with station C. Station D must wait until A and B have fin-
ished their communication, then D may start communicating with C. In addition, if
two stations such as A and B want to make a connection with C at the same time, a
contention will occur and both stations must wait.

Message Switching
In message switching, station A sends its message to the switch. The switch stores
that message and then forwards it to the destination. The disadvantage of message
switching is that the switch needs to have a large buffer to store incoming messages
from other links.
Packet Switching
Figure 4.19 shows a network with several switches. Assume source A has a message
and wants to transfer it to destination B. Source A divides the message into packets
and sends each packet, possibly by a different route. This process is known as
packet switching. Each packet goes to the switch, which stores the packet and
looks at the routing table inside the switch to find the next switch or destination.
Each packet may take a different route and be received at the destination out of
order. To prevent mistakes in reassembling the packets, each packet is given a
sequence number which will be used by the destination to put the packets back
in order.
Summary 87

#3
B
Sourece C Destination
#5
CBA #1

A #2 #4

------ virtual connection

Fig. 4.19 Packet switching and virtual circuit

In Fig. 4.19, the source divides the message into 3 packets: A, B, and C. Then,
the source transmits packet A to switch #1. Switch #1 stores packet A, looks at the
congestion on all outgoing links, and finds that the link to switch #2 is the least
congested. Switch #1 then sends packet A to switch #2. Switch #2 stores the packet
and finds out from its routing table that packet A must go to Switch #4. Switch 2
then forwards the packet to switch# 4 and switch #4 forwards packet A to switch #5.
Packet B and C take different routes, and as such, the packets might be received out
of order. The destination uses the sequence numbers of the packets to put them in
proper order. Packet switching is used to send information across the internet. This
type of service is also called a connection-less oriented circuit.
Virtual Circuit
Virtual circuits are a type of packet switching which operate on the same concept
as packet switching, but the routing of the packets is specified before transmission.
As seen in Fig. 4.19, the source specifies the route, which is represented by dotted
lines. Therefore, all the packets from source A go via the dotted line. By using this
method, all packets will be received at the destination in the proper order.

Summary

• A multiplexer is used to share a transmission medium among several users.

• In time division multiplexing (TDM), the users are assigned equal time to use the
digital channel.
• Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) is used for analog transmission, with
the bandwidth of the analog channel divided into smaller channels.
• In statistical TDM, the bandwidth is dynamically allocated to active users.
• Code division multiplexing allows all user to transmit simultaneously.
• Wavelength division multiplexing is used for transmitting multiple ray of lights
with different wavelengths over one optical cable.
88 4 Multiplexer and Switching Concepts

• The pulse code modulation (PCM) method is used in the central switch to con-
vert human voice to digital signal.
• The bandwidth of the human voice is 4000 Hz and it is digitized at a rate of
64 kbps.
• A T1 link is a special digital transmission line which has 24 inputs (each input is
64 kbps) and one output, with a data rate of 1.544 Mbps.
• There are three types of switching used in networking: circuit switching, packet
switching, and virtual circuit.
• A message is divided into pieces. Each piece is called a packet.
• Packet switching treats each packet of a message separately.
• In circuit switching, a physical connection must be established between the
source and destination before transmitting information.
• A virtual circuit is a type of packet switching. In a virtual circuit all packets of a
message are transmitted in a specific path called a virtual path.

Key Terms

Circuit Switching Packet Switching

Coarse Wave Division Multiplexing (CWDM) Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Code Division Multiplexing (CDM) Statistical Packet Multiplexing
Codec T1 Link
Demultiplexer Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Dense Wave Division Multiplexing (DWDM) Transponder
Fast Packet Multiplexer (FPM) Virtual Circuit
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
Multiplexer

Review Questions

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Several devices can share one transmission line by using a ____________.

(a) Multiplexer
(b) Demultiplexer
(c) BUS
(d) CPU
2. ___________ divides the bandwidth of a transmission line into channels.
(a) TDM
(b) FDM
(c) SPM
(d) FSPM
Review Questions 89

3. Code division multiplexing allows the users to transmit _________.

(a) In an assigned time slot
(b) One at the time
(c) Simultaneously
(d) None of the above
4. Wave division multiplexing is used for ________.
(a) Optical signals
(b) Analog signals
(c) Digital signals
(d) Radio frequency signals
5. The function of an optical transponder is to _________.
(a) Change optical signals to electrical signals
(b) Change the power of an optical signal
(c) Change the wavelength of an optical signal
(d) Change electrical signal to optical
6. ____________ dynamically allocate bandwidth to active inputs.
(a) TDM and FDM
(b) SPM and FPM
(c) FPM and TDM
(d) FDM and SPM
7. What is the channel bandwidth of telephone system for the human voice?
(a) 4000 Hz
(b) 400 Hz
(c) 40 Hz
(d) 4 Hz
8. One of the applications of TDM is the __________ link.
(a) Cable modem
(b) T1
(c) DSL modem
(d) LAN
9. Virtual circuit is a type of ______.
(a) Circuit switching
(b) Packet switching
(c) a and b
(d) Message switching
90 4 Multiplexer and Switching Concepts

10. Pulse code modulation is used to convert

(a) Digital to analog
(b) Analog to digital
(c) Digital to digital
(d) Analog to analog
11. Which of the following switching methods does deliver packets in order?
(a) Packet switching
(b) Virtual circuits
(c) Circuit switching
(d) b&c
12. The bandwidth of a telephone system is
(a) 3 Khz
(b) 4 KHz
(c) 8 Khz
(d) 40 Khz

Short Answer Questions

1. Show an 8-to-1 MUX and 1-to-8 DMUX.

2. List the types of multiplexers.
3. Explain the operation of TDM.
4. Describe the statistical packet multiplexer.
5. What is the difference between CDM and TDM?
6. What is an application of WDM?
7. What are the types of WDM?
8. What is the function of an optical transponder?
9. What is the type of signal used between two central switches of a tele-
phone system?
10. What is the function of a Codec?
11. What does PCM stand for and what is its application?
12. Why must the human voice be sampled at the rate of 8000 samples per second?
13. How many voice channels does a T1 Link carry?
14. What type of multiplexer is used in a T1 link?
15. What is the data rate of the human voice and why?
16. What is the difference between a DS-1 and a T1 link?
17. What is the data rate of a T3 link?
18. How many voice channels can be carried by a T3 Link?
19. Explain the following switching operations:
(a) Circuit switching
(b) Message switching
(c) Packet switching
(d) Virtual circuit
Review Questions 91

20. Show the frame format of a T1 link.

21. Why is the data rate of a T1 link 1.54 Mbps?
22. The following inputs are connected to a 4*1 statistical multiplexer, show the
outputs of the multiplexer:
(a) Input #1 A – A – A
(b) Input #2 B B B – B
(c) Input #3 – C C – –
(d) Input #4 D – D – D
23. What is the sampling rate of a signal with a highest frequency of 1000 Hz?
24. Use the chip sequences from Table 4.2 to find the data transmitted for Node C
at the receiver side. Assume nodes A, B, and C have transmitted the follow-
ing data:
Node A 111
Node B 010
Node C 001
Chapter 5
Error and Flow Control

Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
• Comprehend frame transmission methods.
• Demonstrate understanding of error and flow control.
• Draw the Logical Link Control (LLC) frame format.

5.1 The Data Link Layer

As described in Chap. 1, the Data Link layer defines the frame format and type of
transmission. The Data Link layer performs the following functions:
1. On the transmitting side: The Data Link layer accepts packets from the
Network layer and breaks the information into frames. It then adds the destina-
tion MAC address, source MAC address, and Frame Check Sequence (FCS)
fields, and passes each frame to the Physical layer for transmission.
2. On the receiving side: The Data Link layer accepts the bits from the Physical
layer and forms them into a frame, performing error detection. If the frame is
free of error, the Data Link layer passes the frame up to the Network layer.
3. Frame synchronization: This layer identifies the beginning and end of
each frame.
4. Flow control: Distinguishes between control frames and information frames.
5. Link management: This layer coordinates transmission between the transmitter
and receiver.
6. Determine contention method: This layer defines an access method in which
two or more network devices compete for permission to transmit information
across the same communication media, such as Token passing and Carrier Sense
Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD).

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94 5 Error and Flow Control

There are several existing protocols for the Data Link layer, such as:
• Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC): SDLC was developed by IBM as a
link access for System Network Architecture (SNA).
• High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC): HDLC is a version of SDLC modified
by the ISO for use in the OSI model.
• Link Access Procedure Balanced (LAPB): HDLC was modified by ITU and it
is called LAPB used in ISDN.

5.2 Error and Flow Control

Functions of the Data Link layer include error detection, error control, and flow
control. During the transmission of a frame from a source to its destination, the
frame may get corrupted or lost. It is the function of the Data Link layer of the des-
tination to check for error in the frame and inform the source about the status of the
frame. This function must be performed in order for the source to retransmit the
frame. One of the methods used is Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ). Positive or
negative acknowledgement is used to establish reliable communication between the
source and the destination. Automatic repeat request is carried out in two ways:
Stop-and-Wait ARQ and Continuous ARQ.
Stop and Wait ARQ In Stop-and-Wait ARQ, the source transmits a frame and
waits for a specific time for acknowledgement from the destination. If the source
does not receive acknowledgment during this time, the source retransmits the frame.
This method is used for networks with a half-duplex connection.
Case 1 The source station transmits a frame to the destination station. The destina-
tion station checks the frame for any errors. If there is no error in the frame, the
destination station responds to the source station with a Positive Acknowledgment
Frame ACK(N), where N is the sequence number of the frame. The source station
transmits the next frame as shown in Fig. 5.1.
Case 2 The source station transmits a frame to the destination station. The destina-
tion station checks the frame for error. If there is an error in the frame, the destina-
tion station responds to the source station with a Negative Acknowledgment Frame
NACK(N), where N is the sequence number of the corrupted frame. Then, the
source retransmits the frame as shown in Fig. 5.2.
Case 3 The source station transmits a frame to the destination station. The source
does not receive any acknowledgment due to the loss of the frame or loss of acknowl-
edgment from the destination. When the source starts to transmit a frame to the
destination, it sets a timer and waits for an acknowledgment. If the source does not
receive an acknowledgement from the destination during that period of time, the
frame is retransmitted, as shown in Fig. 5.3.
5.2 Error and Flow Control 95

Fig. 5.1 Positive Source Destination

acknowledgment

I(N)

ACK(N)

I(N+1)

Fig. 5.2 Response to Corrupted

corrupted frame by
destination Frame
X I(N)

NACK(N
)
I(N)

Source Destination Source Destination

Timer on I(N)
Timer on I(N)

ACK(N)
Timer
Expired Retransmit Timer
Expired Retransmit
I(N) I(N)
Loss of data frame Lost of ACK or NACK
Fig. 5.3 Loss of ACK or NACK and I-frame. (a) Loss of data frame. (b) Loss of ACK or NACK
96 5 Error and Flow Control

Continuous ARQ
In continuous ARQ, the transmitter continuously transmits frames to the destina-
tion. The destination sends ACK or NACK on different channels. Continuous ARQ
is used in packet-switching network and full-duplex connection. There are two
types of ARQ: Go-Back-N ARQ and Selective Reject ARQ.
Go-Back-N ARQ In the Go-Back-N ARQ method, the transmitter continuously
transmits, and the receiver acknowledges each frame in a different channel as shown
in Fig. 5.4.
Figure 5.4 shows that the source transmitted frame I5 and received NACK from
I3. The source then retransmits frames I3, I4, and I5. In Go-Back-N, the source
should hold a copy of those frames not receiving acknowledgment. When the source
receives acknowledgment for a frame, it removes the frame from its buffer.
Selective Reject ARQ In selective ARQ, the source will retransmit only those
frames for which the destination had sent a negative acknowledgment. Figure 5.5
shows the source transmitted frame I3 and received NACK1, which indicates that
frame I1 was corrupted. The source retransmits only frame I1. In this method, the
destination must have the capability to reorder frames that are out of order.
Sliding Window Method
In continuous ARQ, the source keeps a copy of transmitted frames in its buffer until
it receives acknowledgment for a frame; it then removes the frame from its buffer.
The continuous ARQ has the following deficiencies:
1. The destination may not have enough memory to store incoming frames.
2. The source may transmit frames faster than destination can process them.
3. The source must hold a copy of all unacknowledged transmitted frames in its
buffer; therefore, the source requires a large buffer.
4. The file to be transmitted is divided into packets. Each packet has a sequence
number; if the sequence number become large, it decreases network efficiency.

I3 I4 I5 I5
I2 I2 I3 I4 I4
I1 I1 I1 I2 I3 I3
Source

I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I3 I4

Destination
ACK1 ACK2 NACK3

Fig. 5.4 Go-Back-N ARQ

5.3 Frame Transmission Methods 97

Fig. 5.5 Selective

reject ARQ I4

I3 I3 I4
I2 I2 I2 I3
I1 I1 I1 I1 I1
Source

I1 I2 I3 I1 I4

Destination
NACK(I1)

The Sliding Window Method limits the number of frames waiting for acknowl-
edgement in source. For example, a source with a window of seven means the source
can hold only seven unacknowledged frames in its buffer. The source will stop
transmitting once it has seven frames in its buffer and wait for an acknowledgment
frame. When the source receives acknowledgement for a frame, it removes that
frame from its buffer and transmits the next frame. In order to prevent the need for
large sequence numbers, most networking protocols use the following formula for
assigning a sequence number to each frame:

Sequence Number = Frame Number Modulo K

(where K is the window size of the sending station).

For Example What is the sequence number for frame number 25? Assume that the
window size is 7.

=
Sequence =
Number 25 Modulo 7 4

5.3 Frame Transmission Methods

Bit-Oriented Synchronization is one of the most popular frame transmission meth-

ods, where information is transmitted bit by bit. Figure 5.6 shows the frame format
of a bit synchronization frame. The start of the frame and the end of frame are rep-
resented by eight bits in the form of 01111110. If the information field happens to
contain the binary value 01111110, which normally indicates the end of a frame, an
adjustment must be made by the transmitter. The transmitter inserts an extra zero
98 5 Error and Flow Control

0 1 1 1 1 11 0 1101100000111111 0 1 1 1 1 1 10
Start Flag Information Field End Flag
Fig. 5.6 Format of bit-oriented synchronization

Receiver Side
Extra zero inserted by transmitter

01111110 1001111111101 01111110 Transmit 01111110 10011111011101 01111110

Start Flag Info rmation End Flag

Extra zero inserted by transmitter

01111110 100111110011101 01111110 Transmit 01111110 1001111100011101 01111110

Fig. 5.7 Bit insertion in information field

any time five ones are repeated in the information field. The receiver will discard
this extra zero. This technique is called bit insertion, as shown in Fig. 5.7.

5.4 IEEE 802 Standard Committee

The IEEE 802 committee defined standards for the Physical layer and the Data
Link layer in February of 1980 and called it IEEE 802, with “80” representing 1980
and “2” representing the month of February. Figure 5.8 shows IEEE 802 standard
and OSI model. The IEEE standard divides the data link layer of OSI model into
two sub-layers: Logical Link Control (LLC) and Media Access Control (MAC).
Media Access Control (MAC)
The Media Access Control (MAC) layer defines the method that stations use to
access the network, such as:
• Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) used for
Ethernet
• Control Token used in Token Ring Networks and Token Bus Networks
Logical Link Control (LLC)
The Logical Link Control (LLC) defines the format of the frame. It is independent
of network topology, transmission media, and Media Access Control. Figure 5.9
shows different MAC layers for several IEEE 802 networks. All networks which are
listed use the same logical link control. Figure 5.10 shows the frame format of the
LLC, which is used by all IEEE 802.X projects.
5.4 IEEE 802 Standard Committee 99

Fig. 5.8 IEEE standard

model and OSI model
Layer 4-7 Layer 4-7

Network layer Network Layer

Logical Link
OSI Model IEEE802 Model
Control
Data Link Layer Media Access
Control

Physical Layer Physical Layer

OSI M odel

7 Application

6 Presentation

5 Session

4 Transport
802.2 Logical Link Control
3 Network

2 802.3 802.4 802.5 802.6 802.9 802.11 802.14

Data Link MAC MAC MAC MAC MAC MAC MAC
1 Physical PHY PHY PHY PHY PHY PHY PHY

Fig. 5.9 IEEE 802 reference model

1 byte 1 byte 1 or 2 bytes

DSAP SSAP Control Information

Fig. 5.10 Logical Link Control frame format

The following are the functions of each field of the LLC frame format:
Destination Service Access Point (DSAP) Since the destination station might run
several network protocols such as Novell Netware, NetBIOS, Windows NT, and
TCP/IP, the DSAP has to show the address of the protocol for the destination.
Table 5.1 shows the most common value for service access point (SSAP and DSAP).
100 5 Error and Flow Control

Table 5.1 DSSAP and SSAP Values

SSAP and DSAP values
Protocol In Hex
IBM SNA 04
IP 06
3Com 80
Novell E0
Banyan BC
Net BIOS F8
LAN manager F4

Source Service Access Point (SSAP) SSAP is a value of the source protocol and
indicates the protocol that was used by the transmitter to send the packet.
Control Field The control field determines what type of information is stored in
the information field, such as the information frame, supervisory frame, and unnum-
bered frame. The supervisory frames are receiver ready, receiver not ready, and
reject. Some of the unnumbered frames are reset, frame reject, disconnect, and set
asynchronous respond mode.

Summary

• The Data Link layer defines the frame format.

• The Network layer passes information to the Data Link layer, and then the Data
Link layer adds the destination MAC address, source MAC address, and Frame
Check Sequence (FCS).
• Frame synchronization is used to identify the beginning and end of each frame.
• Some Data Link protocols are SDLC, HDLC, and LAPB.
• A function of the Data Link layer is error detection and flow control.
• Types of flow control are Stop, Wait ARQ, and Continuous ARQ, as well as
Sliding Window.
• Types of Continuous ARQ are Go-Back-N and Selective Reject ARQ.
• The Sliding Window method limits the number of frames waiting for
acknowledgment.
• Bit-oriented synchronization uses bit-oriented transmission. Information is
transmitted bit by bit.
• The IEEE 802 committee developed the standards for the Physical and Data
Link layers.
• IEEE 802 divides the Data Link layer into two sub-layers: Logical Link Controls
(LLC) and Media Access Control (MAC).
• All IEEE 802.X use the LLC frame format.
Review Questions 101

Key Terms

Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) Logical Link Control

Bit Oriented Synchronization Selective Reject ARQ
Continuous ARQ Sliding Window
Go-Back-N ARQ Stop and Wait
IEEE 802 Committee

Review Questions

Short Answer Questions

1. List the functions of the Data Link layer.
2. List three Data Link layer protocols.
3. List flow control methods.
4. What are the types of Continuous ARQ flow control?
5. IEEE 802 subdivides the Data Link layer into ___ sub-layers ________ and
_______.
6. Show the frame format of IEEE 802.2.
7. Explain the function of the MAC layer.
8. What is a frame transmission method?
9. What does SDLC stand for?
10. What is an application of HDLC?
11. Explain bit insertion in bit-oriented synchronization.
12. Explain the function of synchronization bits.
13. Show the frame format of bit synchronization.
14. Explain Go-Back-N ARQ.
15. List three types of HDLC frame.
16. Show the transmitted frame after bit insertion for following frame:
01111111000000011111011111110
Chapter 6
Modulation Methods, Cable Modems,
and FTTH

Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
• Discuss modem operation.
• Explain the methods of signal modulation.
• Explain cable modem technology.
• Discuss fiber to the home (FTTH) operation.

6.1 Introduction

In order for two computers to communicate with each other, a link between them is
required.
Currently, about 63 million households have cable TV services, and the same
wire that brings TV signals to your house is a cable that can also provide Internet
access with speed 100 times faster than a dial-up modem. The device that enables
computers to access the Internet by cable TV lines is called a cable modem. The use
of cable TV lines for this purpose is advantageous as digital signals cannot travel a
long distance, but analog signals can.

6.2 Modem Operation

To link computers for communication over traditional telephone wires, a modem

must be used, as shown in Fig. 6.1. A traditional telephone network operates with
analog signals, whereas computers work with digital signals. Therefore a device is
required to convert the computer’s digital signal to an analog signal compatible with

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104 6 Modulation Methods, Cable Modems, and FTTH

DTE DTE
Digital Signal Digital Signal

Modem PSTN Modem

Analog Analog
DCE Signal Signal

PSTN Public Switch Telephone

Fig. 6.1 Connection of two computers using a modem

the phone line (modulation). This device must also convert the incoming analog
signal from the phone line to digital (demodulation). Such a device is called
a modem.
A modem’s transmission speed can be represented by either a data rate or baud
rate. The data rate is the number of bits which a modem can transmit in 1 second.
The baud rate is the number of signals which a modem can transmit in 1 second.

6.3 Modulation Methods

The carrier signal on a telephone line has a bandwidth of 4000 Hz. Figure 6.2 shows
one cycle of a telephone carrier signal. The following types of modulation are used
to convert digital signals to analog signals:
• Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
• Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
• Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
• Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) In Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK), the ampli-
tude of the signal changes. This is also referred to as Amplitude Modulation (AM).
The receiver recognizes these modulation changes as voltage changes, as shown in
Fig. 6.3. The smaller amplitude is represented by zero and the larger amplitude is
represented by one. Each cycle is represented by one bit, with the maximum bits per
second determined by the speed of the carrier signal. In this case, the baud rate is
equal to the number of bits per second.
6.3 Modulation Methods 105

Fig. 6.2 Telephone carrier Voltage

signal

180 270 360

0 90 Degree

Original Signal

Amplitude Modulation

0
1

Fig. 6.3 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) In Frequency Shift Keying, a zero is represented

by no change to the frequency of the original signal, while a one is represented by a
change to the frequency of original signal. This is shown in Fig. 6.4. Frequency
modulation is a term used in place of FSK.
Phase Shift Keying (PSK) Using the Phase Shift Keying (PSK) modulation
method, the phase of the signal is changed to represent ones and zeros. Figure 6.5
shows a 90-degree phase shift. Figures 6.6a–c show the original signals with a
90-degree shift, a 180-degree shift and a 270-degree shift, respectively. Note that the
original signal can be represented with four different signals: no shift, 90° shift,
180° shift, and 270° shift. Therefore, each signal can be represented by a two-bit
binary number, as shown in Table 6.1.
The modem’s speed using a 90-degree phase shift is 2*4000, which is equal to 8
Kbps. To increase the speed of the modem, the original signal can be shifted
45-degrees to generate eight distinct signals. Each signal can be represented by
three bits. Therefore, the speed of the modem is increased to 3*4000, which is equal
to 12 Kbps.
Fig. 6.4 Frequency Shift
Keying (FSK)

Original
Signal

Frequency
Modulation

0 1

1 Cycle

Original Signal

90 degree phase shift

1 cycle

Fig. 6.5 90-degree phase shift

a. 90-degree shift b. 180-degree shift c. 270-degree shift

Fig. 6.6 Phase shift for 90, 180, and 270 degrees. (a) 90-degree shift, (b) 180-degree shift, and (c)
270-degree shift
6.3 Modulation Methods 107

Table 6.1 Phase shift and Phase shift Binary value

binary value No shift 00
90° 01
180° 10
270° 11

Fig. 6.7 Constellation 90 degree

diagram for Table 6.1 01

180 degree 10 00 0 degree

11

270 degree

Bits Phase Shift

010 000 0
011
001 001 45
100 010 90
000
011 135
100 180
101 111 101 225
110
110 270
111 315

Fig. 6.8 Constellation diagram for 8-PSK

The relation between phase and the binary representation of each phase can be
plotted on a coordinate system called a constellation diagram. Figure 6.7 is a con-
stellation diagram showing the four distinct signals of a 90-degree shift, with each
signal represented by two bits. Figure 6.8 shows a constellation diagram using
45-degree shift and 3-bit representation (8-PSK).
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) One method to increase the trans-
mission speed of a modem is to combine PSK and ASK modulation. This hybrid
modulation technique is called Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) and is
shown in Fig. 6.9. Here we see the combination of four phases and two amplitudes
which generates eight different signals called 8-QAM. Table 6.2 shows the binary
value of each signal and provides a constellation diagram for 8-QAM. The data rate
of this modem is 3 bits*4 K = 12 Kbps. Figure 6.10 shows the constellation diagram
for such a modem.
108 6 Modulation Methods, Cable Modems, and FTTH

No shift 90 degree shift 180 degree 270 degree

000 010 100 110

001 011 101 111

Fig. 6.9 8-QAM modulation

Table 6.2 Binary value Shift Amplitude Binary value

for 8QAM No A1 000
No A2 001
90° A1 010
90° A2 011
180° A1 100
180° A2 101
270° A1 110
270° A2 111

Fig. 6.10 Constellation 011

diagram for 8-QAM
010
101 100 000 001

110
111

6.4 Cable Modem

The Cable Modem is another technology used for remote connection to the Internet.
Residential access to the Internet is growing, and current modem technology can
transfer data at only 56 kbps. Local telephone companies also offer a service known
as Basic Rate ISDN, which has a transmission rate of 128 kbps. The cable modem
offers high-speed access to the Internet using a media other than phone lines.
6.4 Cable Modem 109

End User

Cable TV Trunk Coaxial

Head end

Feeder Coaxial cable

Drop Coaxial cable

=Coaxial Cable Amplifier

Fig. 6.11 Full coaxial cable TV system architecture

Cable TV System Architecture

Cable TV is designed to transmit broadband TV signals to homes using coaxial and
fiber optic cable. Figure 6.11 shows the full coaxial cable TV system architecture.
As shown in this diagram, cable TV uses Tree and Branch Bus Topology. The tree
and branch cables are constructed of 75 ohms coaxial cable connected to the
trunk cable.
The head end transmits TV signals over a trunk cable to a group of subscribers.
The medium can be either coaxial or fiber-optic cable. The function of a coaxial
amplifier is to amplify the signal, and it works in either direction. Feeder and drop
cables are both coaxial cables. The drop cable is the part of a cable system that
connects the subscriber to the feeder cable. Feeder cables are connected to trunk
cable to cover a large area. The maximum distance between head end and subscriber
is 10 to 15 km. The maximum number of cascaded amplifiers is 35 and the maxi-
mum number of connections is 125,000.
A TV signal transmits two frequency bands: VHF (very high frequency) and
UHF (ultra-high frequency). The VHF channels use lower frequencies to generate
stronger signals needed to transmit longer distances. The VHF channels start at
channel 2 with frequency of 54 MHz and end at channel 13 with frequency of
216 MHz. UHF channels start at channel 14, with a frequency of 470 MHz and end
at channel 83 with frequency of 890 MHZ. Each TV channel occupies 6 MHz of the
TV radio frequency (RF) spectrum.
The bandwidth of coaxial cable is 500 MHz, with each TV channel requiring
6 MHz of bandwidth. The number of TV channels that can be transmitted is as
110 6 Modulation Methods, Cable Modems, and FTTH

Fiber
trunk Node

e Coaxial cable
Fiber cable End Users
Cable TV Fiber
Head End Node

e
Fiber
Node

Fig. 6.12 HFC cable TV architecture

follows: (500–54)/6 = 75 channels. In order to increase the bandwidth of cable TV,

cable TV Corporations use Hybrid Fiber Cable (HFC), which is a combination of
fiber-optic cable and coaxial cable, as shown in Fig. 6.12. The bandwidth of a cable
TV system using HFC cable is 750 MHz to 1GHz. Therefore, the number of chan-
nels that can be transmitted by a HFC cable can be computed by (750–54)/6 = 110
channels. The TV signal is transmitted to a fiber node using optical cable. The fiber
node converts the optical signal to electrical signal and also converts electrical to
optical. The coaxial amplifiers are two-way devices used to amplify the incoming
signal. The maximum distance from head end to end user is 80 km and the maxi-
mum number of end user per fiber node connection is between 500 and 3000
(depending on the vendor). A channel between 5 MHz and 42 MHz is used to carry
upstream signals from subscriber to the head end.
Cable Modem Technology
Figure 6.13 shows the components of a cable network consisting of a coaxial cable,
head end, and a cable modem. The connection between cable modem and user is 10
Base-T. The user requires a 10Base-T NIC card to be able to use the cable modem.
A cable modem can support more than one station using a router, as shown in
Fig. 6.14.
A cable modem uses 64-QAM or 256-QAM modulation techniques to transmit
information from the head end to the cable modem (downstream transmission). If a
cable modem uses 256-QAM, this means 8 bits per signal and each signal is trans-
mitted at 6 MHz. Theoretically the data rate of a cable modem is:

8 6Mhz  48 Mbps

By using 64 QAM modulation, the data rate becomes

66Mhz  36 Mbps

Upstream transmission (from cable modem to head end) uses a 2 MHz channel
between 5 and 42 MHz. This low frequency is close to the CB radio frequency. The
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) modulation method is used. The data rate
of the cable modem for upstream transmission becomes:
6.4 Cable Modem 111

Head
END CM CM CM

Coaxial cable

CM CM
CM

UTP cable

10Base-T NIC

PC

Fig. 6.13 Block diagram of a cable network

Cable Modem

UTP

10Base-T HUB / Router

Fig. 6.14 Connection of more than one station to a cable modem

2600khz  1200 kbps.

Downstream and upstream bandwidths are shared by 500 to 5000 cable modem
subscribers. If 100 subscribers are sharing a 36 Mbps connection, each user will
receive a data at rate of 360Kbps. A cable modem provides a constant connection
112 6 Modulation Methods, Cable Modems, and FTTH

(like a LAN); it does not require any dialing. The cable modem head end communi-
cates with the cable modem, and when the cable modem is commanded by cable
modem head end, the modem will select an alternate channel for upstream
transmission.
IEEE 802.14
A cable modem operates at the physical and data link layers of the OSI model. The
IEEE 802.14 standard provides a network logical reference model for the media
access control (MAC) and physical layer. The following are general requirements
defined for the cable modem by IEEE 802.14:
• Cable modems must support symmetrical and asymmetrical transmission in both
directions.
• They support Operation, Administration, and Maintenance (OAM) functions.
• They support a maximum of 80 km distance for transmission from head end to
the user.
• They support a large number of users.
• MAC layer should support multiple types of service, such as data, voice,
and images.
• MAC layer must support unicast, multicast, and broadcast service.
• MAC layer should support fair arbitration for accessing the network.

6.5 Fiber to the Home (FTTH)

The demand for digital TV in the home, such as IPTV and HDTV, is growing fast.
Most service providers offer bundle services that include HDTV, phone, and Internet
services. This brings the question of how much bandwidth is needed to able to sup-
port standard digital TV, HDTV, phone, and Internet in a single home. Standard
digital TV (SDTV) displays an image at a rate of 24 f/s (frames per second) and this
rate is variable based on the country. In European countries, this rate is 25 f/s, while
in North America it is 30 f/s. The SDTV frame is made of 650* 480 pixels, and to
display a pixel, it requires two bytes. Therefore, the total bytes needed to display a
frame are:

30 frame / second 650 450 16 bits  140.4 Mbps

HDTV (high-definition TV) frames are made of 1920* 1080 pixels and use 3
bytes for displaying a pixel in color. Therefore, the required bandwidth for a single
HDTV is:

30 f / s 1920 1080 pixels 24  1493 Mbps

6.5 Fiber to the Home (FTTH) 113

The central head end (CO) compresses each frame before transmission. The
most popular compression algorithms are MPEG-2, with typical compression ratio
of 50/1, and MPEG-4, with compression ratio of 100/1.
SDTV uses MPEG- 2, so the bandwidth requirement becomes 140.4/50 = ~3 Mbps
HDTV uses MPEG-4, so the bandwidth requirement becomes 1493/100 = ~15 Mbps
A typical Internet user requires 2 Mbps.
The bandwidth retirement of VOIP is 100 kbps, which is negligible.
With this data, the bandwidth requirement for a house with two HDTVs, one
SDTV, 4 Internet users, and a phone can be estimated as:

2 15  3  4 2  41 Mbps

In order for a service provider to provide 41 Mbps bandwidth, fiber to the home
technology can be used.
FTTH Architecture
FTTH uses 100% fiber connections to the home and can be point to point (P2P)
architectures (sometimes called an All-Optical Ethernet Network, or AOEN) or
Passive Optical Networks. Figure 6.15 shows a P2P optical network, where a central
office (CO) has direct connections to each house via fiber cable.
Passive Optical Networks
Passive optical networks (PON) use a single fiber connection from a central office,
which is then split by a passive optical splitter as shown in Fig. 6.16. The function
of splitter is to broadcast incoming rays to all of the outputs of the splitter. The
maximum length of a feeder cable is 30,000 feet (9000 meters). If a splitter is a pas-
sive splitter, then it means it does not require any power. The maximum length of
fiber cable from a splitter to the home is 3000 feet (900 meters). The splitter’s input
to output ratio can be 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/16, or 1/32.
The splitter will reduce the power of the signal and that loss is a function of
number of the outputs. The loss of the signal is represented in decibels, and the fol-
lowing equation can be used to determine the loss of signal in a splitter:

Loss  3db N / 2, where N is the number of outputs of the splitter

Fig. 6.15 Point to point (P2P) architecture

114 6 Modulation Methods, Cable Modems, and FTTH

Fig. 6.16 Passive optical

network

Table 6.3 Standards for FTTH

Technology B-PON G-PON E-PON
Standard body ITU G.983 ITU G.984 IEEE902.3ah
Data rate 155.52 Mbps 2.44 Gbps upstream and 1 Gbps upstream and
upstream down stream down stream
155.52 or 622.08
downstream
Distance from OLT 20 km 10 to 20 km 10 and 20 km
to ONU
Data format ATM ARM Ethernet
Foreword error Reed–Solomon error Reed–Solomon error None
correction correction correction
Encryption AES-128 AES-128 None

Most FTTH offers triple services such as voice, video, and Internet. The signals
are transmitted upstream and downstream by using different wavelengths. There are
three technologies that have been developed by standard bodies for FTTH
(Table 6.3):
B-PON: Broadband Passive Optical Network
E-PON: Ethernet Passive optical Network
G-PON: Gigabit Passive Optical Network
Summary 115

Summary

• The function of a modem is to convert an analog signal to digital and digital

signal to analog.
• Modulation methods are Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK), Frequency Shift
Keying, (FSK), Phase Shift Keying (PSK), and Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation (QAM).
• Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) changes the amplitude of carrier signals in order
to represent a digital signal.
• Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) changes the frequency of carrier signals in order
to represent a digital signal.
• Phase Shift Keying (PSK) changes the phase of carrier signal.
• QAM modulation is a combination of ASK and PSK, used in high-speed modems.
• Baud rate is the number of signals per second that a modem can transmit.
• Data rate is the number of bits per second that a modem can transmit.
• Cable modems use a cable TV network to connect residential computers to the
Internet.
• The head end of a cable TV system uses TV channels to transmit information to
a cable modem at the subscriber site.
• Each cable TV channel requires 6 MHz bandwidth.
• Connecting a computer to a cable modem requires 10 Base-T network card.
• More than one station can be connected to a cable modem by using a hub or
repeater.
• Cable modems operate in layer 1, layer 2, and layer 3 of the OSI model.
• IEEE 802.14 has developed the standard for cable modems.

Key Terms

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) Hybrid Fiber Cable (HFC)

Baud Rate IEEE 802.14 Standards
Coaxial Amplifier Modem
Constellation Diagram Modulation
Data Rate Optical Splitter
Demodulation Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Downstream Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation (QAM)
Fiber to The Home (FTTH) Trunk Cable
Head End Upstream
116 6 Modulation Methods, Cable Modems, and FTTH

Review Questions

Multiple Choice Questions

1. A modem converts____________.
(a) Analog signal to digital
(b) Digital signal to analog
(c) a&b
(d) Analog to analog
2. Cable TV is designed to transmit a ________ signal.
(a) Baseband
(b) Broadband
(c) Digital
(d) Optical signal
3. What is the data rate of a communication channel with bandwidth of 40 kHz and
each signal is represented by 4 bits?
(a) 40 Kbps
(b) 80 Kbps
(c) 160 Kbps
(d) 10 Kbps
4. QAM modulation is a combination of:
(a) ASK and FSK
(b) ASK and PSK
(c) PSK and FSK
(d) None of the above
5. What type of modulation method is used in cable modems for downstream
transmission?
(a) DMT
(b) QAM
(c) QPSK
(d) ASK
6. What type of modulation is used in cable modems for upstream transmission?
(a) QAM
(b) DMT
(c) QPSK
(d) FSK
Review Questions 117

7. What is the bandwidth of each TV channel?

(a) 4 MHz
(b) 2 MHz
(c) 6 MHz
(d) 1 MHz
8. What is the lowest frequency of TV Channel 2?
(a) 40 MHz
(b) 54 MHz
(c) 60 MHz
(d) 30 MHz

Short Answer Questions

1. What does modem stand for?
2. Explain the function of a modem.
3. Define baud rate.
4. Explain ASK modulation.
5. Explain FSK modulation.
6. Explain PSK modulation.
7. The speed of modem is represented in________.
8. Distinguish between data rate and baud rate.
9. Draw a constellation diagram for 32QAM using 2 amplitudes.
10. What are the components of a cable TV system?
11. What does HFC stand for?
12. What is the bandwidth of a TV channel?
13. What type of modulation is used in cable TV modems for upstream
transmission?
14. What is the type of modulation used in cable TV for downstream transmission?
15. What type of NIC is used in a computer connected to cable TV Modem?
16. What is the baud rate of ASK with data rate 600 bits per second?
17. What is the data rate of a modem using frequency shift keying with the baud
rate of 300 signal per second?
18. What is data rate of a QAM signal with baud rate of 1200 and each signal rep-
resented by 4 bits?
19. Calculate the number of bits represented by each signal for a PSK signal with
a data rate of 2400 bps and baud rate of 600.
20. How many bits per signal can be represented by a 32 QAM signal?
21. Calculate the baud rate of a 32 QAM signal with a data rate of 25 Kbps.
22. What does FTTH stand for?
23. List FTTH architectures.
24. What is the function of an optical splitter?
Chapter 7
Ethernet Technologies

Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
• Describe Ethernet access methods.
• Discuss the function of each field in the Ethernet frame format.
• Distinguish between Unicast address, Multicast address, and Broadcast address.
• Explain the different types of Ethernet media.
• Discuss Fast Ethernet technology.
• Distinguish between the different types of Fast Ethernet media.
• Explain the differences and similarities between 100BaseT4, 100BaseTX, and
100BaseFX.
• Distinguish between different types of repeaters and know the maximum net-
work diameter.
• Recognize Gigabit standards and the Gigabit Ethernet architecture.
• Identify the components of Gigabit Ethernet.
• Discuss the different types of gigabits Physical layers.
• List some of the applications for Gigabit Ethernet.
• List 10 GbE physical layers.
• Identify applications for 10 GbE.

7.1 Introduction

Ethernet was invented by the Xerox Corporation in 1972. It was further modified
by Digital, Intel, and Xerox in 1980, which lead to Ethernet II or DIX (Digital, Intel,
and Xerox). At that time, the IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers)
was assigned to develop a standard for Local Area Networks. The committee that
standardized Ethernet, Token Ring, fiber optic, and other LAN technologies named

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 119
A. Elahi, A. Cushman, Computer Networks,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42018-4_7
120 7 Ethernet Technologies

Fig. 7.1 Ethernet bus

topology

Fig. 7.2 Ethernet

reference model Network Layer

Logical Link
Control (LLC)
IEEE 802.2
Data link layer

Media Access
Control (MAC)
IEEE 802.3

this family of LAN standards “802.” The IEEE developed the standards for Ethernet
in 1984 and named them “IEEE 802.3.” Ethernet uses the bus topology physically
and the star topology logically. It is still widely used as it is the least expensive LAN
to implement. Figure 7.1 shows an Ethernet Bus topology.
Figure 7.2 shows how Ethernet fits into the OSI model. The Data Link layer is
divided into two sublayers: the Logical Link Control (LLC) and the Media Access
Control (MAC) layers. The function of the LLC is to establish a logical connection
between source and destination. The IEEE standard for the LLC sublayer is IEEE
802.2. The function of the Media Access Control sublayer is to access the network,
which uses CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense and Multiple Access with Collision Detection).

7.2 Ethernet Operation

Each network card has a unique physical address. When a station transmits a frame
on the bus, all stations connected to the network will copy the frame. Each station
checks the address of the frame, and if it matches the station’s NIC address, it will
accept the frame. Otherwise, the station discards the frame. In an Ethernet network,
each station uses the CSMA/CD protocol to access the network in order to transmit
information. CSMA/CD works as follows:
7.2 Ethernet Operation 121

1. If a station wants to transmit, the station senses the channel (listens to the chan-
nel). If there is no carrier, the station transmits and checks for a collision as
described in part 2. If the channel is in use, the station keeps listening until the
channel becomes idle. When the channel becomes idle, the station starts trans-
mitting again.
2. If two stations transmit frames at the same time on the bus, the frames will col-
lide. The station which first detected the collision sends a jamming code on the
bus (a jam signal is 32 bits of all ones), in order to inform the other stations that
there is a collision on the bus.
3. The two stations which were involved in the collision wait according to a back-­
off algorithm (a method used to generate random waiting times for stations that
were involved in a collision), and then start retransmission. Figure 7.3 shows the
flowchart of CSMA/CD.

7.2.1 Ethernet II Frame Format

A block of data transmitted on the network, particularly with layer two traffic, is
called a frame. There are two types of Ethernet frame formats: the Ethernet II frame
format and the IEEE 802.3 frame format. These are shown in Fig. 7.4 and Fig. 7.6,
respectively.

Station
ready to send
Wait according to
back off Algorithm

Channel Busy
Sense the
Channel

Channel is not busy

Collision
Transmit data & Transmit Jam
Sense channel Signals

No Collision

Transmission
complete

Fig. 7.3 CSMA/CD flowchart

122 7 Ethernet Technologies

Starting Destination Source Protocol Information field Frame Check

Delimiter (1 Address (6 Address (6 Type (2 46-1500 Sequence (4
byte) bytes) bytes) bytes) bytes)

Fig. 7.4 Ethernet II frame format

Fig. 7.5 Format of

physical address

B0 = 0 Unicast address
B0 = 1 Multicast address
B1 = 0 Globally unique address
B1 = 1 Address is locally administrated

Start of Frame Delimiter (SFD) The SFD represents the start of a frame and is
always set to 10101011.
Destination Address (DA) The destination address is the six-byte (48 bit) hard-
ware address of a recipient station. This address is a unique address as no two are
the same in the entire world. The hardware address of the Network Interface Card
(NIC) is also called a MAC address (Media Access Control) or physical address.
The IEEE oversees the physical addresses of NICs worldwide by assigning 22 bits
of physical address to the manufacturers of Network Interface Cards. The 46-bit
address is burned into the Read Only Memory (ROM) of each NIC and is called the
universal administered address. Figure 7.5 shows the format of the destination
address with the following types of addresses:
• Unicast: Recipient is an individual station.
• Multicast: Recipients are a group of stations.
• Broadcast: Recipients are all stations in the network. The 48-bit destination
address is set to all ones, meaning that the DA address is FFFFFFFFFFFF in
Hex, for a broadcast address.
• Source Address (SA): The SA shows the address of the source from which the
frame originated.
• Protocol Type: The Protocol Type field defines the type of protocol generation
information. The following are some of the protocol type numbers.
• 0 × 0800 IP Internet Protocol (IPv4)
• 0 × 0806 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
• 0 × 8035 Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
7.2 Ethernet Operation 123

• 0 × 809B AppleTalk (Ethertalk)

• 0 × 80F3 Appletalk
• 0 × 8100 (identifies IEEE 802.1Q tag)
• 0 × 8137 Novell IPX (alt) 0 × 8138 Novell
• 0 × 86DD Internet Protocol, Version 6 (IPv6)
• 0 × 8847 MPLS unicast
• 0 × 8848 MPLS multicast
• 0 × 8863 PPPoE Discovery Stage
• 0 × 8864 PPPoE Session Stage

Data Field According to Fig. 7.4, the data field contains the actual information.
The IEEE specifies that the minimum size of data field must be 46 bytes, and the
maximum size is 1500 bytes. If the data field is less than 46 bytes, then the MAC
layer will add as many bytes needed to reach a total of 46 bytes in the pad field..
Pad Field If the information in the data field is less than 46 bytes, extra informa-
tion is added in the pad field to increase the size to 46 bytes.
Frame Check Sequence (FCS) The FCS is used for error detection to determine
if any information was corrupted during transmission. IEEE uses CRC-32 for error
detection.
Figure 7.6 shows the IEEE 802.3 frame format. Currently, the manufacturers
producing NICs prefer to use Ethernet II due to that standard having less fields,
which results in faster processing of the frames.
Length Field The two-byte field defines the number of bytes in the data field.
Control Field The control field determines the type of information in the informa-
tion field, such as the supervisory frame, the unnumbered frame, and the informa-
tion frame.
The Preamble, SFD, DA, SA, PAD, and FCS fields of the Ethernet II frame for-
mat are similar to those of IEEE 802.3.
Destination Service Access Point (DSAP) The MAC layer passes information to
the LLC layer, which must then determine which protocol the incoming information
belongs to, such as IP, NetWare, or DecNet.
Source Service Access Point (SSAP) The SSAP determines which protocol is sent
to the destination protocol, such as IP or DecNet.

1 byte 1 byte 1-2 bytes 42-1497 bytes

DSAP SSAP Control Information
LLC Frame Format
Bytes 1 6 6 2 0-1500 0-46 4

Fig. 7.6 IEEE 802.3 MAC and LLC frame formats

124 7 Ethernet Technologies

7.2.2 Ethernet Characteristics

The gap between each frame should not be less than 9.6 ms. A station can have a
maximum of ten successive collisions. The size of the jam signal is 32 bits of all 1’s.
The maximum size of the frame is 1512 bytes including the header. Slot time is the
propagation delay of the smallest frame. The smallest frame is 512 bits, and each bit
time is 10−7 seconds; therefore, the propagation delay of the smallest possible frame
is 512-bit time.

7.2.3 Ethernet Cabling and Components

The Ethernet network uses UTP media called 10BaseT, where the 10 defines the
data rate, Base means Baseband transmission, and T means UTP cable. Figure 7.7
illustrates the port of a NIC which is used to connect a computer to a network.
10BaseT uses a UTP cable as transmission media and all stations are connected
to a repeater or hub (switch), as shown in Fig. 7.8. The function of repeater (hub) is
to accept frames from one port and retransmit the frames to all the other ports.
Table 7.1 shows the pin connection of an RJ-45 connector.
The specifications of 10Base-T are as follows:
• The maximum length of one segment is 100 m.
• The transceiver for 10BaseT is built into the NIC.
• Devices are connected to a 10BaseT hub in a physical star topology (while logi-
cally, they are in a Bus topology).
• A 10BaseT topology allows a maximum of four connected repeaters with a max-
imum diameter of 500 m.

Fig. 7.7 Network

Interface Card (NIC)
7.3 Fast Ethernet Networking Technology 125

Fig. 7.8 10BaseT connections

Table 7.1 RJ-45 PIN Signals

connector pins 1 RD+ pair 2
2 RD- pair 2
3 TD+ pair 3
4 NC pair1
5 NC pair1
6 TD- pair 3
7 NC pair 4
8 NC pair 4

7.2.4 UTP Cabling

There are two types of UTP cables used in networking. They are crossover and
straight-through cables, as shown in Fig. 7.9.
A straight-through cable has identical ends and is used as a patch cord in Ethernet
connections. A crossover cable is used to connect two Ethernet devices without a
hub, or for connecting two hubs (Table 7.2).

7.3 Fast Ethernet Networking Technology

A group of leading network corporations formed a consortium to draft specifica-

tions for Fast Ethernet. This consortium proposed several of these specifications to
the IEEE and IEEE 802.3u committee, which ultimately approved the standard for
Fast Ethernet in 1995.
126 7 Ethernet Technologies

Fig. 7.9 Image of straight and crossover cables

Table 7.2 Application of Device type Device type UTP cable type
straight-through and
Switch PC Straight through
crossover cables
Router PC Straight through
Switch Switch Crossover
PC PC Crossover
Router Router Crossover

Fast Ethernet is an extension of the Ethernet standard with a data rate of 100
Mbps, still using the Ethernet protocol. The goal of Fast Ethernet is to increase the
bandwidth of Ethernet networks while using the same CSMA/CD transmission pro-
tocol. Using the same protocol for Fast Ethernet allows users to connect an existing
10BaseT LAN to a 100BaseT LAN with switching devices.

7.3.1 Fast Ethernet Media Types

One of the most popular media types for a Fast Ethernet network is unshielded
twisted-pair wire, because it is easy to work with and it is a less expensive medium.
The IEEE has approved specifications for the following three types of media for
Fast Ethernet:
• 100BaseT4: 100 Mbps, Baseband, 4 pair Cat-3 cabling
• 100BaseTX: 100 Mbps, Baseband, Cat-5 cabling
• 100BaseFX: 100 Mbps, Baseband, fiber-optic cabling
100BaseTX technology supports 100 Mbps over two pairs of Cat-5 UTP cables.
Cat-5 UTP cabling is the most common media for transmission and is designed to
handle frequencies of up to 100 MHz. Manchester encoding, which is used for
10BaseT, is not suitable for 100BaseT because it doubles the frequency of the origi-
nal signal. 100BaseT uses 4B/5B encoding with Multiple Level Transition-3
(MLT-3) levels for signal encoding. Figure 7.10 shows the hex value (0E)16 con-
verted from eight to ten bits (1111011100) using the 4B/5B encoding shown in
7.3 Fast Ethernet Networking Technology 127

+V
1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0

-V

Fig. 7.10 MLT-3 signal for binary value 11110 11100

Table 7.3 4B/5B Encoding

4 bits binary 5 bits symbol 5 bits symbol
0000 11110 Idle 11111
0001 01001 Halt 00100
0010 10100 J 11000
0011 10101 K 10001
0100 01010 T 01101
0101 01011 Set 11001
0110 01110 Reset 00111
0111 01111 Quiet 00000
1000 10010
1001 10011
1010 10110
1011 10111
1100 11010
1101 11011
1110 11100
1111 11101

Table 7.3. That is then converted to MLT-3. MLT-3 reduces the frequency of the
signal by a factor of four.
MLT encoding uses three voltage levels: +V, -V, and Zero. The MLT encoding
rules are as follows:
1. If the next bit of the original signal is zero, then the next output is the same as the
preceding value.
2. If the next bit of original signal is one, then the next output value has a transition
(high to low or low to high).
(a) If the preceding output was either +V or –V, then the next output value
is zero.
(b) If the preceding output was zero, then the next output is nonzero (it is the
opposite sign of the last none-zero output).
100BaseFX technology transfers data at a rate of 100 Mbps using fiber-optic
media for transmission. The standard cable for 100BaseFX is one pair of multimode
fiber-optic cables with a 62.5-micron core and 125-micron cladding. The EIA
128 7 Ethernet Technologies

Class II Optical
Tx Rx Tx Rx Tx Rx

100Base-Fx Tx
NIC Rx

Fig. 7.11 100BaseFX connection to a repeater

recommends a SC plug-style connector. The SC connector uses push-on and push-

off to connect and disconnect from the repeater. Figure 7.11 illustrates how
100BaseFX connects to a repeater.
100BaseFX uses 4B/5B encoding with NRZ-I signal encoding. In this type of
encoding, four bits of information are converted to five bits, as shown again in
Table 7.3, and the five bits are converted to NRZ-I digital signals. These signals are
then converted to an optical ray for transmission over the fiber-optic cable to the
receiver. At the receiver side, the optical signal is sampled every eight nanoseconds.
If there is a change of light (from on to off or from off to on) in the sample, it is
represented as a binary one. If there is no change of the light, it is represented by
binary zero.
The conversion from four bits to five bits changes the data rate from 100 Mbps
to 125 Mbps respectively. NRZ-I digital encoding reduces the frequency of trans-
mission by half.

7.3.2 Fast Ethernet Repeaters

Repeaters are used to expand the network diameter. There are two types of repeaters
used in Fast Ethernet: Class I repeaters and a Class II repeaters. The Class I repeater
converts line signals from the incoming port to digital signals. This conversion
allows different types of Fast Ethernet Technology to be connected to LAN seg-
ments. For example, it is possible to connect a 100BaseTX station to a 100BaseFX
station by using a Class I Repeater. A Class II repeater repeats the incoming signal
and sends it to every other port on the repeater. Most networks now use the switch,
a layer two device, to expand a network.

7.4 Gigabit Ethernet Technology

With recent advances in the PCI bus and CPU technologies, workstations are getting
faster. Today’s PCI bus can transfer data at gigabit speed. A 64-bit PCI bus runs at
533 MHz and can transfer data at up to 6.4 gigabits per second. Gigabit Ethernet
7.4 Gigabit Ethernet Technology 129

transfers data at one gigabit per second, or 10 times faster than Fast Ethernet.
Gigabit Ethernet is technology compatible with Ethernet and Fast Ethernet, and it is
used for backbones with gigabit switches.
Gigabit Ethernet is used for the campus backbone by connecting gigabit switches
together. The switches operate in store-and-forward or cut-through technology. The
IEEE 802 committee has developed a standard protocol called Quality of Service
(IEEE 802.1p) which corresponds to the network layer of the OSI model. The
IEEE802.1p standards provide tagging for each frame, indicating the priority or
class of the service desired for the frame to be transmitted.

7.4.1 Gigabit Ethernet Standards

In 1995, the IEEE 802.3 committee formed a study group called the IEEE 802.3z
Task Force to research and develop standards for Gigabit Ethernet. In 1996, the
Gigabit Ethernet Alliance was formed by more than 60 companies to support the
development of Gigabit Ethernet.

7.4.2 Characteristics of Gigabit Ethernet

Gigabit Ethernet is used for linking Ethernet switches and Fast Ethernet switches,
as well as for interconnecting very high-speed servers. Gigabit Ethernet enables
organizations to upgrade their networks to 1000 Mbps while using the same operat-
ing systems and the same application software. The following are the characteristics
of Gigabit Ethernet:
• Operates at 1000 Mbps (1 Gbps)
• Uses the IEEE 802.3 frame format and maximum frame size
• Supports full-duplex and half-duplex operation
• Uses the CSMA/CD access method for half-duplex operation and supports one
repeater per collision domain
• Uses optical-fiber and copper wire for transmission media
• Supports 200-m collision domain diameters

7.4.3 Gigabit Ethernet Physical Layer

Figure 7.12 shows the Gigabit Ethernet physical layer, and Table 7.4 shows the dif-
ferent cable types and maximum distances for signal transmission over Gigabit
Ethernet.
130 7 Ethernet Technologies

UPPER LAYER

Medium Access Control ( MAC )

Full and half Duplex
8 bit bus

1000 BASE-X Family Copper

8B/10B Decoder/encoder Physical encoder/Decoder

Serializer / Deserializer

1000Base-LX 1000 Base-SX 1000Base-T

1000Base -CX
Long wave laser Short wave Length Twisted Pair
850 nm Short Copper
1300nm Frequency Transceiver

Multimode Fiber Multimode Fiber 25 meters 100 meters

Single Mode Fiber
500 meters
5Km 500 meters

Fig. 7.12 Gigabit Ethernet physical layer

Table 7.4 Gigabit Ethernet cable types

Cable Core diameter in Modal bandwidth Maximum distance in
Standard type microns MHz * km meters
1000BaseSX MMF 62.5 160 220
MMF 62.5 200 270
MMF 50 400 500
MMF 50 500 550
1000BaseLX MMF 62.5 500 550
MMF 50 400 550
MMF 50 500 550
SMF 9 N/A 5000
1000BaseCX Twinax – – 25
1000BaseT UTP – – 100
MMF means multimode fiber
SMF means single-mode fiber
SX means short wavelength of 850 nm
LX means long wavelength of 1300 nm

7.4.4 Gigabit MAC Layer

Gigabit Ethernet supports both half-duplex and full-duplex transmissions. Gigabit

Ethernet with half-duplex uses the CSMA/CD access method while full-duplex uses
a point-to-point connection. CSMA/CD defines the smallest frame for Ethernet as
64 bytes because the receiver should receive the first bit of the frame before the
transmitter completes the transmission. By increasing the speed of the transmission
from 100 Mbps to 1000 Mbps, the transmitter can complete the transmission before
7.5 10 Gigabit Ethernet 131

Fig. 7.13 Minimum frame size format for Gigabit Ethernet

the receiver receives the first bit of the frame. Fast Ethernet overcomes this problem
by reducing the size of the cable, and Gigabit Ethernet increases the minimum size
of the frame from 64 bytes to 512 bytes by adding carrier extensions to the Ethernet
frame. Figure 7.13 shows the minimum frame size for Gigabit Ethernet.

7.5 10 Gigabit Ethernet

The IEEE 802.3ae task force completed the standard for 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10
GbE) in March 2002. The 10 Gigabit Ethernet standard defines two types of physi-
cal layers: the LAN physical layer (LAN PHY) and the WAN physical layer
(WAN PHY). The WAN physical layer operates at the rate that is compatible with
OC-192C and it uses Wave Division Multiplexing (WDM).
Applications of 10 Gigabit Ethernet for LANs are:
• Connecting a server to a switch with 10GbE
• Connections between switches
Applications of 10 Gigabit Ethernet for WAN are:
• Connecting two campus networks
• Storage Network Architecture (SNA)
• Connecting multiple networks in one metropolitan area with 10 GbE to offer
services such as distance learning and video conferencing

7.5.1 Characteristics of 10 Gigabit Ethernet

The following points describe the characteristics of 10 Gigabit Ethernet:

• Uses the Ethernet frame format
• Uses the minimum and maximum Ethernet frame sizes
• Supports only full-duplex connections
• Uses optical cabling as a transmission medium
132 7 Ethernet Technologies

• Supports LAN and WAN physical layers

• Provides direct connection to OC-192C SONET

7.5.2 Gigabit Ethernet Physical Layer

Figure 7.14 shows the physical layer for 10 Gigabit Ethernet. It consists of serial
transmission and Wave Division Multiplexing (WDM). Serial transmission uses dif-
ferent types of laser wavelengths. The following are different physical medium defi-
nitions for 10 Gigabit Ethernet. The 10 Gigabit Ethernet types and transmission
distance are displayed in Table 7.5.
• 10GBASE- SR
• 10GBASE-SW
• 10GBASE- LR
• 10GBASE-LW
• 10GBASE-ER
• 10GBASE-EW
• 10GBASE-LX4

Media Access Control

Full Duplex

10 Gigabit Media Independent Interface

CWDM Serial LAN PHY Serial WAN PHY

LAN PHY 64B/66B 64B/66B
8B/10B

CWDM Serial Serial Serial Serial Serial Serial

PMD PMD PMD PMD PMD PMD PMD
1310nm 850 nm 1310 nm 1550 nm 850 nm 1310 nm 1550 nm

-LX4 -SR -LR -ER -SW -LW -EW

CWDM means Coarse Wave Division Multiplexing

Fig. 7.14 Physical layer of 10 Gigabit Ethernet. (CWDM means Coarse Wave Division
Multiplexing)
Summary 133

Table 7.5 10GBE types and transmission distance

Standard Cable types Core diameter in microns Model bandwidth Distance in meters
10 GBASE-S MM 50 500 66
10 GBASE-LX4 MM 62.5 160 300
10 GBASE-L SM 9 – 10 km
10 GBASE-E SM 9 – 40 km
10 GBASE-LX4 SM 9 – 10 km

The suffix for Gigabit Ethernet consists of three characters: the first character
indicates the wavelength of the laser, S, L, or E, where:
S represents a short wavelength laser with a wavelength of 850 nm.
L represents a long wavelength laser with a wavelength of 1310 nm.
E represents an extended long wavelength laser with a wavelength of 1550 nm.
The second letter of the suffix represents the type of physical layer where:
R means physical layer for LAN.
W means physical layer for WAN.

Summary

• Ethernet and IEEE 802.3 use the bus topology logically.

• In the bus topology, the medium is shared by all stations.
• Ethernet uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) to
access the network.
• Ethernet’s data rate is 10 Mbps.
• The maximum size of an Ethernet frame is 1512 bytes.
• An Ethernet network card comes with three types of connectors: RJ-45, BNC,
and DIX.
• 10BaseT is a medium with the following features: 10Mbps data rate, baseband,
using UTP cabling with RJ-45 connectors.
• 10BaseT requires a repeater or hub.
• A Unicast address tells you that the recipient of the frame is an individual station.
• A Multicast address indicates that the recipient of the frame is a group of stations.
• A Broadcast address means the recipient of the frame is every station in the
network.
• The data rate of Fast Ethernet is 100 Mbps.
• Fast Ethernet uses three types of media: 100BaseT4, 100BaseTX, and 100BaseFx.
• Fast Ethernet uses the same frame format as Ethernet.
• 100BaseT4 uses four pairs of Cat-3 UTP wires, 100BaseTX uses two pairs of
Cat-5 UTP wires, and 100BaseFX uses fiber-optic cable.
• Fast Ethernet uses Class I repeaters to connect NIC cards with different types
of media.
134 7 Ethernet Technologies

• Fast Ethernet uses Class II repeaters to connect stations having the same type of
network Interface Card.
• Gigabit Ethernet has a data rate of 1000 Mbps.
• 10 Gigabit Ethernet has a data rate of 10,000 Mbps.

Key Terms

100BaseFx Fast Ethernet Frame Format

100BaseT4 IEEE 802.3
100BaseTx IEEE 802.3u
Bit Time LLC Frame Format
Broadcast Logical Link Control (LLC)
Class I Repeater Media Access Control (MAC)
Class II Repeater Multicast
CSMA/CD Multilevel Transition (MLT-3)
Destination Address (DA) Propagation Delay
Destination Service access Point (DSAP) Repeater
Ethernet Frame Format Source Address (SA)
Fast Ethernet Source Service Access Point (SSAP)
Fast Ethernet Access Method Unicast

Review Questions

Multiple Choice Questions

1. __________ based network is the least expensive LAN.
(a) Ethernet
(b) Token Ring
(c) a and b
(d) Gigabit Ethernet
2. The IEEE standard for Ethernet is _________.
(a) IEEE 802.3
(b) IEEE 802.4
(c) IEEE 802.5
(d) IEEE 802.2
3. Ethernet uses __________ to access the channel.
(a) CSMA/CD
(b) Token passing
(c) Demand priority
(d) Full duplex
Review Questions 135

4. A destination address in an Ethernet frame has _____________bytes.

(a) 2
(b) 3
(c) 6
(d) 8
5. Ethernet uses ___________ encoding.
(a) Manchester
(b) Differential Manchester
(c) NRZ
(d) NRZ-I
6. Fast Ethernet uses the _________ standard.
(a) IEEE 802.2
(b) IEEE 802.5
(c) IEEE 802.3u
(d) IEEE 802.4
7. The goal of Fast Ethernet is to increase __________.
(a) The number of stations in a network
(b) The frequency of signals
(c) Bandwidth in a network
(d) Network diameter
8. The role of the __________ is to interface the MAC sublayer to the physical
medium dependent.
(a) 100BaseT4
(b) 100BaseTX
(c) Convergence sub-layer
(d) LLC
9. ___________ is the most popular medium type for Fast Ethernet.
(a) UTP
(b) STP
(c) Fiber optics
(d) Coaxial cable
10. The data rate of 100BaseTX is __________ Mbps.
(a) 100
(b) 10
(c) 200
(d) 1000
136 7 Ethernet Technologies

11. 100BaseFX uses a __________ cable.

(a) UTP
(b) STP
(c) Coaxial
(d) Fiber-optic
12. There are __________ types of repeaters.
(a) Five
(b) Two
(c) Three
(d) Four
13. The maximum distance between two repeaters using a UTP cable is
__________ meters.
(a) 10
(b) 5
(c) 100
(d) 200
14. Fast Ethernet’s data rate is ___________ Mbps.
(a) 100
(b) 10
(c) 400
(d) 200
15. What type of access method is used in Fast Ethernet?
(a) Token
(b) CSMA/CD
(c) Demand priority
(d) Full duplex
16. The data rate of Gigabit Ethernet is ________ Mbps.
(a) 100
(b) 1000
(c) 200
(d) 10,000.
17. The standard for Gigabit Ethernet is _________.
(a) IEEE 802.2
(b) IEEE 802.3
(c) IEEE 802.3z (task force)
(d) IEE802.3u
Review Questions 137

18. Gigabit Ethernet uses ___________ access method for half-duplex operation.
(a) CSMA/CD
(b) Token passing
(c) Demand priority
(d) None of the above
19. Gigabit Ethernet uses ________ encoding.
(a) Manchester
(b) Differential Manchester
(c) 8B/10B
(d) 4B/5B
20. 1000BaseFX uses ____________ cable for transmission of data.
(a) UTP
(b) Fiber-optic cable
(c) Coaxial
(d) STP
21. What type of protocol should be added to Gigabit Ethernet in order to carry
voice and video information?
(a) TCP
(b) IP
(c) 802.1p
(d) RSVP
22. Gigabit Ethernet can operate in
(a) Full duplex
(b) Half duplex
(c) a and b
(d) None of the above
23. Gigabit Ethernet uses the CSMA/CD access method for_____.
(a) Half duplex
(b) Full duplex
(c) a and b
(d) None of the above
24. What is the transmission medium for 1000BaseT?
(a) Cat-5 UTP
(b) Cat 4 UTP
(c) Coaxial cable
(d) Fiber cable
138 7 Ethernet Technologies

25. What is the maximum length of cable used for 1000BaseT?

(a) 50 m
(b) 100 m
(c) 200 m
(d) 1000 m
26. What type of fiber cable is used for Gigabit Ethernet?
(a) Multimode fiber
(b) Single mode
(c) Both a and b
(d) None of the above
27. Gigabit Ethernet is used for:
(a) WAN
(b) Campus backbone
(c) MAN
(d) Internet
28. The data rate of 10 GbE is _______ Mbps.
(a) 100
(b) 1000
(c) 10,000
(d) 100,000
29. Gigabit Ethernet operates in ______ mode(s).
(a) Half duplex
(b) Full duplex
(c) a and b
(d) CSMA/CD

Short Answer Questions

1. Define 10BaseT.
2. What do UTP and STP stand for?
3. What is a 10BaseT topology?
4. Show the Ethernet II frame format and the function of each field.
5. Explain the function of a repeater or a hub.
6. Show the IEEE 802.3 frame format and function of each field.
7. Describe the access method for Ethernet.
8. What does CSMA/CD stand for?
9. What is IEEE 802.2?
10. What is a MAC address?
11. Explain collisions in Ethernet?
12. What is a jam signal?
Review Questions 139

13. Explain broadcast addresses.

14. Describe unicast addresses.
15. What is the size a network interface card address?
16. What is the application of CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check)?
17. What is the maximum size of a frame for IEEE 802.3?
18. How many bits of a network address represent the manufacturer ID?
19. How do computers distinguish one another on an Ethernet network?
20. What happens when two or more computers simultaneously transmit frames on
an Ethernet network?
21. What is the function of the FCS field in the Ethernet frame format?
22. What is the function of the back-off algorithm in an Ethernet network?
23. What is the function of the length field in an Ethernet frame?
24. What is function of the protocol type field in the Ethernet II frame format?
25. List the IEEE sublayers of the data link layer.
26. What is function of the pad field in the IEEE 802.3 frame format?
28. Explain the following terms:
(a) 100BaseT4
(b) 100BaseTX
(c) 100BaseFX
29. What is the cable type of 100BaseTX?
30. What is the difference between 100BaseTX and 100BaseT4?
31. What is the application of a Class I repeater?
32. What is the application of a Class II repeater?
33. What is the maximum network diameter using two Class II repeaters in a
100BaseT network?
34. Name the IEEE committee that developed the standard for Fast Ethernet.
35. Identify and explain the access method for Fast Ethernet.
36. What are the types of media used for Fast Ethernet?
37. What type of signal encoding is used for 100BaseT4?
38. What type of signal encoding is used for 100BaseFX?
39. Convert (84)16 to 5 bit symbols using 4B/5B encoding, and then show the cor-
responding MLT digital signals.
40. What is the IEEE standard number for Gigabit Ethernet?
41. What is the data rate for Gigabit Ethernet?
42. What type of frame is used by Gigabit Ethernet?
43. What are the access methods for Gigabit Ethernet?
44. List the kinds of transmission media used for Gigabit Ethernet.
45. Explain the following terms:
(a) 1000Base-CX
(b) 1000Base-Lx
(c) 1000Base-SX
140 7 Ethernet Technologies

46. What are the hardware components of Gigabit Ethernet?

47. What are some applications of 10 GbE?
48. Explain the following terms:
(a) 10GBASE- SR
(b) 10GBASE-SW
(c) 10GBASE- LR
(d) 10GBASE-LW
(e) 10GBASE-ER
(f) 10GBASE-EW
Chapter 8
LAN Interconnection Devices

Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
• List LAN Interconnection devices.
• Describe the function and operation of a repeater.
• Describe the function and application of a bridge.
• Explain switch operation
–– Discuss the applications of LAN switching
–– Distinguish between symmetric and asymmetric switches
• Identify the application of a L2 switch, L3 switch and L4 switch.
• Discuss the application of virtual LANs.
• Understand the function of a router and the layers of the OSI model correspond-
ing to a router.
• Describe the function and application of a gateway.

Introduction
Local area network (LAN) interconnection devices are used to expand the LAN to
cover a larger geographical area and divide the traffic load by internetworking. By
linking local area networks (LANs) to form a single network, such as separate
LANs of different floors of a building or LANs in separate buildings, networks can
be connected so that all computers in one site are linked. The devices discussed in
this chapter are used for linking LANs together and can be distinguished by the OSI
(Open system interconnection) layer at which they are operating.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 141
A. Elahi, A. Cushman, Computer Networks,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42018-4_8
142 8 LAN Interconnection Devices

8.1 Repeaters

A repeater is a device used to connect several segments of an LAN and to extend

the allowable length of a network. A repeater accepts traffic from its input port and
then retransmits the traffic at its output port. A hub is a multiple output repeater. A
repeater works in the physical layer of the OSI Model. Figure 8.1 shows a repeater
connecting 3 PCs.

8.2 Bridges

A bridge is used to connect the similar segments of a network together (homoge-

neous networks) and operates in the data link layer, as shown in Fig. 8.2. Bridges
forward frames based on the destination addresses of the frames and detect trans-
mission errors.

Fig. 8.1 Connecting 3 PCs

to one repeater

Fig. 8.2 OSI reference model of a bridge

8.3 Switch 143

Fig. 8.3 Two Ethernet segments connected by a bridge

Functions of a Bridge
The function of a bridge is to analyze the incoming destination address of a frame
and make a forwarding decision based on the location of the station. Figure 8.3
shows a bridge that is used to connect two Ethernet LANs together. For example, if
station A sends a frame to station B, the bridge gets the frame and sees that station
B is in the same segment as A and discards the frame. However, if station A for-
wards a frame to station C, the bridge would realize that station C is in a different
LAN segment, so the bridge then forwards the frame to station C. The bridge for-
wards the data from one LAN to another without alteration of the frame. Bridges
allow network administrators to segment their networks transparently, meaning that
the individual station does not need to know that there is a bridge in the network.
Bridges are capable of filtering, which is useful for eliminating unnecessary
broadcast frames. They can also be programmed not to forward frames from spe-
cific sources. By dividing a large network into segments and using a bridge to link
the segments together, the throughput of the network will increase. If one segment
of the network has failed, the other segments connected to the bridge can keep the
network alive. Bridges also extend the length of the LAN. While stations A and B
are communicating with each other, stations C and D can communicate with each
other simultaneously.
Learning Bridge or Transparent Bridge The learning bridge requires no initial
programming. It can learn the location of each device by accepting a frame from the
network segment and recording the MAC address and the port number. The frame
comes to the bridge, which then retransmits the frame to all the segments of the
network except the segment which sent the frame. By using this method, the learn-
ing bridge learns which station is connected to which segment of the network.

8.3 Switch

LAN switching is the fastest growing technology in the networking industry.

Switches are used to connect LAN segments together to increase network through-
put. A switch is a device with multiple ports which accepts packets from the ports
of other computing devices. Switches can operate in layer 2 or layer 3.
144 8 LAN Interconnection Devices

Table 8.1 Switch MAC address Port number

forwarding table
MAC1 Port1
MAC2 Port2
MAC3 Port3
MAC4 Port4

Fig. 8.4 Switch with 4

ports

Layer 2 Switching (L2 Switch) A layer 2 switch (L2 switch) operates in the data
link layer of the OSI model. It is used for network segmentation and for creating
workgroups. The operation of a Layer 2 switch is similar to that of a multiport
bridge, where a frame enters the switch from one port and is forwarded to the
intended port based on the MAC address of the frame. A frame with a broadcast
address will be repeated to all ports of the switch. During this process, a layer 2
switch learns the MAC addresses of the hosts connected to each port and creates a
switching table which maps MAC addresses to port numbers, as seen in Table 8.1.
The switch makes this table, called a switch forwarding table, through a learning
method. When PC1 sends a packet to PC2, the switch recognizes that PC1 is
­connected to port 1, and when PC2 sends a packet to PC1 the switch recognizes that
PC2 is connected to port 2. The switch then uses this table to forward frames to the
proper ports. Figure 8.4 shows a 4-port switch with 4 PCs and their MAC addresses
represented by MAC1 through MAC4.
Figure 8.5 shows two connected switches: switch 1 and switch 2. The forwarding
table for switch 1 can be seen in Table 8.2. Assume that PC1 needs to send a packet
to PC5. In order to forward the packet to PC5, switch 1 must check the destination
MAC address of PC5 by consulting its switch forwarding table. Since the MAC
address for PC5 is not listed in its table, switch 1 forwards the packet to default port
4, which then forwards the packet to default port 5 of switch 2. When the packet
reaches switch 2, switch 2 then uses the information on its forwarding table to for-
ward the packet to PC5.
8.3 Switch 145

MAC4 Default

Fig. 8.5 Connecting two switches

Table 8.2 Switch forwarding MAC address Port number

table for Fig. 8.5 switch #1 MAC1 Port1
MAC2 Port2
MAC3 Port3
MAC4 Default

8.3.1 Spanning Tree Protocol (STP)

The spanning tree protocol is used to ensure a loop-free topology in a network with
multiple switches or bridges. A switch will forward a broadcast and multicast frame
to all of its ports. If there is a loop on the network, then the packet will travel in the
loop continuously. Figure 8.6 shows a network with a connection loop.
In order to overcome loop problems, each switch runs the spanning tree algo-
rithm (STP), also known as the standard IEEE 802.1d. The STP operation is
described in the following steps:
1. Each switch is identified by an 8-byte ID. This ID is a combination of a two-byte
priority field and the switch’s 6-byte MAC address.
2. The switches exchange their IDs using Bridge Protocol Data Units (BPDU). The
switch with the lowest ID is elected as the root bridge/switch.
3. The root bridge/switch places all its ports in the forwarding state.
4. Each nonroot bridge/switch finds the shortest path to the root bridge. The port
used for shortest path to root bridge is call root port and is placed in forward-
ing state.
5. If a switch has more than one path to the root bridge, all ports not in the forward-
ing state are placed in the blocking state.
146 8 LAN Interconnection Devices

Fig. 8.6 Spanning tree operation

Fig. 8.7 Connection of LAN segments to a switch

8.3.2 Ethernet LAN Switching

Ethernet is one of the most popular LAN technologies because it uses unshielded
twisted-pair cables. However, when the number of stations increases in an Ethernet
LAN, the number of collisions also increases, and performance decreases accord-
ingly. In order to increase the performance of an Ethernet LAN, it can be seg-
mented with each of the segments connected to switch ports. In Fig. 8.7, each
segment acts as an independent LAN and each segment similarly has its colli-
sion domain.

8.3.3 Switch Classifications

The manufacturers of switches classify the switches based on their applications:

symmetrical and asymmetrical switching.
8.4 Virtual LAN 147

1. Symmetric switching provides switching between segments that have the same
bandwidth. For example, 10Mbps to 10Mbps or 100Mbps to 100Mbps.
2. Asymmetric switching provides switching between segments of different band-
widths. For example, 10Mbps to 100Mbps or 100Mbps to 10Mbps.

8.3.4 Layer 3 Switch (L3 Switch)

A layer 3 switch (L3 switch) is a type of router that uses hardware rather than soft-
ware. An L3 switch, sometimes called a routing switch, uses ASIC switching tech-
nology. This switch operates on the Network layer of the OSI model. The function
of an L3 switch is to route the packet based on the logical address (layer 3) informa-
tion. An L3 Switch accepts the packet from the incoming port and forwards the
packet to the proper port based on a logical address, such as an IP address. In order
to increase performance, the switch finds the route for the first packet and estab-
lishes a connection between the incoming and outgoing port for transferring the rest
of the packets. This is called “route once and switch many.”

8.4 Virtual LAN

A virtual LAN (VLAN), also known as the IEEE 802.1q standard, is a configura-
tion option on a LAN switch that allows network managers the flexibility to group
or segment ports on an individual switch into logically defined LANs. There are two
immediate benefits from a VLAN. First, it provides a way for network administra-
tors to decrease the size of a broadcast domain and second, VLANs can provide
security options for administrators. A VLAN is one way to prevent hosts on virtual
segments from reaching one another. Another application of a VLAN is for logical
segmentation of workgroups within an organization.
Port-Based VLAN In this method, VLAN membership is based on a switch port
where the network administrator assigns each port of the switch to a specific VLAN
ID. Only the stations connected to ports with same VLAN ID can communicate
with each other. For example, Fig. 8.8 shows a four-port switch where ports 1 and 2
are assigned to VLAN ID 10 and ports 4 and 5 are assigned to VLAN ID 20. In this
case, PC1 and PC2 can only communicate with each other and PC3 and PC4 can
only communicate with each other.

8.4.1 VLAN Operation

A VLAN ID is assigned to each port of a switch. When a PC transmits a packet to a

switch port, the switch inserts a tag into the packet. This tag includes the VLAN ID,
as shown in Fig. 8.9. The switch then checks the VLAN ID of the packet and trans-
mits it to the ports which have the same VLAN ID.
148 8 LAN Interconnection Devices

Fig. 8.8 A four-port

switch with 2 VLANs

DA SA TAG Type/Length Data FCS

TPID Priority CFI VID

16 bits 3 1 12
Fig. 8.9 IEEE 802.1q frame format

IEEE 802.1q developed a standard for the tagging of a frame for use with
VLAN. The IEEE 802.1q defines a method which allows a switch to add a tag to the
frame. It can process an untagged frame or a tagged frame. Figure 8.9 shows an
IEEE 802.1q frame format. The tag is 4 bytes and is inserted between the source
address (SA) and type/length field in the Ethernet frame format.
The functions of each subfield of the Tag field are described below:
TPID (Tag Protocol Identifier): This field is 16 bits and is set to 8100 (Hex) to
identify the frame in IEEE 802.1q.
Priority: This field is 3 bits and identifies the priority of the frame.
CFI (Canonical Format Indicator): The CFI bit is mainly used for compatibility
between Ethernet and token ring Networks and is set to 0 for Ethernet Switches.
VID (VLAN ID): This field is 12 bits and represents the VLAN number to which the
frame belongs.

8.5 Routers

A router operates at the network layer of the OSI model to route a frame from one
LAN to another using a routing algorithm, as shown in Fig. 8.10.
8.5 Routers 149

Fig. 8.10 OSI reference

model for a router

Fig. 8.11 Several LANs connected together using routers

The main function of a router is to determine the optimal data path and transfer
information using that path. Figure 8.11 shows how routers can be used to connect
several LANs together at different locations. Node A has a frame for Node B, so the
Node A transmits the packet to Router A for it to find the best route to Router B,
who then finally transmits the packet to Node B.
A router which can be configured manually by a network administrator is called
a static router and a router that is configured by itself is called a dynamic router. In
a static router, the routing table is administered manually by the network adminis-
trator who determines the route. In a dynamic router, the router uses routing algo-
rithm to find the best route and updates it routing table automatically. The dynamic
router also exchanges information with the next router on the network.
150 8 LAN Interconnection Devices

Fig. 8.12 Gateway connecting two different communication protocols

8.6 Gateways

Gateways operate up to the application layer, as shown in Fig. 8.12. The application
of a gateway is to convert one protocol to another protocol. Figure 8.12 shows a
network with IBM SNA (System Network Architecture) connected through a gate-
way, with an LAN running the TCP/IP protocol.

Summary

• LAN interconnection devices are repeaters, bridges, routers, switches, and

gateways.
• A repeater is used to extend the length of the network and operates at the physical
layer of an OSI model. A repeater accepts traffic from its input and repeats it at
its output.
• A bridge is used to connect segments of same-type networks; the function of the
bridge is to analyze the incoming frame’s destination address and forward the
frame to the proper segment. Bridges operate on the data link layer of the
OSI model.
• A learning bridge or transparent bridge learns the location of each station by
recording the NIC address and the port number of which frame enters the bridge.
• A source routing bridge routes the frame based on information in the routing
field of the frame.
Review Questions 151

• A switch accepts a packet from one port and examines the destination address; it
then retransmits the packet to the port having a host with the same destination
address.
• When the number of users is increased in an Ethernet LAN, the number of colli-
sion will increase. To overcome this problem, Ethernet LAN can be segmented,
with each segment connected to a port on a switch.
• Symmetric switch: It provides switching between LAN segments with the same
data rate.
• Asymmetric switch: It provides switching between LAN segments with different
data rates.
• Virtual LAN (VLAN): The IEEE802.10 committee approved the standard for
VLAN. In VLAN, the switch port can be enabled and disabled by a network
administrator. The administrator can also connect several ports to make a VLAN.
• Layer 2 switch: A multiport device that operates on layer 2 of the OSI model.
• Layer 3 switch: A type of router that uses integrated switching technology.
• A router is used to route a frame from one LAN to another LAN according to its
routing table. Routers operate in the network layer of the OSI model.
• A gateway is used to convert one protocol to another protocol and operates in all
seven layers of the OSI model.

Key Terms

Asymmetric switch Proxy server

Bridge Repeater
Dynamic router Router
IEEE 802.1d Source routing bridge
LAN interconnection Static router
LAN switch Switch
Layer 2 (L2) switch Symmetric switch
Layer 3 (L3) switch Transparent bridge
Learning bridge Virtual LAN (VLAN)

Review Questions

Multiple Choice Questions

1. A hub is a multiple port _________.
(a) server
(b) switch
(c) repeater
(d) b&c
152 8 LAN Interconnection Devices

2. _________ operate in the data link layer.

(a) Hubs
(b) Repeaters
(c) Switches
(d) Gateways
3. _________ are capable of filtering.
(a) Bridges
(b) Repeaters
(c) Switches
(d) Hubs
4. In a _________, the frame contains the entire route to the destination.
(a) source routing bridge
(b) learning bridge
(c) repeater
(d) gateway
5. ________ are more complex internetworking devices than bridges.
(a) Switches
(b) Routers
(c) Gateways
(d) Hubs
6. A _________ operates up to the application layer.
(a) router
(b) switch
(c) gateway
(d) repeater
7. A _________ bridge learns the location of each station by recording the NIC
address and the port number.
(a) source routing
(b) transparent
(c) a and b
(d) none of the above
8. A __________ is used to convert one protocol to another protocol.
(a) router
(b) switch
(c) gateway
(d) hub
Review Questions 153

9. The _________ is used to connect segments of a LAN.

(a) router
(b) hub
(c) switch
(d) gateway
10. A switch is a device with __________ port(s).
(a) single
(b) two
(c) multiple
(d) none of the above
11. A ___________ provides switching between different bandwidth segments.
(a) symmetric switch
(b) asymmetric switch
(c) gateway
(d) router
12. Layer 3 switches or routing switches work on the OSI physical layer, data link
layer, and _________ layer.
(a) application
(b) session
(c) presentation
(d) network
13. A __________ is a configuration option on a LAN switch.
(a) VLAN
(b) firewall
(c) repeater
(d) router
14. What type of switch is used to connect LAN segments within the same net-
work? _______.
(a) Layer 2 switch
(b) Layer 3 switch
(c) Layer 4 switch
(d) All of the above
15. A layer 2 switch operates at the ________.
(a) physical layer
(b) data link layer
(c) network layer
(d) application layer
154 8 LAN Interconnection Devices

16. What type of switch is also used to route packets? ______.

(a) Layer 2 switch
(b) Layer 3 switch
(c) Layer 4 switch
(d) None of the above

Short Answer Questions

1. List LAN interconnection devices.
2. What is the function of a repeater?
3. Describe the function of a bridge?
4. What layer of OSI model does a bridge operate at?
5. Explain the operation of a transparent bridge.
6. Explain the operation of a source routing bridge.
7. Explain the function of a router.
8. Explain a static router.
9. What is the function of a router?
10. A router works in which layer of the OSI model?
11. Explain the definition of a dynamic router.
12. What is the application of a gateway?
13. A gateway operates in which layers of the OSI model?
14. What is the difference between a gateway and a router?
15. Explain the operation of a switch.
16. What is the application of a symmetric switch?
17. What is the application of an asymmetric switch?
18. What does VLAN stand for?
19. What is the difference between a router and a L3 Switch?
20. What is the function of spanning tree?
Chapter 9
Internet Protocols Part I

Objectives
After completion of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Discuss the history of the Internet.
• List the applications of the Internet and explain the function of each application
protocol.
• Explain the function of the Internet Architecture Board (IAB).
• List Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) and describe
the service of each protocol.
• Distinguish between IP address classes and understand how IP addresses are
assigned to a network of an organization.
• Show the TCP/IP reference model.
• Show the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) packet format and define the function
of each field.
• List the applications protocol for Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).
• Describe the function of TCP, show the TCP packet format, and describe the
function of each field.
• Explain the function of Internet Protocol (IP) and identify IP packet format.
• Explain TCP connection and disconnection.
• Show the IPv6 format and explain the function of each field.
• Describe the advantages of IPv6.
Introduction
The term Internet, short for Internetwork, describes a collection of networks that use
the TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol) to communicate
among nodes. These networks are connected through routers and gateways.
Figure 9.1 shows an organization whose networks are connected by router to the
Internet through an external gateway.
In 1968, the United States Department of Defense (DOD) created the Defense
Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA) for research on packet-switching

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 155
A. Elahi, A. Cushman, Computer Networks,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42018-4_9
156 9 Internet Protocols Part I

Fig. 9.1 Connection of a

network to the Internet

networks. In 1969, DARPA created the Advanced Research Project Agency

(ARPA). In the same year, ARPA selected Bolt Beranek and Newman (BBN), a
research firm in Cambridge, Massachusetts, to build an experimental network
(ARPANET) to provide a test bed for emerging network technology. ARPANET
originally connected four nodes, the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA),
the University of California Berkeley (UCB), Stanford Research Institute (SRI), and
the University of Utah, to share information and resources across long distances.
ARPANET experienced rapid growth with the addition of universities. At that time,
the protocol used in ARPANET was called the network control protocol (NCP).
NCP did not scale well to the growing ARPANET, and in 1974, TCP/IP was
introduced.
In 1980, the TCP/IP protocol became the only protocol that was in use on
ARPANET. At the same time, most universities were using the UNIX operating
system, which was created by Bell Labs in 1969. The University of California at
Berkeley integrated the TCP/IP protocol into version 4.1 of its software distribution,
later known as the Berkeley Software Distribution (Berkeley UNIX or BSD UNIX).
The DOD then separated the military network (MILNET) from the nonmilitary net-
work (ARPANET). In 1985, the National Science Foundation (NSF) connected the
six supercomputer centers together and named this network NSFNET. The
NSFNET was then connected to ARPANET. Naturally, NSF encouraged universi-
ties to connect to NSFNET. Due to the growth of NSFNET, in 1987, NSF accepted
a joint proposal from IBM, MCI Corporation, and MERT Corporation to expand the
NSF backbone. Figure 9.2 shows the NSF backbone in 1993. By 1995, numerous
companies were running commercial networks.
The current Internet backbone consists of several backbones that belong to vari-
ous Internet network service providers, such as MCI, AT&T, IBM, Sprint, and
GTE. These backbones are connected through gateways. Figure 9.3 shows the GTE
Internet backbone.
Internet Address Assignment
Any organization wishing to connect its network to the Internet must contact the
Internet Network Information Center (InterNIC) to obtain an Internet Protocol
address (IP address). The following are the Internet Network Information addresses:
9 Internet Protocols Part I 157

Fig. 9.2 NSFNET backbone

Fig. 9.3 GTE Internet backbone (http://www.bbn.com)

158 9 Internet Protocols Part I

Website: www.internic.net
E-mail: [email protected]
Mailing address: Network Information Center
  333 International
   Menlo Park, CA 94025.
Any organization that obtains a network IP address will submit its server’s name
to InterNIC. InterNIC will ensure that no two servers have the same name. For
Example: elahia1@ southernct.edu is the author’s Internet address. Reading from
right to left, the above domain name consists of:
edu: A top level domain which represents that Elahi is at some US educational site.
southernct: Represents the organization which owns the machine that has informa-
tion about Elahi’s IP address.

9.1 The Internet Architecture Board (IAB)

The Internet Architecture Board (IAB) is comprised of 13 members; six of whom

are selected by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). The functions of the
IAB are the following:
• Determining the future of Internet addressing
• Architecture of the Internet
• Direction of IETF: Management of a top-level Domain Name System
The following is a list of the subcommittees of the IAB and their functions:
A. IESG: The Internet Engineering Steering Group works on Internet standards
and oversees the work of all the other groups.
B. IETF: The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is an open international
committee of network designers, vendors and researchers. The IETF is divided
into subgroups, which are organized based on their area of expertise, such as
routing or transport.
C. IRTF: The function of the Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) is to promote
long- and short-term research related to Internet protocols such as TCP/IP,
Internet Architecture, and IPv6.
D. IANA: The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) works under the
Internet Network Information Center (INIC). The INIC consists of Network
Solutions Inc. and AT&T Corp. The function of the INIC is registration of
domain name servers (DNS) and education services. INIC manages registration
of the second level domain names under the following top-level domains:
gov, com, edu, net, mil, biz, info, name, coop, aero, net and org.
9.3 TCP/IP Application Level 159

9.2 TCP/IP Reference Model

Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) essentially consist of

four levels: application level, Transport Level, Internet Level and Network Level, as
shown in Fig. 9.4. Table 9.1 shows TCP/IP protocols and their functions.

9.3 TCP/IP Application Level

The application level enables the user to access the Internet. The following are com-
mon Internet applications:
• Simple Mail Transfer protocol (SMTP)
• Telnet
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
• Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
• Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
• Domain Name System (DNS)
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
SMTP is used for E-mail (electronic mail), which is used for transferring messages
between two hosts. To send a mail message, the sender types in the address of the
recipient and a message. The electronic mail application accepts the message/mail
(if the address is right) and deposits it in the storage area/mailbox of the recipient.
The recipient then retrieves the message from his/her mailbox.
An E-mail address (or just “email”) is made up of a Username @ Mail Server
Address. For example, in [email protected], “Elahia1” is the username and

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Application
Presentation SMTP FTP Telnet HTTP DNS TFTP SNMP Application
Session Level
Transport
Transport TCP UDP Level
ICMP
Internet
Network IP RARP Level
ARP

Data Link layer Network

Physical Layer Network Interface Card, or PPP Level

Fig. 9.4 TCP/IP reference model

160 9 Internet Protocols Part I

Table 9.1 TCP/IP protocols and their functions

Protocol Service
Internet Protocol Provides packet delivery between networks
IP
Internet Control Message Controls transmission errors and control messages between
Protocol hosts and gateways
ICMP
Address Resolution Protocol Requests physical address from source
ARP
Reverse Address Resolution Response to the ARP
Protocol RARP
User Datagram Protocol Provides unreliable service between hosts (transfer data
UDP without acknowledgment)
Transmission Control Protocol Provides reliable service between hosts
TCP
Simple Network Management Used for diagnostics purposes between hosts
Protocol
SNMP

“southernct.edu” is the domain name of the mail server. The “southernct” stands for
Southern Connecticut State University, and “edu” stands for education.
Some email addresses are little more complicated, for example, Elahi@scsu1.
southernct.edu. Here, “Elahi” is the username, “scus1” is the name of a workstation
that is a part of “southernct,” and “edu” is the top-level domain representing an
education center.
Telnet or Remote Login
Telnet is one of the most important Internet applications. It enables one computer
to establish a connection to another computer. Users can login to a local computer
and then remote login across the network to any other host. The computer establish-
ing the connection is referred to as the local computer and the computer accepting
the connection is referred to as the remote or host computer. The remote computer
could be a hardwired terminal or a computer in another country. Once connected,
the commands typed in by the user are executed on the remote computer. What the
user sees on their monitor is what is taking place on the remote computer.
Remote login was originally developed for Berkeley UNIX to work with the
UNIX operating system only, but it has since been ported to other operating sys-
tems. Telnet uses the client/server model. That is, a local computer uses a Telnet
client program to establish the connection. The remote or host computer runs the
Telnet server version to accept the connection and sends responses to requests.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is an Internet standard for file transfer. It allows Internet
users to transfer files from remote computers without having to log into them. FTP
establishes a connection to a specified remote computer using FTP remote-host-­
address. Once connected, the remote host will ask the user for identification and a
password. Upon compliance, the user can download or upload files.
9.4 Transport Level Protocols: UDP and TCP 161

Some sites make files available to the public. To access these files, users can
enter anonymous or guest for identification and use his/her Internet address as a
password. This application is called anonymous FTP.
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
HTTP is an advanced file retrieving program that can access distributed and linked
documents on the Web. Messages in HTTP are divided into request and response
categories and work on the client/server principle. The request command is sent
from the client to the server. The response command is sent from the server to client.
HTTP is a stateless protocol which treats each transaction independently. A con-
nection is established between a client and a server for each transaction and is ter-
minated as soon as the transaction is complete.
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
SNMP provides information for monitoring and controlling a network. It is used by
network administrators to detect problems in networks such as issues with routers
and gateways. SNMP is divided to the two parts; SNMP management system and
SNMP agent. The SNMP management system issues commands to the SNMP
agent, and the SNMP agent responds to the commend. The SNMP management
system can mange network devices remotely.
DNS (Domain Name System)
DNS provides a way for users to easily remember websites. Memorizing a word
such as “Yahoo” is much easier than memorizing numbers like “67.195.160.76”;
therefore, the host name of a website is represented by a word rather than an IP
address. However, for a client computer to access a website, send an E-mail, or con-
nect to another computer through the Internet, the client computer must have the IP
address of the destination. To obtain the IP address of the host, the client uses DNS
to consult the DNS server and translate the word to the corresponding IP address.

9.4 Transport Level Protocols: UDP and TCP

The Transport level of the TCP/IP protocol consists of UDP (User Datagram
Protocol) and TCP (Transmission Control Protocol). The UDP protocol performs
an unreliable connection service for receiving and transmitting data. TCP performs
reliable delivery of data by adding a sequence number to each packet. When a
packet reaches its destination, the destination acknowledges the sequence number
of the next packet that it expects to receive.

9.4.1 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

Some User Datagram Protocol (UDP) applications are Trivial File Transfer Protocol
(TFTP) and Remote Call Procedure (RCP). UDP accepts information from the
Application level and adds the source port, destination port, UDP length, and UDP
162 9 Internet Protocols Part I

Application
TFTP,RCP
Application layer Data

UDP Protocol Transport layer UDP Header Data

UDP Datagram

IP Protocol Network Layer IP Header UDP Header Data

IP Datagram

Network
Data Link MAC Frame Header IP Datagram FCS
Interface Card
Layer
Ethernet or Token Ring Format

Transmission Media

Fig. 9.5 UDP operation

0 31
Source Port 16 bits Destination Port 16 bits
Define application, TFTP is port 69 Specifies Destination port on server
UDP Length 16 bits Checksum 16 bits
Define number of bytes in UDP header Checksum use for error detection of UDP
and data header and data
DATA

Fig. 9.6 UDP packet format

checksum. The resulting packet is called a UDP datagram packet with a total header
length of eight bytes. The UDP protocol then passes the UDP packet to the IP. The
IP adds its own header to the packet and passes the packet to the Logical Link
Control (LLC). The LLC generates an 802.2 frame (LLC frame) and passes the
LLC frame to the Medium Access Control (MAC) layer, which adds its own header
and transfers the frame to the physical layer for transmission, as shown in Fig. 9.5.
UDP allows applications to exchange individual packets over a network as data-
grams. A UDP packet sends information to the IP for delivery. There is no guaran-
teed reliability. Figure 9.6 shows the UDP packet format.

9.4.2 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

Most applications prefer to use reliable delivery of information. TCP offers reliable
delivery of information through the Internet and gives users a way to transmit data
in a reliable fashion. In TCP, before data are transmitted to the destination, a logical
connection (not a physical connection) must be established before the information
9.4 Transport Level Protocols: UDP and TCP 163

Application
FTP, Telent, SMTP Application layer Data
HTTP

TCP Protocol Transport layer TCP Header Data

IP Protocol Network layer IP Header TCP Header Data

IP Datagram

Network Data Link MAC IP

TCP Header Data FCS
Interface Card Header Header
Layer
Token Ring Format

Transmission Media

Fig. 9.7 TCP operation

is transmitted. TCP assigns a sequence number to each packet. The receiving end
checks the sequence number of all packets to ensure that they are received. When
the receiving end gets a packet, it responds to the destination by acknowledging the
next sequence number. If the sending node does not receive an acknowledgment
within a given time, it retransmits the previous packet.
Figure 9.7 shows application data passing through TCP. TCP adds a 20-byte
header and passes it to the IP. The IP adds its own header and passes it to a Network
Interface Card (NIC). The NIC adds a MAC header to the information and transmits
the packet. Figure 9.8 shows the TCP packet format.
The following describes the function of each field in a TCP packet:
Sequence number: The number label for each packet sent by the source.
ACK sequence number: Acknowledges the next packet expected to be received
from the source.
Header length: Identifies the length of the header in 32-bit word.
Flag bits: Six bits used for establishing a connection and disconnection.

URG ACK PSH RST SYN FIN

URG: Urgent Pointer is set to “1” when that field contains urgent data.
ACK: ACK bit is set to “1” to represent that the acknowledge number is valid.
PSH: Set to “1” means the receiver should pass the data to an application as soon as
possible.
RST: Resets connection.
SYN: Set to “1” when a node wants to establish a connection.
FIN: Set to “1” means this is the last packet.
164 9 Internet Protocols Part I

Source Port 16 bits Destination Port 16 bits

Identifies source application program Identifies which application program
such as Telnet=23, FTP=21 and on the receiving side receive data
SMTP=25
Sequence Number (32 bits)
A number assigned to the packed by the source

Acknowledgment Sequence Number (32 bits)

Acknowledge the next sequence number of the packet received from the
source
Header Length Reserved Flag Bit Window Size
4bits, Identifies number 6 bits 6 bits 16 bits, size of
of 32 bits word in TCP the buffer source
TCP Checksum 16 bits Urgent Pointer 16 bits
Used for error detection in TCP This field is valid if URG bit in flag is set
header and data field

Data (if any)

Fig. 9.8 TCP packet format

Table 9.2 Commonly used port numbers

Network services Port number/protocol Network services Port number/protocol
Tcpmux 1/tcp netstat 15/tcp
Echo 7/tcp ftp-data 20/tcp
Echo 7/udp ftp 21/tcp
Discard 9/tcp telnet 23/tcp
Discard 9/udp smtp 25/tcp
Daytime 13/tcp http 80/tcp
Daytime 13/udp

Port Numbers
A port number is a logical channel in a communications system. The Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) use port numbers to
demultiplex messages to an application. Each application program has a unique port
number associated with it. TCP/IP port numbers are between 1 and 65,535. The
well-known ports are those from 0 to 1023 which are assigned by the IANA. Registered
ports are those numbers from 1024 through 49,151. Dynamic or private port num-
bers range from 49,152 through 65,535. Table 9.2 shows a few commonly used port
numbers.
9.5 Internet Level Protocols: IP and ARP 165

9.5 Internet Level Protocols: IP and ARP

Internet level protocols consist of the IP, Address Resolution Protocol (ARP),
Reverse ARP, and Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP).
Internet Protocol Version 4(IPv4)
The function of IP is packet delivery with unreliable and connectionless service.
These Internet datagrams are also called IP datagrams. All TCP, UDP, ICMP, and
ARP data are transmitted as IP datagrams. Figure 9.9 shows an IP datagram
packet format.
The following describes the function of each field in an IP packet:
Version: Contains 4-bit IP version number, and the current number, which is
4 (IPV4).
Header length: Represents the number of 32-bit words in the header. If there are no
IP options and padding, header length is 20 bytes (5 words). IP is an unreliable
service so there is no acknowledgment from the destination to the source. There
is also no physical connection between the source and destination. As such, IP
datagrams can arrive at the destination out of order.
Type of services (TOS): TOS is 8 bits. For most purposes, the values of all bits in
TOS are set to zero; meaning that the normal service unused bit is always zero.
Precedence indicates the importance of a datagram (0 is normal, 1 is next impor-
tant). TCP/IP Protocol ignores this field.
31
IP Version Header Length 4 bits Type of the Total Length 16
4 bits (current Define number of 32-bit Service(TOS) 8 bits bits specifies the
version is 4) words in the header specifies how the length of IP
datagram should be datagram including
handled the header in bytes.
Identification Flags 3 bits Fragment Offset 13 bits
16 bits used by currently uses the first 2 bits contains the offset of the fragment
destination to DF and MF bits, DF=1 from the beginning of the original
identify different means do not fragment, datagram
datagram from one MF=1 means More
file fragments are coming
Time-to-Live TTL Protocol 8 bits Header Checksum 16 bits
8 bits specifies specifies the protocol which the 16 bit one’s complement sum of
number of routers data belongs to such as the header
the datagram can TCP, UDP, ICMP
pass
Source IP Address 32 bits
IP address of sending machine
Destination IP address 32 bits
IP address of receiving information
Options if Any Padding
Data

Fig. 9.9 IP datagram packet format

166 9 Internet Protocols Part I

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Precedence D T R Unused

D, T, and R identify the type of transport the datagram requests. D is for Delay,
T is for throughput, and R is for reliability.
D=0 Normal delay
D=1 Low delay
T=0 Normal throughput
T=1 High throughput
R=0 Normal reliability
R=1 High reliability
Total length: This field identifies the total length of the datagram (including the
header) in bytes.
Identification: This is a number created by the sending node. This number is
required when reassembling fragmented messages. The identification field is
used by the destination to put together related datagrams.
Fragmented offset field: The offset field represents the offset of data in multiples
of eight; therefore, the fragment size should be multiples of eight.
Example: 1000 bytes are to be transferred over a network with an MTU of 256
bytes. Assume the header of each datagram is 20 bytes. Find the number of data-
grams if the following information is given:
1. Identification: Can be any number
2. Total Length
3. Frame Offset
4. More Fragment
256–20 = 236 bytes
8 * 30 = 240
8 * 29 = 232. Each fragmented datum contains 232 bytes.

Identification 20 20 20 20 20
Total length 232 + 20 232 + 20 232 + 20 232 + 20 72 + 20
Of each packet
Fragmented offset 0 29 58 87 116
MF 1 1 1 1 0

Example: 5480 bytes are being transferred from the FTP protocol to TCP for
transmission. Show the fragment offset of the IP header:
9.5 Internet Level Protocols: IP and ARP 167

Time-to-Live (TTL): This field indicates the number of gateways or routers a

packet can go through. This value is set by the sender (32 or 64) and is decre-
mented by 1 every time a router handles the datagram. If this field becomes zero,
the datagram is thrown away.
Protocol type: The number in this field identifies the High-Level Protocol that gen-
erates this datagram or allows the destination IP to pass the datagram on to the
required protocol. The following are common protocol numbers (Table 9.3).

Header checksum: This field is the checksum of the header (not the data field). The
checksum is the sum of the one’s complement of the 16-bit word of the header.
Sending address: This is the IP address of the source.
Destination address: This is the IP address of the destination.
Maximum Transfer Unit (MTU)
The Maximum Transfer Unit (MTU) is the largest frame length that can possibly be
sent over a given physical medium as there is a limit on frame size. For example,
802.3’s maximum frame size is 1500 bytes. If the datagram is larger than the MTU,
the datagram is fragmented into several frames, each less than the MTU. Table 9.4
shows MTU values for a few common network types:
168 9 Internet Protocols Part I

Table 9.3 Protocols and Protocol name Protocol number

their numbers
Internet Control Message Protocol 1
(ICMP)
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) 6
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) 17
General Routing Encapsulation (PPTP 47
data over GRE)
Authentication Header (AH) IPSec 51
Encapsulation Security Payload (ESP) 50
IPSec
Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) 8
Gateway-Gateway Protocol (GGP) 3
Host Monitoring Protocol (HMP) 20
Internet Group Management Protocol 88
(IGMP)
MIT Remote Virtual Disk (RVD) 66
OSPF Open Shortest Path First 89
PARC Universal Packet Protocol (PUP) 12
Reliable Datagram Protocol (RDP) 27
Reservation Protocol (RSVP) QoS 46

Table 9.4 Network types Network type MTU (bytes)

with MTU values
4 mbps token ring 4464
16 Mpbs token ring 17,914
FDDI 4352
Ethernet 1500
X.25 576
Point-to-point 296

9.6 IPv4 Addressing

An IPv4 address is a 32-bit number which forms a unique address for each host con-
nected to the Internet. No two hosts can have the same IP address. The assignment
and maintenance of IP addressing is maintained by InterNIC. An IP address is writ-
ten in dotted decimal (Base10) notation and is represented by four 8-bit binary num-
bers with the range of 0 to 255 (4 × 8 = 32 bits).
Binary (Base2)   00000000 to 11111111
Decimal (Base10)    0 to 255
IP addresses are organized into the following five classes:
1. Class A IP Address
The Class A IP address, as seen in Fig. 9.10, is used for organizations with a large
number of users connected to the Internet and a small number of networks.
9.6 IPv4 Addressing 169

7 bits 24 bits
0 NET ID HOST ID

Fig. 9.10 Class A IP address format

The first most significant bit of a Class A IP address is zero.

The Network ID is 7 bits.
The Host ID is 24 bits.
The range of a Network ID is from 0 to 127. The numbers 0 and 127 are reserved.
The range of Class A addresses is from 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 in dotted decimal.
2. Class B IP Address
A Class B address is used for medium-sized networks having more than 255
hosts, as shown in Fig. 9.11.
The first two most significant bits of a Class B address are 1 and 0.
The Network ID is 14 bits.
The Host ID is 16 bits.
With a Class B address we can have 214 (16,384) networks, and each network can
have 216 (65,536) hosts or nodes.
The range of a Class B Network ID is from 128.0. to 191.255.

3. Class C IP Address
A Class C address, as seen in Fig. 9.12 is used for networks with a small number
of hosts (those networks whose number of hosts does not exceed 255).
The first 3 bits of a Class C address are 1, 1, and 0.
Twenty-one bits are used for Network ID, and 8 bits are used for the Host ID.
A Class C IP address can handle 221 networks, where each network can have 256
host IDs.
The range of a Class C Network ID is from: The IP address of 192.0.2.1 was
never assigned and used for test purposes only.
4. Class D IP Address
Class D address is reserved for multicasting. In multicasting, a packet is sent to
a group of hosts.
The range of a Class D Network ID is from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255. The
IP address format for Class D addresses can be seen in Fig. 9.13.
5. Class E IP Address
Reserved for research, the range of a Class E addresses is from 240.0.0.0 to
247.255.255.255.
170 9 Internet Protocols Part I

14 bits 16 bits
1 0 NET ID HOST ID

Fig. 9.11 Class B IP address format

21 bits 8 bits
1 1 0 NET ID HOST ID

Fig. 9.12 Class C IP address format

28 bits
1 1 1 0 MULTICAST GROUP ID

Fig. 9.13 Class D IP address format

9.6.1 Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) or Classless

IPV4 Address

In a classless IP address, the Network Prefix is flexible represented by the follow-

ing form,

X .Y .Y .Z / n

where n defines the number of bits for the Network Prefix. For example, the Class
C IP address 192.10.20.1 uses 24 bits for the prefix and 8 bits for the host ID, which
means that it can generate 256 IP addresses. This Class C IP address can be used as
a CIDR address based on the number of Host IDs needed to determine prefix bits. If
n = 16, then the IP address 192.10.10.1/16 has 16 bits for the network prefix and 16
bits for the host ID. Therefore, it can generate 216 IP addresses where the starting
address is 192.10.0.0/16 and the ending address is 192.10.255.255.
Assume a company needs 1000 IP addresses and only Class C addresses are
available. This company is only able to use Class C addresses as classless addresses
to assign the IPs to the interfaces.
CIDR Address Assignments
The IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority) allocates a block of IP address to
each ISP (Internet Service Provider). The ISP then distributes these IP addresses to
their customers.
Assume a Network Information center allocates the block IP address
206.0.64.0/18 to Comcast. Comcast will have 232–18 = 214 IP addresses. If an organi-
zation requires 800 IP addresses, then Comcast will give the following addresses to
the organization.
210 = 1024 therefore, comcast allocates 10 bits of its host ID to this
organization.
9.6 IPv4 Addressing 171

The organization address starts at 206.0.01000000.00000000 = 206.0.64.0/22

and ends at 206.0.01000011.11111111 = 206.0.67.
Subnetting and Classless Inter Domain Routing (CIDR)
In a classless IP address, the leading bits of the Host ID are used for Subnetting. The
network prefix and new subnetting make the Extended network prefix.
Example 9.1 The classless IP address 169.194.168.82/27 is a host address.

(a) Find the number of addresses in the network.

(b) What are the starting and ending addresses?
a. Since the Prefix is 27 bits and 32–27 = 5, there are 25 Host ID addresses.
The starting address is:

168.194.168.82 / 27 = 10100111.11000010.10100000.01010010

where the least significant 5 bits are for the Host ID.
b. The starting address is: 10100111.11000010.10100000.01000000.
The last address is 10100111.11000010.10100000.01011111.
Example 9.2 An organization is granted IP addresses 15.24.74.0/24. The organiza-
tion has three networks. Network A with 120 addresses, Network B with 60
addresses, and Network C with 32 addresses. Assign addresses to each network.
The size of the Host ID is 32–24 = 8 bits. So, the total number of addresses avail-
able for the organization is 28 = 256.
Network A requires 120 addresses that use 7 bits for the host ID, where 27 = 128
addresses.
Network A’s IP addresses start at 00001111.00011000.01001010.00000000/25.
The ending address for Network A is 00001111.00011000.0100101
0.01111111/25.
Network B requires 60 addresses, so it requires 6 bits, where 26 = 64 addresses.
The starting address of Network B is the next address after the ending address of
Network A.
The starting address of Network B is 00001111.00011000.0100101
0.10000000/26.
The ending address of Network B is 00001111.00011000.01001010.10111111/26
.
Network C requires 32 addresses, and it uses 5 bits for the Host ID. The starting
address of Network C is the next address after the ending address of network B.
The starting address of Network C is 00001111.00011000.0100101
0.11000000/27.
The ending address of Network C is 0­ 0001111.00011000.01001010.11011111/27.
172 9 Internet Protocols Part I

Loopback IP Address
The last address of each class is used as a loopback address for testing. The loop-
back address is used on a computer to communicate with another process on the
same computer.
The loopback addresses are:
Class A 127.0.0.1
Class B 191.255.0.0
Class C 223.255.255.0
Network Addresses
The host portion of network address is set to zero. For example, 129.49.0.0 is a
network address, not a node address. No node is assigned to 0.0.
Broadcast Addresses
The host portion is set to all ‘1’s in a broadcast. A packet with a broadcast address
is sent to every node in the network. For example, address 129.49.255.255 is a
broadcast address.
Private IP Addresses
The following IP addresses are reserved for ‘private’ networks
10.0.0.0   to 10.255.255.255
172.16.0.0  to 172.31.255.255
192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
169.254.0.0 to 169.254.255.255.

9.7 Assigning IP Addresses to a Network

Most universities will have networks connected to the Internet, as shown in Fig. 9.14.
The network administrator must contact InterNIC and obtain an IP address for the
University. The InterNIC assigns a Class B address with a network ID of 129.47 (the
first two bytes of the IP address). From these two bytes the network administrator
must decide how many bits are needed for each subnetwork. This is determined by
analyzing the growth of the network and the future needs of the university. In this
example, we use one byte to represent our sub network address.

2 bytes 1 byte 1 byte

129.47 Sub ID Host ID

The subnetwork ID is 8 bits, implying that we can have 256 networks in the uni-
versity with 255 nodes each. Each subnet ID is prefixed with the network ID. The
following subnet IDs are assigned to each department as follows:
9.7 Assigning IP Addresses to a Network 173

Fig. 9.14 A network with three LANs and one router

Subnet 1 (129.47.1.x) to the Computer Science Department.

Subnet 2 (129.47.2.x) to the Mathematics Department.
Subnet 3 (129.47.3.x) to the Biology Department.
Subnet 4 (129.47.4.x) to the link connected to the Internet.
Subnets 5 to 255 are unused and reserved for future use.
The network ID for the CS dept. is 129.47.1.0.
The network ID for the Math department is 129.47.2.0.
The network ID for the Bio department is 129.47.3.0.
In each subnet, there are 8 bits for host ID, meaning hosts can be assigned an
address ending in the range 1–254.
IP addresses for the hosts on the CS department subnet are:
Node A’s IP address: 129.47.1.1.
Node B’s IP address: 129.47.1.2.
IP addresses for the hosts on the Math department subnet are:
Node C’s IP address 129.47.2.1.
Node B’s IP address 129.47.2.2.
IP addresses for the hosts on the Bio department subnet are:
Node A’s IP address: 129.47.3.1.
Node B’s IP address: 129.47.3.2.
In this example, the router has four ports, and each requires an IP address. Port
R0, connected to CS Department, needs an IP on the same subnet, which would be
129.47.1.3. Similarly, port R1 is 129.47.4.1, as it is on the internet link subnet, and
ports R2 and R3 are 129.47.3.3 and 129.47.2.3, respectively.
174 9 Internet Protocols Part I

Binary Network ID Sub ID Host ID

2 bytes 1 byte 1 byte

11111111 11111111 11111111 00000000

Dotted
Decimal 255 . 255 . 255 . 0
Fig. 9.15 Address mask

Address Mask
Address masks are used to define how many bits of an IP address are allocated for
the host ID. It is used to separate the network address from a host ID. In the above
example, the least significant byte is used for a host ID, as shown in Fig. 9.15.

9.8 TCP Connection and Disconnection

In a TCP Connection, the client first establishes a connection with the server before
any information is transmitted. This connection process, commonly referred to as
TCP three-way handshaking, is shown below in Fig. 9.16. The following steps
describe the TCP connection set up.
1. The client sends a SYN packet to the server by setting the SYN flag to one and
selecting a sequence number in TCP packet format (assume the sequence num-
ber is X).
2. The server responds to the Client by setting the SYN bit to 1, the ACK bit to 1,
the acknowledge field to X + 1, and the sequence number to Y (sequence number
of server). This packet is called a SYN-ACK packet.
3. The client then transmits the ACK packet with the ACK bit set to one, the
Sequence number set to X + 1, and the ACK number (ACKnum) set to Y + 1.
4. Now that the connection has been established, the client sends 200 bytes of data
to the server with sequence number X + 1, ACKnum Y + 1, and the ACK bit
set to 1.
5. The server responds by sending 100 bytes of data back to the client, with the
ACK bit set to 1 and the ACKnum set to X + 201. The ACKnum is the sum of the
sequence number and the number of bytes received.
6. The client then responds with the ACK bit set to one, the sequence number
X + 201, and the ACKNum Y + 101.

TCP Disconnection When the source sends the last packet to the destination, the
source sets FIN to 1 to inform the destination that this is the last packet. The destina-
tion acknowledges the last packet and sets the FIN to 1 to inform the source that the
destination does not have any packet to send. The source sends a packet with RS set
9.9 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) 175

Fig. 9.16 TCP connection diagram

Fig. 9.17 Disconnecting a Source Destination

TCP connection between
two hosts
Send FIN
seq = x FIN = 1
seq = x

send ACK x+1

send FIN seq = y

Send ACK y +1
RST=1 Seq X+1

RST=1 ACK X+2

to 1 and the destination responds to the source with a packet whose RS bit is set to 1.
Figure 9.17 shows the disconnection process.

9.9 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

The ARP command is used to display and modify entries in the Address Resolution
Protocol (ARP) cache. The ARP cache contains the IP addresses and their resolved
Ethernet or Token Ring physical addresses. Figure 9.18 shows a network with four
computers, where IPi represents the IP address and MACi represents the MAC
176 9 Internet Protocols Part I

Fig. 9.18 Network with

4 PCs

address of each PC. In order for PC1 to send a packet to PC4, PC1 requires MAC4.
If the ARP cache of PC1 contains MAC4, then PC1 will be able to send a packet to
PC4. If PC1 does not have MAC4 in its ARP cache, then PC1 will send an ARP
command to request MAC4 of PC4. If PC1 wants to send a packet outside of the
network, then it will send the packet to the default gateway.
ARP Commands
(a) Displays all ARP command options:
>arp
(b) Displays the ARP cache tables for all interfaces:
>arp –a
(c) Displays the ARP cache table for the interface that is assigned the IP address
10.0.0.99:
>arp -a -N 10.0.0.99
(d) Delete the IP address and corresponding MAC address from the ARP cache table:
>arp –d Internet address
a. Adding Internet address and MAC address to ARP cache table:
>arp –s Internet Address MAC address
Intet_address: IP address represented by dotted decimal such as
10.12.10.23
ether_addr: MAC address of the NIC represented in hexadecimal such as
cd-34-35-6f-ab-45
b. Clear ARP cache table:
>arp –d *
ARP Packet Format
Figure 9.19 shows the ARP packet format. The following describes the function of
each field in an ARP packet format:
9.9 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) 177

0 15
Hardware Type 16 bits
Protocol Type 16 bits
HLEN Hardware address Length 8 bits PLEN IP address Length 8 bits
Operation Code 16 bits
ARP Request =1 ARP Response =2
RARP Request=3 RARP response =4
Sender Hardware Address
48 bits
Sender IP Address
32 bits
Target Hardware Address
48 bits
Target IP Address
32 bits

Fig. 9.19 ARP packet format

Hardware Type

Hardware type identifies the type of hardware interface and following are
some of the hardware types:

Type Description
1 Ethernet
2 IEEE802.3
3 X.25
4 Token ring

Protocol type Protocol type identifies the type of protocol the sending device is
using. For example: Protocol type 0800H is used for IP.

HELN Hardware Address Length (HELN) in bytes (means 6*8 = 48 bits is the size
of the hardware address).

PLEN Length of IP address.

Operation code Indicates whether the datagram is an ARP request or APR

response.
1 = ARP request
2 = ARP response
3 = RARP request
4 = RARP response.
178 9 Internet Protocols Part I

9.10 Demultiplexing Information

Figure 9.20 illustrates the general block diagram of Internet hardware and proto-
cols. The packets (in the form of electrical signals) come to the physical layer of the
Network Interface Card. The physical layer changes the signal to bits and passes it
to the MAC sublayer. The MAC sublayer takes off its header (preamble, SFD, SA
and DA) and passes it to the LLC (Logical Link Control) sublayer, which checks the
type field. If the type field is 0800H the packet is an IPv4 datagram and is passed to IP.
For IPv6, the type field would be 86DDH (hexadecimal). IP looks at the 8-bit
protocol field, removes its header, and passes the data to a protocol depending on
the protocol number (TCP = 6, UDP = 17, ICMP = 1 and IGMP = 6). Assuming the
data is passed to TCP, TCP will look at the port number and pass it to the applica-
tion layer.

9.11 Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6)

Due to the growth of the Internet and the address limitations of IPv4, the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) approved IPv6 in 1995. The limitations that led to
Internet Protocol Version 6 are summarized in the next paragraph.
The IPv4 address size is 32 bits and can connect up to 232, or 4 billion, users to
the Internet. The IPv4 address field is divided into two parts: the network address
(Network ID) and host address (Host ID). Once a network number is assigned to an
organization, the organization might not use all host IDs in the host ID field, mean-
ing that some IPv4 addresses may not be used. Also, the number of networks

Application Application

TCP UDP

RARP IP ARP

IP TCP if Any Information

MAC Header IP TCP Interface FCS

Network Interface Card

Fig. 9.20 Demultiplexing of information

9.11 Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) 179

connected to the exterior gateway increases rapidly which causes the routing table
to become too large which ultimately increases the time it takes to search through
the table.
The IPv6 protocol will reduce the size of the routing table in exterior gateways
because IPv6 uses a hierarchical scheme to define an IP address. IPv6 has the fol-
lowing features:
• Expanded addressing
• Simplified header format
• Support extension
• Flow labeling
• Authentication and privacy
The IETF developed IPV6 and published the IPV6 document RFC 2460 in 1994.
IPv6 has the following features:
1. Larger address space.
An IPV6 address is 128 bits which gives IPv6 an address range of 2128, which is
equivalent to
340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,770,000,000 addresses or
340 × 1036, as compared to the address space of IPV4, which results in only 232,
or 4294967296, IPV4 addresses.
2. IPV6 contains less headers than IPV4.
Figure 9.21 compares the IPV4 packet format with IPV6.
IPV6 Header Explanation
Traffic class: Identifies different priorities.
Flow label: Used by the source to label the packets that require special handling by
the routers such as real time service.
3. Hierarchical addressing (prefix).
IPv6 uses 16 bits to represent the organization address.
4. Auto configuration.
(a) Stateless (RFC2462): The host can automatically configure its IPv6 address
based on the prefix advertised by router.
(b) Stateful (DHCPv6): A DHCP server assigns an IPv6 address to the host.
5. Supports authentication and encryption.
IPSec is mandatory for IPV6, but it is optional for IPV4.
6. Transition techniques to IPv4.
(a) Dual Stack: A router that can accept and transmit IPv6 and IPV4 packets is
called a Dual Stack router, as shown in Fig. 9.22.
(b) Tunneling: Encapsulating IPv4 inside IPV6, as shown in Fig. 9.23.
180 9 Internet Protocols Part I

Fig. 9.21 IPV6 and IPV4 Packet formats

Fig. 9.22 Dual

Stack IPV6

IPV6
Dual stack Internet
Router
IPV6 & IPV4
Traffics
Server

IPV4
Internet

7. IPV6 does not require NAT (Network Address Translation).

8. Support for multihoming.
Multihoming allows an organization’s network to be connected to two or more
Internet Service Providers to offer high reliability.
9.12 IPV6 Address Architecture 181

Fig. 9.23 IPV4 encapsulation

9.12 IPV6 Address Architecture

The IPv6 address is 128 bits. It is divided into eight fields of 16 bits. Each field is
represented in hexadecimal form:

Y :Y :Y :Y :Y :Y :Y :Y

Y is 4 digits in hexadecimal or 16 bits in binary.

Example 9.3
FE45:036A:00DF:4563:879E: 0008:0005:1232
The leading zero or zeroes of each field can be dropped; the above IPv6 address
can be represented by
FE45:36A:DF:4563:8:5:1232
If an IPv6 address contains two or more contiguous fields of all zeros, these con-
tiguous fields can be represented by a double colon; only one double colon in each
address is allowed.
Example 9.4
FE45:436A:12DF:4563:879E: 8:0000:00000:1232 can be represented by
FE45:436A:12DF:4563:879E: 8::1232.
Example 9.5
The IPV6 address FE45:436A:0000:4563:879E:8:0000:00000:1232 can be repre-
sented by
FE45:436A:0:4563:879E: 8::1232.
IANA (Internet Assigned Number Authority) is responsible for global assign-
ment of IP addresses. IPv6 addresses are generally assigned in a hierarchical manner.
IANA assigns a block of IPV6 addresses to the Regional Internet Register (RIR),
then the RIR assigns a block of address to an ISP and the ISP assigns IPV6 addresses
to organizations and users. The following are the list of Regional Internet
Register (RIR).
182 9 Internet Protocols Part I

• AfriNIC: African Network Information Centre for Africa

• ARIN: American Registry for Internet Numbers for the United States, Canada,
Caribbean region, and Antarctica
• APNIC: Asia-­Pacific Network Information Centre for Asia, Australia, and New
Zealand.
• LACNIC: Latin America and Caribbean Network Information Center
• RIPE NCC: Réseaux IP Européens Network Coordination Centre for Europe,
Russia, the Middle East, and Central Asia

9.13 IPV6 Address Format

The IPV6 address is 128 bits and Fig. 9.24 shows the IPV6 address format.
(RIR) Regional Internet Registry: 12 bits are assigned to a regional Internet
Register.
(ISP) Internet Service Provider: The 20-bit ID of the ISP.
SITE: 16 bits used to identify an organization network.
Subnet: 16 bits used for organization network subnet.
The combination of RIR, ISP, and SITE is called the global prefix and it is 48
bits, as shown in Fig. 9.25.

9.14 IPV6 Address Types

IPV6 offers the following types of addresses.

1. Unicast address
2. Multicast address
3. Loopback address

Fig. 9.24 Format of IPV6

Fig. 9.25 IPV6 general format

9.14 IPV6 Address Types 183

4. Anycast address
5. No broadcast address
Unicast: The unicast address defines addresses of a single interface thatmay have
multiple IPv6 addresses. IPV6 unicast types are:
(a) Link-local address
(b) Site-local unicast address
(c) Global unicast address
Link-local address: A link local address is used by a node to communicate with
other nodes that are on the same link. A router will not pass a link-local address
to other links. Link-local addresses are identified by the prefix FE80::/10. A host
will automatically configure its own local-link address. Figure 9.26 shows the
link-local address format.

Interface ID: The 64-bit Interface ID can be configured by:

(a) EUI-64 (Extended Unique Identifier) bits using 48-bit MAC address
(b) Assign by DHCP
(c) Cryptography Generated Address
EUI-64: The 64-bit Extended Unique Identifier (EUI-64) was defined by the
IEEE. It is generated by inserting the 16-bit value, 0xFFFE, into the middle of
the unique 48-bit MAC address of the Network Interface Card (NIC) and invert-
ing the MAC address’s seventh bit from the left known as the universal/local bit.
The resulting 64-bit Interface ID is shown in Fig. 9.27.

Example The MAC address of an NIC is 00 FE 01 12 AB CD. By inserting FFFE

into the middle of the MAC address and changing the U bit to one, the resulting
64-bit Interface ID is 02 FE 01 FF FE 12 AB CD.

Site-Local Unicast Address

This type of address is used for local communication between nodes within a net-
work and is not routable across the Internet. Figure 9.28 shows the format of a site
local address with the prefix FEC0::/10.
Global Unicast Address
The global unicast address, as shown in Fig. 9.29, is equivalent to an IPV4 address
and is used for global communication between nodes.

Fig. 9.26 IPV6 link-local format

184 9 Internet Protocols Part I

Fig. 9.27 EUI-64 Interface ID

Fig. 9.28 IPV6 site-local unicast format

Fig. 9.29 Global unicast address format

Subnet ID: Defines the subnetwork ID within a site.

The prefix for a global unicast is 001. The IANA assigns a block of IPV6 unicast
addresses to the following Regional Internet Registry (RIR).
• AfriNIC: African Network Information Centre for Africa.
• ARIN: American Registry for Internet Numbers for the United States, Canada,
• Caribbean region, and Antarctica.
• APNIC: Asia-­Pacific Network Information Centre for Asia, Australia, and New
Zealand.
• LACNIC: Latin America and Caribbean Network Information Center.
• RIPE NCC: Réseaux IP Européens Network Coordination Centre for Europe,
Russia, and the Middle East, and Central Asia.
9.14 IPV6 Address Types 185

Fig. 9.30 IPV6 multicast format

IPv6 Multicast Address

IPV6 multicast is used for one-to-many delivery to all interfaces. Figure 9.30 shows
the format of an IPv6 ulticast address. An IPV6 multicast address has the prefix
FF00::/8.
Lifetime field: This field is represented by XXXT, where the XXX bits are unde-
fined and T bit =1 means that the multicast address is temporary, and T = 0 means
that the multicast address is permanent.
Scope field: Defines types of address:

Scope value Types

0001 Interface local
0010 Link–local
0011 Subnet-local
0100 Admin local
0101 Site- local
1000 Organization local
1110 Global

Interface local: Used for transmission within a node.

Link-local multicast: Used for a local link and will not be forwarded to other links
by devices on the network.
Site-local multicast: Used on single site.
Organization multicast address: This type of address is used within an
organization.
Global multicast address: This type of address is used on the Internet and is simi-
lar to a global unicast address. Some common uses of multicast addresses are:

FF02::1 All nodes in local-link

FF02::2 All routers on the local-link
FF05::2 All routers site-local
FF02::1:2 All DHCP agents link-local
FF05::1:3 All DHCP server site-local
FF05::FB DNSv6

Solicited Multicast Address

Every node has a unicast address and special multicast address called the solicited mul-
ticast address. The solicited multicast address of a node is represented by
FF02:0:0.0.0:1:FFXX.XXX, where XX.XXXX is the 24-bit unicast address of the node.
186 9 Internet Protocols Part I

Fig. 9.31 Node-solicited multicast address generation

Example If the unicast address of a node is 2001.2400:0:0.2500:6A:2456:2CBA,

then the solicited multicast address of the node will be FF02:0.0.0.1:FF56:2CBA.
Figure 9.31 shows node-solicited multicast address generation. The node-­
solicited address is used by network discovery protocol to request link layer address
and Duplicate Address Detection (DAD).
Multicast Address for Routing Protocols

The following are some of the IPV6 multicast addresses for routing protocols:

FF02::5 OSPFv3 (OSPF IPv6) all routers

FF02::6 OSPFv3 designated routers
FF02::9 RIPng routers

Multicast Ethernet Address

An Ethernet address is 48 bits, and an Ethernet multicast address for IPV6 is repre-
sented by
33-33-XX-XX-XX-XX, where XX-XX-XX-XX are the least significant bytes of
the IPV6 multicast address.
Example Convert the following IPV6 multicast address to a multicast Ethernet
address.
Replacing xx-xx-xx-xx with FF-68-12-CB results in 33-33- FF-68-12-CB.
1. Loopback address
The address 0:0:0:0:0:0:1 is the IPV6 loopback address and is equivalent to the
IPv4 127.0.0.1.
2. Anycast
An anycast packet is delivered to the nearest single interface, which is closest in
terms of routing distance. The anycast address can be used by a client to request an
IPV6 address from a server. Table 9.5 shows the prefix of an anycast address.
9.16 IPv6 Address Configuration 187

Table 9.5 IPV6 address prefix and types

Address type Binary prefix IPV6 notation
Unspecified 0000000……000  128 bits ::/128
Loopback 000000…….001  128 bits ::1/128
Link-local unicast 1111 1110 10 FF80::/10
Unique unicast local 1111 110 FC00::/7
Multicast 1111 1111 FF00::/8
Global unicast 001 2000::/3

9.15 IPv6 Addresses as URLs

IPv6 addresses can also be referenced in URLs (Uniform Resource Locator) by

placing the IPV6 address in brackets.
http://[FEC0::CC1E:2412:1111:2222:3333]/index.htm

9.16 IPv6 Address Configuration

IPV6 addresses can be assigned to any host using Stateless or DHCPv6 Address
Configuration.
Stateless Address Configuration
A node can automatically generate its IPv6 address without intervention or a DHCP
Server by using one of the following methods to receive the 64-bit IPv6 prefix from
a router.
A. Router advertisement: Router advertises its IPv6 on the link.
B. A node sends a Neighbor Discovery Packet (NDP) to all nodes on the link.
C. A node sends a solicitation request to the router, and the router responds with
the request.
A node uses the IPv6 prefix to generate an IPV6 address through the follow-
ing steps.
DHCPv6 (Stateful)
The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol IPv6 (DHCPv6) server is used for state-
ful IPv6 configuration. DHCPv6 messages are:
DHCPv6 Solicit: This is an IP multicast message. The DHCPV6 of a client sends a
DHCPv6 solicit message to FF02::1:2, which is the multicast address for all
DHCPv6 (relays and servers). If received by a relay, the relay forwards the mes-
sage to FF05::1:3, the multicast address of DHCPv6 servers.
DHCPv6 Advertise: This is a unicast message sent in response to a DHCPv6
Solicit. A DHCPv6 server will respond directly to the soliciting client if on the
same link or through the relay agent if the DHCPv6 Solicit was forwarded by
a relay.
188 9 Internet Protocols Part I

DHCPv6 Request: After the client has located the DHCPv6 server, the DHCPv6
request (unicast message) is sent to request an IPV6 address from DHCPv6. The
request must be forwarded by a relay if the server is not on the same link as
the client.
DHCPv6 Reply: An IP unicast message sent in response to a DHCPv6 request
which can be sent directly to the client or through a relay.
DHCPv6 Release: An IP unicast sent by the client to the server, informing the
server of resources that are being released.
DHCPv6 Reconfigure: The DHCPv6 may send IP unicast or multicast messages to
the client/clients for a new configuration and the client/clients must respond to
the DHCPv6 request.

9.17 ICMPv6 and Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP)

ICMPv6 is a combination of ICMP and ARP with some additional functions. The
functions of ICMPv6 are to generate error messages and information messages.
ICMPv6 Error Messages
(a) Packet is too large
(b) Path MTU discovery
(c) Destination unreachable
(d) Time exceeded
ICMPv6 Information Messages
(a) Ping command
(b) Echo request
(c) Echo response
(d) Neighbor Discovery Protocol
(e) Route Solicitation
(f) Route advertisement
(g) Neighbor solicitation
(h) Neighbor advertisement
(i) Multicast Listener Discovery
(j) Multicast listener query
(k) Multicast listener response
(l) Multicast listener done
Neighbor Discovery Protocol
Neighbor discovery protocol is used for:
1. Stateless Address configuration. The node solicits the router for the IPV6 prefix
and the address of the default gateway.
2. Duplicate Address Detection (DAD).
Summary 189

3. Request the link layer address of neighbors (perform ARP function).

4. Determining if neighbors are reachable.
IPV6 Client Generation
On system startup, each node automatically generates a link-­local address for its
IPv6-enabled interface. The node uses NDP protocol to request an IPV6 prefix from
the router (64 bits) and uses EUI-64 to generate an IPV6 address for its interface.

Summary

• The Internet is a collection of networks connected through gateways and routers.

• The Internet uses a set of protocols for communications called Transmission
Control Protocol and Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
• Some applications used by the Internet are E-mail, Telnet, File Transfer protocol
(FTP), and Hyper Text Transfer protocol (HTTP).
• An e-mail address is made up of a user name and mail server, such as Elahia1@
southernctedu.
• Telnet is one of the most useful Internet applications. It enables one computer to
remote login to another computer.
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a protocol used for transferring a file from/to a
remote computer without logging into the remote computer.
• Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an advanced file retrieval protocol that
can access distributed documents on the web.
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides reliable service between hosts.
• Internet Protocol (IP) provides packet delivery between the hosts.
• Internet Address Version 4 (IPv4) is 32 bits, where each byte is represented by a
decimal number. They are divided into classes A, B, C, D and E.
• Class A IP address range is from 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255. The Network IDs of 0
and 127 are reserved.
• The range of Class B IP address is from 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255.
• The range of Class C IP address is from 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.
• The Class D IP addresses are reserved for multicasting and Class E IP addresses
are reserved for future use.
• Domain Name System, or DNS, is a distributed database containing domain
names and corresponding IP addresses. Top domain names are: edu, gov, com,
mil, org, net, aero, coop, biz, name, and int.
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP) provides unreliable service between hosts.
Applications of UDP are Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) and Remote
Procedure Call (RCP).
• The TCP header is 20 bytes and the IP header is 20 bytes.
• IPv6 or IP next generation address size is 128 bits.
190 9 Internet Protocols Part I

Key Terms

Address mask Maximum Transfer Unit (MTU)

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) Multicast address
Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA) Network address
Anonymous FTP NSFNET
ARPANET Port number
Broadcast address Remote login
Domain name Telnet
Internet Protocol (IP) Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPV6) Unicast address
Loopback address User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

Review Questions

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The Internet is a collection of _________.
(a) servers
(b) applications
(c) networks
(d) routers
2. The Internet uses the _________ protocol.
(a) X.25
(b) NWLink
(c) TCP/IP
(d) Window NT
3. Which one is not an application of the Internet?
(a) E-mail
(b) FTP
(c) WWW
(d) Antivirus software
4. ____________ provides packet delivery between networks.
(a) IP
(b) TCP
(c) X.25
(d) ARP
Review Questions 191

5. The transport layer of TCP/IP consists of UDP and ____________.

(a) TCP
(b) IP
(c) a and b
(d) ICMP
6. ___________ performs reliable delivery of data.
(a) IP
(b) UDP
(c) TCP
(d) RARP
7. Which organization ratifies standards for the Internet?
(a) IEEE
(b) ITU
(c) IETF
(d) EIA
8. What type of switching is used in the Internet?
(a) Virtual circuit
(b) Packet switching
(c) Circuit switching
(d) Message switching
9. Which protocol is used for unreliable communication?
(a) TCP
(b) UDP
(c) IP
(d) ARP
10. Telnet uses which of the following protocols for remote login:
(a) UDP
(b) TCP
(c) IP
(d) FTP
11. Which protocol is used by a modem to connect a computer to the Internet?
(a) TCP/IP
(b) UDP
(c) PPP
(d) ARP
192 9 Internet Protocols Part I

12. Telnet enables a user to_______.

(a) transfer a file
(b) send E-mail
(c) remote login
(d) transfer mail
13. How many bits are in an IPv4 address?
(a) 24 bits
(b) 32 bits
(c) 48 bits
(d) 128 bits
14. What is the application of a loopback address?
(a) Reserved by Internet authority
(b) Used for testing
(c) Used for broadcast address
(d) Used for unicast
15. Which of the following addresses is a Class C broadcast address?
(a) 191.205.205.255
(b) 191.205.205.205
(c) 191.205.205.00
(d) 192.205.255.2555
16. What protocol is used for the World Wide Web?
(a) TCP/IP
(b) HTPP
(c) UDP
(d) ARP
17. TCP is used for______.
(a) reliable communication
(b) unreliable communication
(c) connection oriented communication
(d) none of the above
18. What is the function of the source and destination port in a TCP header?
(a) It is used to identify the source and destination host on the network.
(b) It is used to identify the application source protocol and application of des-
tination protocol.
(c) It is used to identify source protocol and destination protocol.
(d) None of the above.
Review Questions 193

19. What is the function of Window size field in a TCP header?

(a) The source reports its buffer size to the destination.
(b) The source reports the number of packets received from the destination.
(c) The source reports the size of its cache memory to the destination.
(d) The source reports an error in the packet.
20. What is the function of Time-to-Live (TTL) in a TCP header?
(a) It holds time of the day.
(b) It defines the number of routers a datagram can pass.
(c) It defines transmission time of a datagram between the source and
destination.
(d) It defines the number of words in a packet.
21. Which protocol is used to set up a connection between source and destination?
(a) UDP
(b) TCP
(c) IP
(d) ARP
22. How many bits is IPv6?
(a) 32bits
(b) 48 bits
(c) 64 bits
(d) 128 bits
23. The Internet routes a datagram from one gateway to another based on the data-
gram _____.
(a) IP address
(b) MAC address
(c) Port address
(d) None of the above
24. What is the function of an IP subnet mask?
(a) IP subnet mask represents bits in the network portion of IP address.
(b) IP subnet represents the bits in host portion of IP address.
(c) a&b
(d) None of the above

Short Answer Questions

1. What is the markup language used to create files for the WWW?
2. What is the protocol used by the WWW to transfer a file?
3. What is the protocol used to access the internet by a modem?
4. List the DNS indicators.
5. List the protocols in the transport level.
194 9 Internet Protocols Part I

6. List the protocols in the Internet level.

7. What is the size of an IPV4 address?
8. What is the size of an IP header?
9. Explain the function of IP.
10. Explain the function of TCP.
11. What is the size of a TCP header?
12. What is the function of the TTL field in an IP header?
13. What is the size of a UDP header?
14. List the IP address classes.
15. If an organization uses the third byte of an IP address for a sub-net, how many
sub-nets can be assigned to the Class B address?
16. What is the name of the organization applied to for IP addresses?
17. What is the function of ARP?
18. What is the newest version of IP?
19. What is the size of an IPv6 address?
20. Convert the following IP address from hexadecimal to dotted decimal represen-
tation, and find the class type of each IP address.
(a) 46EF3A94
(b) 23446FEC
21. List internet applications.
22. The following E-mail address is given; identify the username and mail server
address:
(a) [email protected]
23. List two application protocols for UDP.
24. List three application protocols for TCP.
25. Show the TCP/IP Reference Model.
26. What is the function of ICMP?
27. What does DNS stand for? Describe its function.
28. Explain the function of telnet.
29. What is a port number?
30. What is an MTU?
31. Identify the class of the following IP addresses:
(a) 129.234.12.08
(b) 117.243.56.89
(c) 92.92.92.9
32. How many bits is IPv6?
33. Assume the Internet Network Information Center assigns you a Class B IP
address 172.200.0.0.
(a) How many bits do you use from the host ID for a 128 subnet ID?
(b) How many host IDs can be generated for each subnet ID?
(c) What is the subnet Mask ID?
Review Questions 195

34. There are two computers, A and B, with IP addresses of 174.20.45.37 and 174.
20.67.45.
If these two computers have a subnet mask ID of 255.255.0.0, can you deter-
mine if these two computers are in the same network?
35. The following figure shows the network of an organization. As a network
administrator:
(a) Assign an IP address to each network and interface using a Class B address.
(b) Show the routing table for each router.
Chapter 10
Internet Protocols Part II and MPLS

Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
• Explain the application of DNS.
• List DNS operations.
• List top level DNS domains.
• Define the components of DHCP.
• Explain the operation of DHCP.
• Explain the operation of HTTP.
• Define the types of HTTP packets.
• Explain Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP).
• List several routing protocols.
• Explain link characteristics.
• List network diagnostic commands.
• Explain the operation of MPLS.
• List the applications of IP multicasting.
• Able to write simple socket program.

10.1 Domain Name System (DNS)

Introduction
Memorizing a word is much easier than memorizing a long number, such as seen
when trying to remember the word “Yahoo” vs the number “67.195.160.76”.
Therefore, computer hostnames are frequently represented by a word rather than an
IP address. In order for a client computer to access a website, send an email, or con-
nect to another computer through the Internet, the client computer must have the IP
address of the destination, but this may not be known to the user. To accomplish this,

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 197
A. Elahi, A. Cushman, Computer Networks,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42018-4_10
198 10 Internet Protocols Part II and MPLS

Root
Country

TLD
aero coop pro biz name com edu net gov org int mil jp uk ca

museum scsu

cs math

Fig. 10.1 DNS top level domain names

the client computer uses domain name system (DNS) to obtain resolve a known
hostname to the IP address of the host. The RFC 881, 882, and 883, which have
been published by IETF, explain DNS operation.
DNS is a distributed database containing information about domain names and
their corresponding IP addresses. DNS uses a tree hierarchy that consists of a root
and top level domains (TLDs). The TLD defines the type of organization, such as
“edu,” which represents an educational organization. Top level domain names can
be categorized as shown in Fig. 10.1.

aero Air transport industry museum for museums

edu Educational sites mil Military
gov Government sites org Organization (nonprofit organization)
com Commercial sites int International Organization
net Major Network Providers biz for businesses
coop cooperatives name use for individual

A two-letter abbreviation is used for a particular country, such as “uk” for the
United Kingdom and “fr” for France.
An organization must register its sub-domain name with the Internet Assigned
Number Authority (IANA). For instance, southernct.edu is registered by IANA and
must be a unique name in its domain. Southern must also specify two DNS servers:
primary and secondary, which hold the hosts’ names and corresponding IP addresses.
DNS Root Servers
There are 13 DNS root servers, and they support both IPv4 and IPv6; the website
https://www.iana.org/domains/root/servers shows information about DNS root
servers.
DNS Names
DNS names use a fully qualified domain name (FQDN). A FQDN is a DNS domain
name made of its location on the TLD separated by “.”, such as cs.southernct.edu.
DNS Operation
The function of DNS is to convert the host name to the IP address much like a phone
directory converts a name to a phone number. In order for a client computer to
10.1 Domain Name System (DNS) 199

access the yahoo.com web site, the client must have the IP address of the Yahoo
server. The client must send a query to the DNS server and request the IP address of
Yahoo. There are two methods that can be used by a client to request an IP address.
These methods are DNS recursive queries and DNS iterative queries. By default,
DNS uses iterative queries.
A. DNS Iterative Query
The client computer at southern requests connection to yahoo.com. The client
computer requires the IP address of yahoo.com’s server. The following steps
describe the iterative query that allows the client to obtain the IP address of yahoo
as shown in Fig. 10.2.
1. The client sends a query to the southernct.edu DNS server (ns1.southernct.edu)
to resolve the name to an IP address. If Southern’s DNS server resolves the client
request, then it will send the IP address of yahoo’s server to the client. If
Southern’s sever does not have IP address for yahoo, the process goes to step 2.
2. Southern’s DNS server sends a request to the Root DNS server, requesting the IP
address of yahoo.
3. The Root server sees that the requested information (FDQN) name has a TLD
with .com. It sends the IP address of one of the .com servers that has the IP
address of Yahoo’s DNS server to Southern’s DNS.
4. Southern’s server sends the request to the .com TLD server to resolve the name
to an IP address.

DNS Root server

2 3

SCSU.edu
4
1
TLD DNS .COM
5
8
Requesng IP address
for Yahoo.com
6 7

Yahoo DNS server

Fig. 10.2 Iterative DNS query

200 10 Internet Protocols Part II and MPLS

5. The .com TLD server responds with the IP address of yahoo’s DNS server.
6. Southern’s DNS server sends a request to the DNS server of yahoo (authorita-
tive) for the IP address.
7. The Yahoo DNS server resolves the request and transmits the IP address to
Southern’s Server.
8. Southern’s server transmits the IP address to the client.

B. Recursive Query Operation

In a recursive query, the root DNS obtains the IP address requested by the client
and sends it to the client, as shown in Fig. 10.3.
Primary and Secondary Domain Name Servers
The function of secondary DNS server is to provide back up for primary DNS
server. If the primary server goes down, then clients of an organization cannot
resolve the host name to the IP address without having a backup server. A primary
domain name server holds the zone files (resource records) used for resolving host
names to IP addresses.
Zones and Zone Files
Zones

DNS Root server

3
2
7 6
SCSU.edu
1
TLD DNS .COM

8
Requesting IP address
for Yahoo.com 5 4

Yahoo DNS server

Fig. 10.3 Recursive query operation
10.1 Domain Name System (DNS) 201

Fig. 10.4 SouthernCT

DNS zone

A zone is a part of domain name system that contains resource records and is
managed by an administrator. Figure 10.4 shows one of Southern’s DNS zones. The
southernct.edu can have one zone which include all subdomains, or split each sub-
domain into separate zones or across DNS servers.
Zone file
The zone file holds resource records (information about domain names and their
corresponding IP addresses). This file is transferred to the secondary server using
TCP connection.
Resolver
A resolver is a program that runs on a client for generating query messages from the
server, and the same program runs on a DNS server for responding to DNS queries.
C. DNS Packet Format
DNS uses the UDP protocol for transmitting query packets and receiving query
responses. Figure 10.5 shows the DNS packet format.
Identification (16 bits): The identification field is used to identify the packet, and
it is generated by the device transmitting the query packet. The response packet
uses the same identification number as the query packet.
Flags: The flag field is 16 bits, and contains the following flags:

1 4 1 1 1 1 3 4

QR Operaon Code AA TC RD RA Reserved Response code

202 10 Internet Protocols Part II and MPLS

0 31

Identification Flags
Number of Questions Number of answer RRs
Number of Authority Number of additional RRs
Questions (Name, Type)
Answers (Resource Record)
Authority
Additional Information
Fig. 10.5 DNS packet format

QR (Query/Response): QR =0 means that a packet is query packet, and QR = 1

indicates the packet is a response to a query.
Operation Code: The operation code defines the type of query message, and can be
the following:

Operation code Description

0 Standard query
1 Reverse query
2 Request server status
3 Reserved
4 Primary server informing the secondary server that data for a zone has changed

AA (Authoritative Answer Flag): This bit is set to 1 in a response to indicate that

the server that created the response is authoritative for the zone. If it is 0, that
means that the response is from a nonauthoritative source.
TC (truncated): This flag set to 1 means that the message was truncated, while 0
indicates otherwise.
RD: RD = 1 means that the client has requested a recursion method.
RA: This flag is used as response to RD, and when set to 1 means that the response
uses recursion.
Response Code: Some of the response codes are:

Code value Description

0 No error
1 Format error
2 Server was unable to respond
3 Name in the query does not exist in the RRs
10.2 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) 203

Questions: Defines the number of questions in the query message.

Answers: Defines the number of answers in the query response.
Authority: Specifies the number of resource records in the Authority section of the
message.
Number of additional RRs: Defines the number of RRs in the additional section.
D. DNS Resource Record
The resource records contains the following information:

Name Class Type Value TTL

yahoo.com IN A 209.191.122.70 3600 s (1 h)

1. Name: The domain name that the resource record belongs to (the domain name
may have more than one resource record).
2. Time-to-Live: This is a 32-bit integer. The TTL is measured in seconds. The
value zero indicates the data should not be cached.
3. Class: This field usually contains the value ‘IN’, and it represents if this record
is to be used by the internet.
4. Type: The type field defines the type of resource record, which can be:

Type Description
A The address in the record is IPV4.
AAAA The address in the record is IPv6.
MX The record is a mail exchange.
NS The record is a name server.
PTR This is a pointer that points to another file to resolve name server and IP.
CNAME This is canonical name type of record.
SOA This is the start of authority type of record.

5. Value: This field can be a number, ASCII strings, or any domain. The semantics
of name and value depends on the type field.
DNS Root Servers
DNS root servers are a network of 100 servers that are located in different countries
and managed by 12 organizations. For locations of the root servers, visit https://
root-­servers.org/.

10.2 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)

Introduction
Manually assigning IP addresses to host computers in a large network is very time
consuming. To overcome this problem, TCP/IP offers Dynamic Host Configuration
204 10 Internet Protocols Part II and MPLS

Protocol (DHCP), which is an extension of the boot protocol. DHCP uses the UDP
protocol to communicate with a DHCP server. The client broadcasts a packet with
the IP address 255.255.255.255 (broadcast address). The broadcasted packet con-
tains the hardware address of the client. The DHCP sever responds to this request.
DHCP Components
To have a DHCP service on a network, it requires three types of software: a DHCP
client, DHCP server, and DHCP relay agent.
DHCP Client Most Network Operating Systems (NOS) offer DHCP software for
clients such as Windows 10. The DHCP client software enables the client worksta-
tion to obtain its IP address from the DHCP server automatically. Clients broadcast
a packet to the network that has the DHCP server in its broadcast domain (i.e., the
same segment).

DHCP Server The DHCP server holds a range of IP addresses and responds to any
request made by a DHCP client. Note that the DHCP server and the client host must
be in the same broadcast domain; otherwise, the DHCP relay agent software is
required.

DHCP Relay Agent When the DHCP server is not located in a broadcast domain
of the client station, the router that the client station is connected to requires the
DHCP relay agent software, as shown in Fig. 10.6.
The function of the DHCP relay agent is to accept the broadcast packet from the
DHCP client and send the packet to the DHCP server. The relay agent changes the
broadcast packet to a unicast address by using its own IP address, then sends it to
the DHCP server. The DHCP server responds to the DHCP relay agent. The DHCP
relay agent then forwards this response to the DHCP client.
The DHCP server supports different methods to allocate IP addresses to a cli-
ent host:
1. Automatic allocation: DHCP assigns a permanent IP address to the host.
2. Dynamic allocation: DHCP assigns an IP address to a host for a limited period
of time (this time is called lease time). If the client does not need the IP address,
the DHCP server can reuse this IP address and assign it to another host. This
method is used by internet service providers to assign IP addresses to their cli-
ents in order to be connected to the Internet temporarily.
3. Manual allocation: The network administrator assigns an IP address to the host
and the DHCP server transfers that IP address to the client.

Client Host Router with DHCP Server

Relay Agent

Fig. 10.6 A router with a relay agent in a client host/DHCP server connection
10.2 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) 205

Fig. 10.7 DHCP operation Client Host DHCP Server

DHCPDISCOVER

DHCPOFFER

DHCPREQUEST

DHCPACK

DHCPRELESE

DHCP Operation
The following steps describe the operation of DHCP, as shown in Fig. 10.7:
1. The DHCP client does not have an IP address, and so it broadcasts a packet on
the network requesting an IP address from the DHCP server. This packet is
called a DHCP Discovery packet.
2. The DHCP server responds to the DHCP Discovery packet by sending a DHCP
Offer packet to the client. The DHCP Offer packet includes the client IP address,
the address mask and the lease time (the amount of the time that the client can
hold this address). In the middle of the lease time the client host sends a renewal
packet to the DHCP server to find out if it can keep the same IP address for the
next lease time.
3. When the client host has received a DHCP Offer packet from the DHCP server,
it can accept the address offered or reject it. Therefore, the client sends a packet
to the DHCP server to inform either the acceptance or rejection of the IP address.
This packet is called the DHCP Request packet.
4. The DHCP server sends a DHCP ACK to the client in response to the client’s
DHCP Request and informs the client of the completion of the DHCP process.
206 10 Internet Protocols Part II and MPLS

5. The client receives the DHCP ACK packet with configuration from the DHCP
server. Now the client is configured. If a client receives a DHCP NACK (nega-
tive acknowledgment from the DHCP server), then the client host cannot use this
IP address.
6. If the client host does not need an IP address, it will send a DHCP Release packet
to the DHCP server to release the IP address.

DHCP Packet Format

DHCP is an application protocol for UDP. Figure 10.8 shows the payload of an IP
packet with DHCP. Figure 10.9 shows the DHCP packet format.

IP header UDP header DHCP packet

The following describes the function of each field in the DHCP packet format:
OP code: The Op code indicates a request from a client or a reply to a request (1 for
request, 2 for reply).
Hardware type: The hardware type indicates the type of network card being used
(such as IEEE 802.3 or Token Ring).
Hardware length: The hardware length indicates the size of the hardware address
or MAC address (6 bytes).
Hops: The hops field indicates the number of hops a packet can make on route to
the destination. The maximum number of hops is 3.
Transaction ID: A random number set by the client. It is used by the client and the
server to coordinate messages and responses.

IP Header UDP header DHCP Packet

Fig. 10.8 IP packet with DHCP

1 32
Op Code 8 bits Hardware Type 8 bits Hardware Length 8 bits Hop Count 8 bits
Transaction ID 32 bits
Number of Seconds 16 bits Unused 16 bits
Client IP Address 4 bytes
Machine IP Address 4 bytes
Server IP Address 4 bytes
Gateway IP Address 4 bytes
Client MAC Address 6 bytes
Server Host Name up to 64 bytes
Boot file name up to 1284 bytes
Vendor-Specification Information up to 64 bytes

Fig. 10.9 DHCP packet format

10.3 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) 207

Number of seconds: The number of seconds is set by the client. The secondary
server does not respond until this time has expired.
Client IP address: If the client does not have an IP address, this field will be set to
0.0.0.0.
Server IP address: The server IP address is set by the server.
Router IP: The router IP is set by the forwarding router.
Client hardware: The client address is set by the client and is used by the server to
identify which client the request came from.
Server host name: optional.
Boot file name: The client can leave this field null or indicate the type of the
boot file.
Vendor specification: This field is used for various extensions of the bootstrap.
UDP header: The UDP header contains source and destination port numbers. The
BOOTP uses two reserved port numbers. Port number 68 is used for the client
and port number 67 is used for the server.

10.3 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)

The IETF published HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol0) documents RFC 1945
and RFC 2616. HTTP is an application protocol for TCP that uses port 80 for com-
munications between clients and servers. Hypertext Transfer Protocol is used for the
transferring of Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) documents. HTML is a tag,
and hypertext documents have links to other documents such as images and videos.
The address of a web page is defined by a URL (Uniform Resource Locator),
such as http://www.southernct.edu/csdept/picture.gif
Where http is the protocol, southern is the host name, “.edu” is the TLD, and
csdept/picture.gif is the path name.
In HTTP, the client requests a web page and the server responds by sending the
web page to the client, as shown in Fig. 10.10.
HTTP is implemented by both client and server software. It performs the follow-
ing tasks for transferring a web page from a server to a requesting client.
1. The browser makes a connection to the server over TCP port 80.
2. The browser sends a request to the server.
3. The server sends a response to the browser.

Fig. 10.10 HTTP

operation
208 10 Internet Protocols Part II and MPLS

HTTP Characteristics
1. HTTP is a stateless protocol, meaning that an http server does not keep any
information about the clients that requested web page.
2. HTTP connections: HTTP offers two type of connections called nonpersistent
and persistent connections.
A. Nonpersistent connection: Each request and response are sent over a sepa-
rate connection and the connection is closed after a single request/response
pair. HTTP/0.9 and HTTP 1.0 use non-persistent connection.
B. Persistent connection: All requests and responses are sent over the same con-
nection. HTTP version 1.1 uses persistent connection.
HTTP Packet Format
HTTP defines two types of packets: client packets and server packets.
A. HTTP Client Packet Format: Figure 10.11 shows an HTTP packet format that
consists of a Request line, Header lines, a Blank line, and a Message Body.

SP: Space
CR: Carriage Return
LF: Line Feed
CR = %0d = \r
LF = %0a = \n
% means hex
Method: Defines the type of request sent by the client to the server, such as:
GET: Used by the client to request a document from the server and is identi-
fied by the URL.
HEAD: The HEAD method is similar to GET except that the server does not
return a message-body in the response.
POST: Used by a client to submit information to the server.
PUT: Used for updating information on the server.

Fig. 10.11 HTTP request packet format

10.3 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) 209

Example of a Client Request

Request line GET /csdept/picture.gif HTTP/1.1
Header line HOST: www.southernct.edu
Header line Connection: close ; uses non-persistent connection
Header Line User-Agent: Internet Explorer
Header Line Accepted-Language: English
HTTP Response Packet Format
An HTTP server responds to a client request with an HTTP response packet.
Figure 10.12 shows HTTP packet format.
The following describes the function of each filed in Fig. 10.12.
Status line HTTP 1.1 200 ok
Header Line Connection: close
Header Line Server: csdept
Header Line Last-Modified: Mon, 6, 2010 09:21GMT
Header Line Content-Length: 500
Header Line Content-Type: Text/HTML
Blank line
Message Body
Status Code Definitions
Success (2XX): This class of codes indicates that request was successful, which
includes:
200 OK
201 Created
202 Accepted
203 Non-Authoritative Information
204 No Content −205 Reset Content
206 Partial Content
Redirection (3xx): This class of codes indicates that an action is required to be
taken by the client in order to complete the request.
301 Moved Permanently
302 Moved Temporarily

Fig. 10.12 HTTP Response packet format

210 10 Internet Protocols Part II and MPLS

Client Error (4xx): This class of codes indicates client errors such as:
400 Bad Request
401 Unauthorized
402 Payment Required
403 Forbidden
404 Not Found.

10.4 Internet Control Message Protocol

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is used to report error messages dur-
ing packet delivery by an Internet Protocol such as protocol unreachable, network
unreachable, network congestion, packet is too large, and announcing timeouts
(TTL field drops to zero). Also, ICMP is used by the network administration for
diagnostics purposes, such as the Ping and Tracert commands. ICMP is an Internet
Layer Protocol and ICMP packets are transported by IP to the destination. ICMP
messages can be divided into two groups: error messages and information mes-
sages. Figure 10.10 shows the ICMP packet format (Fig. 10.13).
Type (8 bits): Indicates the type of message. Numbers 0 through 127 indicate error
messages, and numbers larger than 127 represent information messages.
Table 10.1 shows type values and their meanings.

Code (8 bits): Provides additional information about the message type. For exam-
ple, for a type value of 1 (destination unreachable), the code number specifies
more detail information as shown in Table 10.2.

Checksum: This field is used for error detection of ICMP headers and messages.
Packet too large: Consider Fig. 10.14, in which two networks are connected by a
router. Network A is a token ring with MTU of 18,000 bytes and Network B is
an Ethernet with MTU of 1500 bytes. If station A sends an IP packet to station B,
station A sends the packet to the router and the router examines the DF bit (do
not fragment) in the IP header. If this bit is set, indicating that the packet is not to
be fragmented, then the router is not able to send the packet to station B and the
router discards the packet. The router then sends an error message to station A
indicating that the packet is too large and the MTU for the packet should be 1500

0 78 15 31

Type Code Checksum

FigureMessage Body format.

1: ICMP packet

Fig. 10.13 ICMP packet format

10.4 Internet Control Message Protocol 211

Table 10.1 Type values Type value Meaning

and meaning 1 Destination unreachable
2 Packet is too large
3 Time exceeded
4 Parameter problem
128 Echo request
129 Echo response

Table 10.2 Error messages Code Definition

and associated code values 0 No route to destination
1 Communication with
destination prohibited
2 No route to destination
3 Not assigned
4 Address unreachable
129 Port unreachable

Router
Token Ring

B A

Fig. 10.14 Two networks with different MTUs are connected via a router

0 78 15 31

Type Code Checksum

MTU

Message Body

Fig. 10.15 ICMP packet format for MTU discovery

bytes. Station A sends a new packet with the MTU of 1500 bytes to the router.
This is called Path MTU discovery. Figure 10.15 shows the ICMP packet format
for Path MTU discovery.
In Fig. 10.15, the type field is equal to 2, code field is zero, and MTU field is
maximum transmission unit of the next-hop link.
212 10 Internet Protocols Part II and MPLS

Time exceeded: When an IP packet travels through the Internet, the TTL field dec-
rements by one each time the packet passes through a gateway. When the TTL
value becomes zero, the gateway sends the ICMP message of Time Exceeded.
Parameter problem: When a router discovers an error in an IP packet, the router
discards the packet and sends a Parameter Problem to the source.
Echo request and response: An ICMP echo-request message, which is generated
by the ping command, is sent by any host to test node reachability across an
Internetwork. The ICMP echo-reply message indicates that the node can be suc-
cessfully reached.

10.5 Routing

The function of a router is to determine the path for transporting information (pack-
ets) through the Internet. Furthermore, routing is the method of moving packets
from one network to another network. Figure 10.16 shows four networks connected
through the routers R1, R2, R3, and R4. Consider the following questions when host
A wants to send a packet to host B:
1. How does host A know that host B is connected to router R3?
2. What is the best route for sending information from host A to host B? Host A can
send packets to host B by using three different paths. Host A can send packets to
host B using the path R1-R2-R3 or R1-R4-R3 or R1-R2- R4-R3. The router
determines the best route for sending information by using a routing algorithm
to build a routing table.

Link Characteristics
Routers use different metrics (link characteristics) to find the best route for sending
a packet to the destination. The metrics are:
Hop count: The hop count measures the number of hops that a packet must go
through in order to get to the destination.
Throughput: The data rate of the link.
Communication cost: The cost of transmitting information from source to
destination.

Network 2 Network3
R2 R3
B

A
Network 4
Network1
R1 R4
Fig. 10.16 Networks connected by four routers
10.5 Routing 213

Delay: Measures the amount of time it takes a packet to travel from source to
destination.
Configuring the Routing Table
There are two ways to configure the routing table: dynamic routing and static
routing.
Dynamic routing: In dynamic routing, the routers use a routing protocol to build
their routing tables. If there is a change in the network configuration, a dynamic
routing protocol broadcasts the changes to all the routers in the network in order
to update all routing tables. Some of the most popular dynamic routing proto-
cols are:
(a) Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
(b) Open Short Path First Protocol (OSPF)
(c) Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP)
Static routing: Static routing tables are configured manually by the network admin-
istrator. Static routing is often used for small networks. The problem with this
type of routing is that if there is a change in network topology or a network link
failure, all the routing tables need to be manually updated.
Figure 10.17 shows a network with three routers: A, B, and C. Router A has an
Ethernet link E0 and one serial link S0. Router B has two serial links S0 and S1 and
one Ethernet link E0. Router C has one serial link S0 and one Ethernet link E0.
Class B IP addresses (180.160.0.0) are used to assign an IP address to each host.
As a network administrator, one would need to assign an IP address to each net-
work and to each host.
The following IP addresses are assigned to the following networks:
180.160.10. the network connected to the Ethernet port of router A
180.160.20. the serial link between router A and router B
180.160.30. the Ethernet network connected to router B
180.160.40. the serial link between routers B and C
180.160.50. the Ethernet network connected to router C

180.160.30.

S0=180.160.20.1 S0= 180.160.20.2

E0=180.160.30.1 S0=180.160.40.2

180.160.10 S0 180.160.20 S0 S1 =180.160.40.1 S0

Router A Router B Router C
180.160.40
E0=180.160.10.1 E0=180.160.50.1

180.160.50

Fig. 10.17 Networks connected by three routers

214 10 Internet Protocols Part II and MPLS

Table 10.3 Routing table for Remote network Subnet mask Default gateway
router A
180.160.50. 255.255.255 180.160.20.2
180.160.40. 255.255.255 180.160.20.2
180.160.30. 255.255.255 180.160.20.2

Table 10.4 Routing table for router B

Remote network Subnet mask Default gateway
180.160.50. 255.255.255. 180.160.40.2 (S0 of router C)
180.160.10 255.255.255. 180.160.20.1 (S0 of router A)

Table 10.5 Routing table for router C

Remote network Subnet mask Default gateway
180.160.10 255.255.255. 180.160.40.1 (S1 of router B)
180.160.120 255.255.255. 180.160.40.1 (S1 of router B)
180.160.30. 255.255.255. 180.160.40.1 (S1 of router B)

In static routing, the routing table is built and updated manually. The IP routing
table has the following fields:
A. IP address of remote network
B. Subnet mask
C. IP address of default gateway
Tables 10.3, 10.4, and 10.5 show the routing table for routers A, B, and C.
Router A can access the other networks through the S0 link of router B. Therefore,
S0 is the default gateway for router A.

10.6 Networking Diagnostic Commands

TCP/IP developed networking commands for network diagnostics, such as ping,

arp, ipconfig, tracert, netstat, and nslookup. The following commands are based
on the Microsoft Windows OS:
A. Ping command
The Ping (Packet Internet Groper) command is one of the most useful tools
for debugging networks. It is an ICMP echo process used for checking whether a
destination host is reachable. Ping transmits a 32-byte ICMP echo request to the
destination and expects to receive a 32-byte ICMP echo packet from the destination.
It also displays the time it took to transmit 32 bytes and receive 32 bytes of data.
B. Address Resolution Protocol
If a router receives a packet for which it does not have the hardware address of
the packet in its Address Resolution Protocol (arp) cache table, the router sends a
10.7 Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) 215

broadcast packet to the hosts on the network and requests the hardware address of
the host. All the hosts in the network accept the packet and compare the IP address
of the packet with its own IP address. If both IP addresses are the same, the host will
respond to the router with a RARP, which contains the hardware address of the host.
arp tables contain both the IP address and the MAC address of a computer. The
following is a list of arp commands:
arp -a Display the contents of the ARP table
arp -d Delete an entry with an IP address
arp -s Add an entry with a MAC address
C. ipconfig /all
ipconfig displays the network settings, physical address, IP address, and subnet
mask of the host, as well as the IP address of the default gateway.
D. Tracert command
Tracert shows the path of a packet from source to destination and the number of
gateways the packet travels through.
E. Netstat command
The netstat command displays information about your network configuration. It
comes with following options:
netstat –n displays information on the NIC of your computer
netstat –r displays the IP routing table
netstat –a displays information on TCP and UDP ports
netstat –s displays operational statistics of network protocols

10.7 Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS)

MPLS was developed to overcome the deficiency of IP packet delivery over private
and public networks. An IP network is connectionless and when an IP packet is
received in a router, the router uses its routing table and the IP address of the packet
to find the next hop. The IP address does not use a fixed size, such as class A, B, C,
or D; therefore, it takes time to find the next hop. MPLS defines a method for fast
packet forwarding over an IP network. It is an independent protocol, and it works
with multiple protocols, such as IP, ATM, and Frame Relay. MPLS adds a label or
tag to an IP packet, and it uses this label to find the path or next hop. Because the
length of the label is fixed, it becomes faster to look up in a table than IP routing.
Routers on an IP network use this label to find the next hop. The operation of MPLS
is similar to cell switching in ATM networks and Frame Relay. MPLS performs the
same function as a router but with higher performance. MPLS can be used for VPN,
transport layer (layer 2), and connection-oriented service.
216 10 Internet Protocols Part II and MPLS

In Input Out Out In Input Out Out In Input Out Out

label Port Port Label label Port Port Label
label Port Port Label
1 2 20 20 3 4 40
2 5 60
40 6 9
1 30 30 3

IP packet 1 20 3 6
2 4 40 9
LER1 LSR2 LER4
IP packet 30
7
5
Network A Network B
60
8

LSR3 LSR5

Fig. 10.18 MPLS network

MPLS Components and Operation: Figure 10.18 shows an MPLS network

that consist of the following components:
A. Label Edge Router (LER): An LER is located between the MPLS network and
the user networks, as shown in Fig. 10.18. An LER performs the following
functions:
• When an LER receives an IP packet from a user network, it adds its label to
the IP packet and uses its routing table to forward the IP packet based on the
label value to the next label switch router.
• When an LER wants to transmit a packet to the user network, it removes the
label field from the IP address and transmits the IP packet to the user network.
B. Label Switch Router (LSR): The function of an LSR is to examine the IP packet
based on its label and replace the label with a new label. The new label identifies
the next hop to which the packet is forwarded.
In Fig. 10.18, network A transmits two IP packets to LER1. LER1 uses its rout-
ing table to add labels to each packet and forward them to LSR2. LSR2 examines
each packet’s label and strips the packet of its label, then inserts a new label, and
forwards the packet to the appropriate port of the next hop. IP packet with label 40
is transmitted to LER 4 and IP packet with label 60 is transmitted to LSR3. LER4
examines the label of the IP packet and finds that the packet must be transmitted to
user network B. LER4 removes the label from the IP packet and forwards the packet
to user network B.
Forward Equivalence Class (FEC): This is a group of IP packets that are for-
warded in the same manner over the same path. Therefore, a group of packets with
same FEC can be assigned the same labels through the path. Consider that multiple
IP packets with the same forwarding characteristics are transmitted by network A to
network B. LER1 assigns these IP packets the same labels throughout the path.
These packets with same FEC will use the same path. This method reduces the size
of the routing table.
MPLS defines only the forwarding methods so other protocols are needed to
perform routing and signaling. The routing protocol distributes the networking
10.8 IP Multicast 217

Layer2 Header MPLS Label IP Header Payload

Label CoS S TTL

20 bits 3 bits 1 8 bits

Fig. 10.19 MPLS label format

topology and configures the routing table by using an IP routing protocol such as
OSPF, BGP, or RIP. Signaling protocols are used to inform the routers which label,
and link, are to be used by the switch for each label switching path. MPL advan-
tages are:
• The path from source to destination can be identified in advance.
• It can select network paths in order to have a balanced load in the network.
• MPLS can provide a specific path for data.
• MPLS offers quality of Service (QoS) by choosing a specific path in order to
provide bandwidth to the application, less delay, and less packet loss.
MPLS label: The MPLS label is inserted in the frame but the location of the
label depends on the layer 2 technology. In ATM, the label is VPI/VCI, and in Frame
Relay, it is DLCI filed. In an IP packet, the label inserted between layer 2 and layer
3 is shown in Fig. 10.19. The MPLS label field is 32 bits and the following list
describes the function of each field.
Label: This is 20 bits.
CoS (Class of Service): This field is 3 bits and is used for queuing and discarding
packets traveling through the network.
S (Stack): This field is one bit and it is used for multiple MPLS labels.
TTL (Time-to-Live): This field is 8 bits and works similar to TTL field in IPv4.

10.8 IP Multicast

IP multicast is used for sending an IP packet to a group of receivers in a single trans-

mission. The applications of IP multicast are:
A. Video/audio conferencing
B. Service advertisement
C. Stock distribution
D. IPTV
E. Transferring a bulk of data to multiple receivers
F. File distribution of operating system images in a university
218 10 Internet Protocols Part II and MPLS

Fig. 10.20 Unicast and multicast diagrams

Figure 10.20 shows Unicast and Multicast. In Unicast, the source must send
three packets, while in IP multicast, the source sends only one packet.
Characteristics of Multicast Network
• A multicast group is a set of hosts that all have the same IP multicast address.
• The transmitter of a multicast packet transmits the packet to a multicast router
and the router transmits the packet to all hosts in the multicast group.
• A multicast router requires running Multicast Routing Protocol and Internet
Group Message Protocol (IGMP).
• Each multicast group is identified by a single Class D IP multicast address.
• Members of a multicast group can be any place in a network.
• Each host in the network can join a multicast group.
• A multicast member (host) can leave the group by informing its multicast router.
• A receiver of a multicast packet must be a member of group.
• Any host on the network can transmit a multicast packet.
• Each multicast router manages the hosts connected directly to its port using
Internet Group Managed Protocol (IGMP).

10.8.1 Internet Group Management Protocol—IGMP

The IETF published IGMP in RFC 1112. IGMP is a management protocol for IP
multicast and is used for managing host group membership. It is located in the IP
layer of the TCP/IP model as shown in Fig. 10.21. IGMP has three versions: IGMP
v1, IGMPv2, and IGMPv3.
10.8 IP Multicast 219

Fig. 10.21 IGMP

IGMP Messages
In general, IGMP has two types of messages:
E. Membership query message
F. Membership report message
A membership query message is transmitted by the router periodically to active,
directly connected, hosts. This type of message is used for requesting information
about host membership. Each active host member responds to the query with a
membership report message. A Host sends an IGMP report to a router for joining a
group. When a host wants to send a multicast packet to a group, it places its data in
a UDP packet with a multicast IP address as the destination address. Figure 10.22
shows the IP multicast network.
A multicast router uses IGMP to learn which groups have members on each of
their attached physical networks. It also keeps a list of multicast group memberships
for each attached network.
IGMP Packet Format
Figure 10.23 shows the IGMP packet location in an IP packet, and Fig. 10.24 shows
the IGMP packet format.
Type (8 bits): This field defines the type of packet as shown in the follow-
ing table.

Type value in Hex Description

0x11 Group membership query
0X12 IGMPv1 membership report
0x15 Cisco trace messages
0x16 IGMPv1 membership report
0x17 IGMPv2 leave group.

Max Response Time: This field is 8 bits and is used for membership. It defines the
maximum allowed time before sending a responding report.
IGMP Checksum: This field is 16 bits and is used for error detection.
Group Address: This field is 32 bits. For a general query, this field set to zero such
as in a membership query, and for a specific group, it is set to the group address.
220 10 Internet Protocols Part II and MPLS

Fig. 10.22 IP multicast network

Fig. 10.23 IGMP packet MAC Header IP Header IGMP Packet

Type 8 bits Max Response Time 8 bits IGM Checksum 16 bits

Group Address

Fig. 10.24 IGMP packet format

10.9 Socket Programming

Socket programming is used for communications between a client and server

through a network. A socket is a binding of an IP address and port number used for
communications. The two processes communicate by sending their data into a
socket, and then processing that data. Figure 10.25 shows the communications
between a client and server using sockets.
The following steps show an implementation of socket programming for client
and server using Python.
1. Import socket module
2. Create a socket
3. Binding the socket to an address and port
4. Connecting to a socket
5. Listening and accepting connections
6. Transferring and receiving data
Socket methods: The following are lists of methods used for socket
programming:
s.recv() used to receive data from a socket over TCP
s.send() used to send data to a socket over TCP
s.recvfrom()  used to receive data from a socket over UDP
10.9 Socket Programming 221

Fig. 10.25 Socket

programming between a
client and server

s.sendto() used to send data to a socket over UDP

s.close() closes a socket
s.gethostname() gets the hostname of the machine that the program is currently
running on
1. Import the socket module
import socket
2. Creating a socket
A socket can be created by making call to the socket.socket() method.
s = socket.socket(socket.family, socket.type)
family: AF_UNIX is used for Unix, and AF_INET use for Internet
type: SOCK_STREAM is used for TCP protocol while SOCK_DGRAM is used for
UDP protocol
A. On the server side – create a TCP socket for listening
s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
B. On the client side – create a socket to connect to
s = socket.socket()
3. Binding the socket to an address and port. On the server side, the socket must be
bound to the host’s IP address and port number by using bind(). If the server’s IP
address is 192.168.1.2 and the desired listening port is 8000, then the binding
will be:
s.bind((“192.168.1.2”, 8000)
In this model, the client does not require binding.
222 10 Internet Protocols Part II and MPLS

4. Connecting to the socket

Clients make a connection to the server by using connect() method.
s.connect(address)
where the address field is the IP address or hostname and port number of the host
to connect to.
s.connect((“192.168.1.2”, 8000)).
5. Listening and accepting connections
The server must listen to its port for incoming connections by using the lis-
ten() method:
s.listen(5)
where the argument represents the number of connections, and therefore must be
at least 1.
Once listening, the following function is used for accepting a connection on
that socket:
clientsocket, address = socket.accept()
6. Transferring and receiving data
Data are sent and received by either the server and client using the send() or
recv() methods:
s.send('Message12345'.encode())
data = s.recv(1024).decode()
Data must be encoded before being sent, and decoded at its destination as needed.
The recv() method allows a buffer to be set, in this case receiving in chunks of 1024
bytes. With this process, the following outlines the creation of two python programs
to be used to demonstrate socket programming, a client and a server capable of
communicating across different computers on a local area network.
Computer 1:
1. Open command prompt.
2. Type “ipconfig”.
3. Find your IPv4 address. Either write this down or keep the command prompt open.
4. We will now write code for the server using python. Start by opening notepad
and typing the following code (everything after # is a comment and does not
need to be typed):
import socket # imports the socket module
serversocket = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.
SOCK_STREAM)
host = "192.168.1.6" # set this to the IPv4 address of Computer 1
port = 8000 # you can use any port as long as another service is not using it
Summary 223

serversocket.bind((host, port)) # binds the address and port to the socket

serversocket.listen(5) # has the socket start listening for incoming
connections
while 1:
(clientsocket, address) = serversocket.accept() # accept incoming
connection
data = clientsocket.recv(1024).decode()
print (data)
# send a message back to the client.
clientsocket.send("You have successfully connected".encode())
Now save this file on Computer 1 as server.py and run it using Python. Keep this
running, as the next step involves connecting to this server.
Computer 2:
Now we will create the client, open a new notepad, and type the following code:
import socket # imports socket module
s = socket.socket() # creates a new socket
host = "192.168.1.6" # set the host to the IPv4 address of Computer 1
port = 8000 # use the same port that was used on the server
s.connect((host,port)) # connects to the server
s.send('Message12345'.encode()) # sends a message to the server
data = ‘’ # creates a variable to hold the incoming message
data = s.recv(1024).decode() # accepts and stores the incoming message in data
print (data) # prints the message
s.close # closes the connection
Save this file on Computer 2 as client.py. Now run the client using Python. You
should receive the message “You have Successfully connected.”.

Summary

• DNS uses a tree hierarchy which consists of a root and TLDs.

• There are 13 DNS root servers.
• DNS clients use iterative queries or recursive queries to resolve a URL to an IP
address.
• Each organization is required to have a Primary DNS and Secondary DNS server.
• DNS Resource Records contain a name, class, type and value.
• Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is used to assign IP addresses to
a host dynamically.
• The components of DHCP are: DHCP client, DHCP server, and DHCP
relay agent.
224 10 Internet Protocols Part II and MPLS

• A DHCP server supports automatic allocation, dynamic allocation, and manual

allocation for assigning IP addresses to clients.
• The application of DNS is to convert the URL or hostname of a server to an IP
address.
• The function of a router is to determine the path for transmitted packets through
the Internet.
• In a router, the path of information is determined by the routing Table.
• The routing table can be configured in two ways: static routing or dynamic
routing.
• A static routing table is configured manually, and a dynamic routing table is
configured automatically.
• MPLS uses label switching to route the information.
• A socket is a combination of IP address and port number.
• In socket programing, the client requests a connection.
• In socket programming, the server listens on its port for client requests.

Key Terms

Binding Network control protocol

DHCP relay agent Routing
DNS root servers Routing information protocol
DNS root servers Socket
Dynamic host configuration (DHCP) Static routing
Dynamic routing Top level domain
Multi-protocol label switching (MPLS) Top level domain

Review Questions

Multiple Choice Questions

1. An organization requires:
(a) One DNS server
(b) Two DNS servers
(c) Tree DNS servers
(d) More than three DNS servers
2. How many DNS root servers exist?
(a) 1
(b) 10
(c) 12
(d) 13
Review Questions 225

3. Which of the following methods is used for resolving an IP address with a

DNS server?
(a) Iterative query
(b) Recursive query
(c) ARP
(d) a&b
4. Which of the following protocol is used for DNS?
(a) UDP
(b) TCP
(c) ARP
(d) a&b
5. DHCP is used to assign __________ to a client.
(a) IP addresses automatically
(b) MAC addresses automatically
(c) IP addresses manually
(d) MAC addresses manually
6. A ___________ holds a range of IP addresses.
(a) client server
(b) DHCP server
(c) router
(d) relay agent
7. The function of a relay agent is to__________.
(a) pass the broadcast message
(b) block the broadcast message
(c) change the broadcast message to unicast
(d) change the unicast message to multicast
8. DHCP Discovery packets are transmitted as_______ packets.
(a) broadcast
(b) unicast
(c) multicast
(d) a&b
9. DHCP Offer packets are transmitted as_______ packets.
(a) broadcast
(b) unicast
(c) multicast
(d) a&b
226 10 Internet Protocols Part II and MPLS

10. The function of a router is to___________.

(a) find the destination IP address
(b) find the destination MAC address
(c) find the path to a destination for transporting packets
(d) None of the above
11. Static routing tables are updated by_________.
(a) a server
(b) the network administrator
(c) automatic method
(d) none of the above
12. Dynamic routing tables are updated by_________.
(a) a server
(b) the network administrator
(c) automatic methods
(d) none of the above
13. MPLS uses ______ for routing of packets.
(a) label
(b) IP address
(c) A&b
(d) MAC address
14. A socket is a combination of a port number and.
(a) IP address
(b) Hostname
(c) Default gateway
(d) A&b
15. In a socket programming model, which device is listening to its port for incom-
ing connections?
(a) Server
(b) Client
(c) All station on network
(d) Only server

Short Answer Questions

1. What is the function of a DNS server?
2. List the types of DNS queries.
3. Show the DNS resource record format.
4. What is the transport layer protocol used for DNS?
5. What commands are used to clear the DNS cache table?
6. What commands are used to display the DNS cache table?
Review Questions 227

7. List three diagnostic tools you can use for DNS troubleshooting.
8. List at least 5 TLDs.
9. What is the minimum number of DNS servers an organization must have?
10. Does an organization have separate DNS servers for IPv4 and IPv6?
11. What is the application of DHCP?
12. List the components of DHCP.
13. Explain DHCP dynamic IP allocation.
14. List DHCP packets and explain the function of each.
15. What is the function of a relay agent?
16. List the link characteristics.
17. Explain static routing and dynamic routing.
18. What is the function of Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP).
19. List three applications IP multicast.
20. What is the application of a socket?
21. Which device requests connection to a socket?
22. Socket is combination of IP address and_____.
Chapter 11
Voice over Internet Protocols
(Voice over IP)

Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
• Discuss the applications of VoIP.
• Describe the factors that impact voice quality using VoIP.
• Explain the operation of VoIP.
• Discuss standards and protocols used for VoIP.
• List the components of SIP.
• Show the SIP protocol architecture.
• Describe the SIP connection setup between end users.
• Calculate the minimum bandwidth requirement for VoIP.

Introduction
Public telephone systems are based on circuit switching networks, which allow for
real time communication between users. Voice over IP (VoIP) technology enables
data networks such as the Internet, LANs, and WANs to be used for voice commu-
nication. Since VoIP reduces the cost of voice communication, it has become high
in demand for corporations and organizations which have multiple locations.
Corporations can avoid paying extra telephone charges by setting up a VoIP network
for long-distance communication between office locations. Voice quality is an
important factor in the success of Voice over data networks; it is imperative that
VoIP offers the same quality as Voice over the Public Switch Telephone
Network (PSTN).

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 229
A. Elahi, A. Cushman, Computer Networks,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42018-4_11
230 11 Voice over Internet Protocols (Voice over IP)

11.1 Voice Quality

There are three factors that impact voice quality over data networks: transmission
delay, jitter, and packet loss.
Transmission Delay (Latency)
Transmission delay, or latency, is the time it takes a packet to travel one way from
its destination to its source. For a one-way transmission, a transmission delay of
between 150 and 250 m/sec is acceptable. This delay is generally caused by the fol-
lowing factors: propagation delay, the storage and forwarding of packets in routers
and gateways, compression at the source, and decompression at the destination.
When a voice packet is received late at the destination, it will just be discarded; the
loss of a packet reduces the quality of the service. The latency can be reduced in
private networks (Intranet, LAN) by adding quality of service (QoS) priority to the
voice packets. However, the latency can not be controlled for the transmission of
voice packets over the Internet.
Jitter Delay
Jitter delay is the difference in arrival time between packets. It is desired that the
average arrival time between packets is constant. A variable delay is caused by con-
gestion on networks and by voice packets being sent over different paths. If voice
packets are received by the destination at irregular times, distortions in the sound
will occur.
Packet Loss
Voice packets are transmitted over UDP, and therefore there is no guarantee that
packets will reach their destinations. Packets may also be dropped by gateways
when there is congestion in the network. When a packet is dropped, the gateway
inserts a silence packet instead; this will result in gaps in the conversation. VoIP can
tolerate about a 2% packet loss.

11.2 Applications of Voice over IP (VoIP)

VoIP can be implemented on the Internet, a LAN, or a WAN. Currently, many cor-
porations offer long-distance calls using Voice over Internet technology at one-fifth
of the price of using the PSTN. VoIP offers voice communication in two ways:
VoIP for an Organization
Currently, VoIP is used for telephone calls between offices in an organization by
using the organization’s pre-existing LAN.
International Call Provider
Some corporations offer international call services at a lower price for their custom-
ers. Figure 11.1 shows a block diagram of an International Call Provider. If User A
11.3 Voice over IP Operation 231

Fig. 11.1 Block diagram of an international call provider

would like to have a conversation with User B, then User A calls the server in the
USA. Then, the server prompts User A for the destination phone number. User A
enters 001 (international) and then 33 (France’s country code), followed by the
10-digit phone number. The server in the USA then makes the connection to the
server in France and transmits the 10-digit number to that server. The server in
France finally dials the User B for communication.

11.3 Voice over IP Operation

Figure 11.2 shows the components and protocols used for transmitting voice pack-
ets over a data network. During this transmission, the following process will
take place:
At the transmission side:
1. The microphone accepts the voice signal and passes it to the Pulse Code
Modulation (PCM) section.
2. The PCM converts the voice signals to digital signals and passes the signals to
the compression section.
3. The compression section compresses the voice bits and forms a voice packet.
The voice packet is then passed to the Real Time Protocol (RTP).
4. The RTP adds its header to the voice packet and passes the packet to UDP for
transmission over IP.
At the receiving side:
1. The RTP passes its payload to the decompression section. The decompression
section decompresses the voice packet and passes it to the analog-to-digital
(A/D) converter.
2. The A/D converter converts the voice packet to analog and then passes it to the
speaker.
232 11 Voice over Internet Protocols (Voice over IP)

Codec Compression Decompression

A/D PCM to frame D/A
Speaker
Microphone
Receiving side
Transmission RTP RTP
Side
UDP UDP
IP IP
NIC NIC

Internet,LAN
WAN

Fig. 11.2 Transmission of a voice packet

11.4 Voice over IP Protocols and Standards

Before a voice packet is transmitted over a data network, a connection between the
two parties must exist. Currently, there are two protocols used for VoIP. They are
H.323 developed by ITU and Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) developed by
IETF. The functions of these protocols are to set up a connection, disconnect a con-
nection, and handle call management. The SIP and H.323 protocols are used at the
application level of the TCP/IP protocol.
Audio Codec
The function of an audio codec at the transmission side is to accept audio signals
from a microphone and convert the audio signals to digital using an A/D converter.
The audio codec then compresses, or encodes, the digital bits to form a voice packet.
The function of the audio codec at the receiving side is to decompress, or decode,
the voice packets and convert them to audio signals using a D/A converter and send
the analog signal to the speaker.
Voice compression is performed by a device called a Vocoder (Voice Encoder/
Decoder), This device provides multiple types of voice compression. The type of
compression is selected by a negotiation between the source and destination gate-
ways. The following are some of the voice compression standards:

Standard Data rate

G.723 5.3 kbps/6.3 kbps
G.729 8 kbps
G.711 Uncompressed 64 kbps

Real Time Protocol (RTP)

Real Time Protocol (RTP) is used for transporting audio and video packets over
UDP. Figure 11.3 shows the RTP format.
11.5 Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) 233

2 1 1 4 1 7 16 bits
V P X CC M PT Sequence number
Time Stamp
SSRC
CSRC
Pay Load

Fig. 11.3 RTP packet format

The following describes the function of each field in RTP packet format:
Version (V): Defines the RTP version.
Padding (P): When this field is set to 1, it means that extra bytes were padded to the
payload. The last byte of the payload determines the number of the bytes that
were padded the payload; these bytes should be discarded.
Extension (X): When this bit is set to 1, it means that that header is extended (for
experimental use).
Contributing Source Count (CC): Used for multipoint call management.
Mark (M): This bit is to inform the receiver whether the packet is from a voice
source or a video source. For voice applications, this bit is set for the first packet
following silent suppression. For video applications, this bit is set only for the
last packet of a video frame.
Payload Type (PT): Determines the type of payload.
Sequence Number: The receiver uses this number to correct any packets that were
received out of order or to detect any packet losses.
Time Stamp: The time stamp depends on the payload. If the payload is a voice
packet, then the time stamp is 8000, which is the sampling rate of the digitized
human voice. If the payload is a video packet, then the time stamp is the clock
rate for the video payload, which is 9000 Hz.
Synchronization Source Identifiers (SSRC): Used for multipoint calls.
Contributing Source Identifiers (CSSRC): Used for multipoint calls.
Real Time Control Protocol (RTCP): RTCP provides a control mechanism for
jitter delay and packet loss in RTP; it is used for end-to-end monitoring of data
delivery. The endpoints use RTP to exchange packets that carry voice data and
periodically they exchange RTCP packets to monitor the quality of data
exchange.

11.5 Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)

SIP is an Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) Internet-based protocol designed

for call set up and call management between two or more endpoints. SIP is a signal-
ing protocol used for real time communication for VoIP such as Internet telephony
and multimedia conferencing. SIP performs the following functions:
234 11 Voice over Internet Protocols (Voice over IP)

PCM
SDP Compression

Application Layer SIP RTP DNS

Transport Layer
TCP UDP

Internet Layer IP

Link/Physical layer
NIC or PPP

Fig. 11.4 SIP protocol architecture

1. Sets up calls between users.

2. Disconnects a call between callers.
3. Determines the location of the destination.
4. Supports addresses resolution (converting phone addresses to IP addresses).
5. Determines if the endpoint is available or not (busy).
Figure 11.4 shows the SIP protocol architecture.

11.6 SIP Components

The components of SIP are user agents, gateways, and servers. The following
describes the function of each component:
SIP User Agent or SIP Endpoint
The SIP user agent can be an IP phone or a PC with the SIP protocol. The user agent
(UA) should be able to send a SIP request and response. The UA works in client and
server mode. The UA also communicates with other user agents through a
proxy server.
Gateway
A gateway is a special device that connects the PSTN to the Internet.
Server
SIP defines three types of servers: proxy servers, redirector servers, and registered
servers. These three servers can be implemented in a SIP proxy server.
SIP Proxy Server A SIP proxy server performs the following functions:
11.7 SIP Request and Response Commands 235

1. Accepts a user agent request and forwards the request to another user agent
or server.
2. Accepts a response from a server or user agent and forwards it to a user agent.
3. If a proxy server does not have the IP address of the destination user agent, the
proxy will contact a DNS server to obtain the IP address of the UA.
4. Requests a route on the behalf of user agent from a location server and also
requests an IP address of the next proxy from a DNS server.
Proxy Server Types The SIP standard defines two types of SIP proxy servers:
stateless proxy and stateful proxy:

A. Stateless Proxy Server: The stateless proxy server receives a request from a
UA, processes the request, and forwards the response to a UA (user agent) or a
server. The stateless proxy server does not keep any information (transactions)
about the forwarded responses or requests. Therefore, if a response were lost
due to congestion, the server would be unable to retransmit the response. The
stateless proxy server is the simplest form of a proxy server.
B. Stateful Proxy Server: The server also acts as client when it responds to
requests and sends requests. The stateful proxy server keeps information about
responses and requests. Therefore, if a packet were lost due to congestion, the
server would be able to retransmit the packet.
SIP Redirector Server The function of a redirector server is to accept requests and
direct the client to contact alternate user agents (the same concept as when a secre-
tary answers a phone and gives the caller another phone number). The redirector
uses 3XX code to respond to a request. Some of the codes are as follows:
301 The destination has moved permanently.
302 The destination has moved temporarily, and the user is available at a different
address.
305 The request source should contact the proxy server.
Registrar and Location Server The user agents register with a registrar server
and the registrar server updates the location database (location server). The location
database holds the address of the server that the UAs are connected to. Therefore,
the proxy server can submit a client URL address to the location server and obtain
an IP address of the user agent. The DNS server holds the IP addresses of the proxy
servers.

11.7 SIP Request and Response Commands

SIP uses request and response commands to setup, change, or terminate a conversa-
tion between endpoints. A request is initiated by the client to the server, and a
response is initiated by the server to the clients. The SIP entities use special words
236 11 Voice over Internet Protocols (Voice over IP)

for requests and call methods. The following defines the methods and their
descriptions:

Method Description
INVITE Used for inviting an endpoint for communication
BYE Request for terminating a connection
ACK Used for response to an invitation or for reliable communication between source
and destination
REGISTER Used by a user agent to register with a registrar server
CANCEL Used for canceling a pending call
OPTIONS Used for requesting information about call connection such as bandwidth or
compression methods

Response Codes

SIP uses codes for responding to a request as well. The response codes are classified
in as follows:

Class 1XX Used to indicate progress such as ringing and searching

Class 2XX Used to indicate success
Class 3XX Used for redirecting and forwarding
Class 4XX Client error
Class 5XX Server failure
Class 6XX Global failure (such as busy, not available)

The following table shows some of the specific response code and their
descriptions:

Code Description
100 Trying
180 Ringing
200 OK
301 Destination has moved permanently
302 Destination has moved temporarily
403 Not permitted
480 Unavailable
600 Busy
603 Declined
11.9 SIP Connection Operation 237

11.8 SIP Addressing

SIP uses addressing similar to e-mail addressing, such as by the usage of Universal
Resource Locators (URLs) for addressing
sip: [email protected]
sip: +1-­800-­555-­[email protected]; user located in different network
sip: [email protected]; user located in the same network

11.9 SIP Connection Operation

Consider a connection is made between two UAs through one proxy server.
Figure 11.5 shows two UAs and a proxy server. SIP uses the following commands
and responses in order to set up a connection between user A and B:

SIP User Agent

Sip:[email protected]
SIP:[email protected]

Proxy
Server
Invite
SIP:[email protected]
1 2 invite
3 trying =100
4 ringing =180
5 ringing =180
6 ok 200
7 ok=200

RTP Audi/video communication

Fig. 11.5 Connections between two user agents and one proxy server
238 11 Voice over Internet Protocols (Voice over IP)

DNS server

4
3 Response
Query
134.145.12.1
scsu.edu Proxy
server
scsu.edu
Proxy
Invite server Invite Invite
Sip:[email protected] 5 sip:[email protected] 7 sip:[email protected]
1
6 100 trying 8 180 Ringing
2 100 trying
8 180 Ringing 10
9 180 Ringing
11 200ok 200ok
12 200ok
RTP

Fig. 11.6 Connection of two PSTN phones using the Internet

1. The user agent A sends a packet called an invite to the proxy server.
2. The proxy server accepts the packet and sends it to UA B.
3. The proxy server sends a code 100 to user A and user A waits.
4. Endpoint B accepts the invite packet, and it starts ringing (B agent is ringing).
5. The proxy server passes the code 180 to UA A and A generates rings indicating
that user B is ringing.
6. When user B picks up the phone, B sends an ok packet with code 200 to the
proxy server.
7. The proxy server sends an ok packet with code 200 to user A, user A stops ring-
ing, and a session for communication using RTP is established between A and B.
Figure 11.6 shows a connection between two endpoints through two proxy serv-
ers. As shown in Fig. 11.6, the endpoint A invites endpoint B for connection
through the proxy server A. The proxy server A does not have the IP address of
endpoint B. Therefore, a query is sent to the DNS server to obtain the IP address of
endpoint B.

11.10 Voice over IP Bandwidth Calculation

Voice packets must be received at a constant bit rate. The bit rate is dependent on the
type of codec selection. The audio frame is made in 10 ms and the G.711 codec data
rate is 64,000 bps. Therefore, in 10 ms, 640 bits or 80 bytes can be encoded.
Summary 239

IP header UDP header RTP header Voice payload

20 bytes 8 bytes 12 byes Variable

Fig. 11.7 Voice payload

The G.792 data rate is 8000 bps, which means that 10 ms at this data rate is 80
bits or 10 bytes. The voice packet goes through RTP, UDP, and IP protocols, and
these protocols all add their headers to the voice frame as shown in Fig. 11.7.
The voice packet goes through the Network Card (Ethernet, PPP, or Frame
Relay) and the Network Card also adds its header and trailer, assuming an Ethernet
NIC is used. Ethernet has a 22-byte header and a 4-byte trailer, which gives a total
of 26 bytes added to the voice packet. Therefore, the total voice packet with a 10 ms
payload using G.711 as a codec is calculated as follows:
Voice packet = 80 bytes payload + 40 Bytes (RTP, UDP and IP) header + 26 Ethernet
header = 146 bytes
The voice packet must reach its destination at 64,000 bits per second or 8,000
bytes per second. The 8,000 bytes per second is equal to 100 voice packets per sec-
ond. Therefore, the bandwidth of channel should not be less than:
Bandwidth of a channel =146 bytes*100 = 116800 bps

Summary

• VoIP reduces the cost of long-distance communication.

• Voice quality plays an important role in VoIP.
• Factors that impact voice quality are transmission delay, jitter, and packet loss.
• Voice is converted by a PCM to digital signal.
• Digital signals are converted to analog signals by an A/D converter.
• Protocols for VoIP are SIP and H.323
• Some examples of audio codecs are G.711, G.722 and G.723
• RTP is used for transporting audio and video packets over UDP.
• SIP is an IETF protocol for VoIP.
• SIP components are the SIP user agent, SIP gateway, and SIP proxy server.

Key Terms

Audio codec Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)

Call signaling SIP proxy server
H.323 SIP redirector server
Jitter Delay SIP user agent
Multipoint Conferencing Unit (MCU) Transmission delay
Real Time Control Protocol Video Codec
Real Time Protocol (RTP) VoIP
240 11 Voice over Internet Protocols (Voice over IP)

Review Questions

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Advantages of VoIP are reduced ________.
(a) cost
(b) delay
(c) packet loss
(d) none of the above
2. One of the factors that plays an important role in successful VoIP is:
(a) Cost
(b) Quality of service
(c) Speed
(d) Delay
3. The protocols currently used for VoIP are:
(a) TCP and SIP
(b) SIP and H.323
(c) UDP and H.323
(d) TCP and UDP
4. The Internet Engineering Task Force approved ________ for VoIP.
(a) TCP
(b) SIP
(c) H.323
(d) RTP
5. The function of an audio codec at the transmitting side is to _______________.
(a) convert digital signals to analog
(b) convert voice to digital signal and compress
(c) convert analog signals to digital
(d) none of the above
6. Real Time Protocol is used for_________.
(a) transporting data
(b) transporting voice
(c) transporting audio and video packet
(d) transporting images
7. The SIP gateway is used to connect a ___________ to the Internet.
(a) LAN
(b) WAN
(c) PSTN
(d) DSL
Review Questions 241

8. A ______ accepts a SIP user agent request and forwards it to another user agent.
(a) SIP endpoint
(b) SIP gateway
(c) SIP proxy server
(d) SIP redirector server
9. A ________ accepts requests and directs the client to contact the alternate
user agent.
(a) SIP endpoint
(b) SIP gateway
(c) SIP proxy server
(d) SIP redirector server

Short Answer Questions

1. What does VoIP stand for?
2. Does VoIP reduce or increase costs of voice communications?
3. Why does VoIP reduce the cost of long-distance communications?
4. What is the most important factor to consider in VoIP?
5. What are three factors which impact voice quality over the Internet?
6. Define transmission delay and describe what causes it.
7. Define jitter and describe what causes it.
8. Define packet loss and describe what causes it.
9. List the applications for VoIP.
10. What does PCM stand for and what is the function of PCM?
11. Describe the layers involved for transmission of VoIP.
12. What are the two protocols used for VoIP?
13. What is the function of an audio codec at the transmission side?
14. What is a voice compression device called?
15. List the components of SIP.
16. What is the difference between a stateful and a stateless SIP proxy server?
17. What form of addressing does SIP use?
18. Describe the SIP connection operation.
19. Find the minimum bandwidth requirement for a VoIP channel using a 50 ms
frame and a G.711 codec.
20. Find the minimum bandwidth requirement of a VoIP channel using a 20 ms
audio frame and a G.729 codec.
Chapter 12
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
• Discuss the applications and advantages of a wireless LAN (WLAN).
• Understand wireless LAN technology.
• Describe the applications of the ISM and UNII bands.
• Explain the operation of physical layers for a WLAN.
• Explain the access methods for WLANs.
• Distinguish between different types of IEEE 802.11.
• Discuss wireless LAN security.

Introduction
The wireless local area network (WLAN), or IEEE 802.11, is a LAN technology
that enables users to access an organization’s network from any location inside the
organization without any physical connection to the organization’s network. WLAN
uses radio frequency or infrared waves as transmission media. The WLAN is the
next generation of campus networks. Students are able to connect their laptops to
the campus network from any location inside the campus. In hospitals, a WLAN
allows doctors and nurses to access patients’ files from any site in the hospital.
Likewise, WLANs are used in warehouses and workshops. The following are some
of the advantages of wireless LANs over wired LANs:
1. Wireless LANs can be used in places where wiring is impossible.
2. Wireless LANs can be expanded without any rewiring.
3. Wireless LANs provide the users mobility, that is, the users can move their com-
puters anywhere inside the organization.
4. Wireless LANs support roaming allowing users to move around with their lap-
tops without interrupting their connections.
5. Wireless LANs are cost effective as they make it possible to move from one loca-
tion to another without the expense of connecting wires.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 243
A. Elahi, A. Cushman, Computer Networks,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42018-4_12
244 12 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

12.1 WLAN Components

Wireless LANs are composed of three main components: the WLAN Network
Interface Card (NIC), Access Point, and Network Operating System.
A. WLAN Network Interface Card (NIC): The WLAN Interface Card operates
at the data link layer. The MAC frame is transmitted to the physical layer, and
then the physical layer changes the bits to a radio frequency (RF) signal for
transmission. Also, the physical layer accepts RF signals converted to bits.
B. Access Point (AP): An Access Point is a wireless hub. It is connected to a wired
LAN. The AP provides coordination between wireless devices. Figure 12.1
shows an AP. The antenna of the AP accepts a signal (acting as a receiver) and
transmits signals (as a transmitter). The combination of the receiver and trans-
mitter is called a transceiver.

Access Point (AP) operation

The Access Point operates in layer 2 of the OSI model, and its function is similar to
a switch or a bridge:
1. A client requests association with an AP, then the AP authenticates the client and
records the client’s MAC address, informing the client that the association was
accepted.
2. The client then transmits a packet through air to the AP, and the AP checks the
destination MAC address of the frame. If the destination MAC address is in the
AP’s MAC table, then the AP transmits the frame through the air to its destina-
tion. Otherwise, if the destination MAC address is not in the MAC table, then the
AP will change the frame format from IEEE 802.11 to an Ethernet II frame and
transmit the frame to the connected wired LAN port.
Antenna An antenna is a conductor that it is used to radiate electromagnetic waves
and to receive electromagnetic waves. The antenna can be characterized by direc-
tionality and gain. Directionality refers to the direction of the RF signal transmitted
by the antenna. The two types are: the omnidirectional antenna, which transmits
the RF signal through 360 degrees, and the directional antenna, which transmits in
specific direction, as shown in Fig. 12.2.

Fig. 12.1 A wireless hub

serves as the Access Point
(Courtesy Dlink Corp)
12.2 WLAN Topologies 245

Antenna
Antenna

Directional Antenna
Omni-directional Antenna

Fig. 12.2 Directional and omnidirectional antenna

Antenna Gain The Antenna Gain is measured in dBi, where dB stands for decibel
and i stands for isotropic. An isotropic antenna is an ideal antenna that transmits the
RF signal in all directions equally; but real antennas do not transmit RF signals in
all directions. Therefore, the gain of antennas is given by Eq. 12.1
G = Pa / Pi (12.1)
where:
G is the Antenna Gain (measured in dBi)

G dBi = 10 log10 G

Pi: power density of an isotropic antenna at the same distance

Pa: power density of a real antenna in specific direction and distance
where:
Pi is defined by Eq. 12.2

Pi = Pt / 4 pi r 2 (12.2)

C. Network Operating System: Most operating systems come with a wireless NOS.

12.2 WLAN Topologies

WLAN topologies can be classified as managed wireless networks and unmanaged

wireless networks.
Managed Wireless Network Topologies In a managed wireless network topol-
ogy, the AP coordinates the communications between users. Topologies for man-
aged wireless networks are the Basic Service Set (BSS) topology and the Extended
Service Set (ESS) topology.
Basic Service Set (BSS) BSS is composed of a group of workstations that can
access each other and the wired LAN through an AP, as shown in Fig. 12.3. The
246 12 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

antena

Server
Ethernet Access
HUB Point

Cell

Fig. 12.3 Basic Service Set topology

function of an AP is to coordinate communication between Wireless LAN clients

and the wired LAN. Also, the Access Point receives information from clients and
retransmits that information to the hub. The AP works as a bridge between a wire-
less LAN and wired LAN. The area covered by an AP is called a cell. As shown in
Fig. 12.4, any station inside the cell can access the AP. The Access Point coverage
varies and depends on the manufacturer’s design of the wireless LAN product,
transmitter power, and the environment in which the WLAN operates (indoors or
outdoors). When the number of clients in a cell or area of coverage increases, mul-
tiple Access Points will be added to the wireless LAN, which leads to an Extended
Service Set (ESS) topology.
Extended Service Set (ESS) or Infrastructure Mode ESS is used to expand a
wireless LAN. Figure 12.4 shows an ESS with multiple APs. The APs are all con-
nected to a distribution system.
Distribution System (DS) The functions of the distribution system (DS) are to
form extended service and to provide distribution services between Access Points.
The DS basically acts like a bridge for Access Points.
AP Operation Modes APs can operate in the following modes:
• Access Point: This is the default mode of an AP, where wireless clients use an
AP’s Service Set Identifier (SSID) to transmit packets to the AP.
• Wireless Repeater: Will repeat the signal of another Access Point in order to
extend the coverage.
12.3 Wireless LAN Technology 247

Server

Distribution
System

AP AP

PC PC
PC PC

Fig. 12.4 Extended Service Set topology

Fig. 12.5 Wireless

Ad-Hoc topology

• Wireless Bridge: Will turn the Access Point into a wireless bridge. It will link a
wireless network to a wired network.
Wireless Unmanaged Network The topology for an unmanaged network is called
Ad-Hoc. In an Ad-Hoc topology, the LAN is made of wireless devices without any
Access Point. In this topology, each device communicates directly with other
devices, as shown in Fig. 12.5.

12.3 Wireless LAN Technology

Two types of technology used for the transmission of information in WLANs are
infrared (IR) technology and radio frequency (RF) technology.
248 12 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

Infrared Technology Infrared (IR) technology is suitable for indoor WLANs

because infrared rays cannot penetrate walls, ceilings, or other obstacles. With
infrared technology, the transmitter and receiver should see each other (be in line of
sight) just like the remote control of a television set. In an environment where there
are obstacles such as buildings, walls, etc., between the transmitter and a receiver,
the transmitter may use diffused IR. However, most WLANs use RF technology.
Radio Frequency Technology There are two types of RF signals in use for the
transmission of information: narrowband signal and spread spectrum signal.
Narrowband signal Narrowband signal refers to a signal with a narrow spectrum,
as shown in Fig. 12.6. In narrowband, information is transmitted at a specific fre-
quency, such as AM or FM radio waves.
Spread Spectrum In spread spectrum technology, information is transmitted over
a range of frequencies, as shown in Fig. 12.7. Spread spectrum is one of the most
popular technologies used for WLAN.
There are certain advantages of using the spread spectrum band over the narrow-
band. Some of these advantages are as follows:
• In spread spectrum technology, information is transmitted at different
frequencies.
• It is hard to jam a spread spectrum signal; the signal cannot be disrupted by other
signals.
• Interception of spread spectrum signals is more difficult than interception of a
narrowband signal.
• Noise is less disruptive in spread spectrum signals than in a narrowband signal.

Fig. 12.6 Narrowband Power

signal

Frequency

Power

F1 Fn Frequency

Fig. 12.7 Spread spectrum signal

12.5 Wireless LAN Physical Layer 249

12.4 WLAN Standards (IEEE 802.11 Family)

The IEEE 802.11 committee has approved several standards for WLAN. The stan-
dard defines functions of the Medium Access Control (MAC layer) and the Physical
Layer. Table 12.1 shows the physical layer and data link layer for various WLAN
standards.

12.5 Wireless LAN Physical Layer

In general, the physical layer performs the following functions:

(a) Modulation and encoding: Information is modulated and then transmitted to the
destination.
(b) Supports multiple data rates.
(c) Senses the channel to see if it is clear or not (carrier sense).
(d) Transmits and receives information.
ISM Band The Federal Communication Commission (FCC) allocates a separate
range of frequencies to radio stations, TV stations, telephone companies, and navi-
gation and military agencies. The FCC also allocates a band of frequencies called
the industrial, scientific, and medical band (ISM) for industrial, research, and
medical applications. The use of the ISM band does not require a license from the
FCC (with power of transmission up to one watt). Figure 12.8 shows the ISM band.

Table 12.1 IEEE 802.11 standards and their characteristics

MAC layer
CSMA/CA and Point Coordination Function(PCF)
IEEE802.11 physical layer
Frequency Channel Modulation
Standard Date band GHz bandwidth methods Antenna Data rate
802.11 1997 2.4 20 MHz DSSS, FHSS 2 Mbps
802.11b 1999 2.4 20 MHz DSSS 11 Mbps
802.11a 1999 5 20 MHz OFDM 54 Mbps
802.11g 2003 2.4 20 MHz DSSS, OFDM 54Mbps
802.11n 2009 2.4 and 5 20 ad 40 MHz OFDM Up to 4 MIMO 600Mbps
802.11ac 2013 5 20,40,80 MHz OFDM Up to 8 MIMO 6.93Gbps

902 MHz 928 MHz 2.4 GHz 2.48 GHz 5.725 GHz 5.85 GHz
Industrial Band Scientific Band Medical Band
I-band S-band M-band

Fig. 12.8 ISM band

250 12 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

12.5.1 IEEE 802.11 Physical Layer Operation

IEEE 802.11b and g operate at 2.4 GHz, while IEEE02.11n operates at both the 2.4
and 5 GHz band. The physical layer signal transmission methods are Frequency
Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS), Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS),
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM), and Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiple Access (OFDMA).
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) The IEEE 802.11 standard rec-
ommends the use of the scientific band (2.4 GHz to 2.483 GHz) of the ISM band for
WLAN. This band is divided into 79 channels of 1 MHz each. The transmitter sends
each part of its information on a different channel. Figure 12.9 shows frequency
hopping spread spectrum.
The order of the channels used by the transmitter to transmit information to the
receiver is predefined, and the receiver knows the order of the incoming channels.
For example, the transmitter may use a hop pattern of 3, 6, 5, 7, and 2 for transmit-
ting information. The hop sequence can be selected during the installation of the
WLAN. The FCC requires that a transmitter spend a maximum of 400 ms in each
frequency for the transmission of data (this time is called the Dwell time) and use
75 hop patterns (each hop is one channel). The FCC also requires that the maximum
power for the transmitter in the United States should not exceed one watt.
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) is more immune to noise because
information is transmitted at different channels. In FHSS, if one channel is noisy, it
can retransmit information on another channel.
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) In DSSS, before transmission, each
bit of information is broken down to a pattern of bits called a Chip. For the genera-
tion chip bits, each information bit is Exclusive-ORed with Pseudo Random Code,
as shown in Fig. 12.10. The output of the Exclusive-OR for each data bit is called
chip bits. These chip bits are modulated and then transmitted. This method creates
a higher modulation rate because the transmitter transmits the chip bit over a larger
frequency spectrum. Figure 12.11 shows the transmission section of the physical
layer. The receiver uses the same pseudo random code to decode the original data.

Power

Ch2 Ch3 Ch4 Ch79 Ch80

Frequency
2.401 2.402 2.403 2.404 2.478 2.479 2.480 Ghz

Fig. 12.9 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum

12.5 Wireless LAN Physical Layer 251

1 0

Data Bit

Pseudo Random Code

Output
of XOR

Chip bits for one Chip bits for zero

Fig. 12.10 Generation chips

Antena

Information Exclusive
OR Modulator Amplifier
Pseudo code

Carrier
frequency

Fig. 12.11 Transmission section of physical layer

A larger chip sequence generates a larger frequency band. IEEE 802.11 recom-
mends 11 bits for each chip.
The DSSS supports two types of modulation: Differential Binary Phase Shift
Keying (DBPSK), which is used for a data rate of 1 Mbps, and Differential
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (DQPSK), which is used for data rates of 2 Mbps.
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) Multipath fading occurs
when a communication signal transmitted through the air takes multiple paths to its
destination. Due to this problem, multiple copies of the same signal will reach the
intended target at different times. The problem may become compounded if this
delay is greater than the time it takes to transmit a signal. This may cause what is
known as Inter-Signal Interference (ISS), whereby a subsequent signal transmission
arrives before a primary transmission. Applying OFDM to the transmitted signal
will eliminate the problems associated with ISS.
OFDM, also called Multicarrier Modulation, divides the channel bandwidth into
multiple orthogonal (out of phase by 90 degrees) subchannels, as shown in
Fig. 12.12. The data stream is divided into n*m bit streams, where n is the number
252 12 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

Fig. 12.12 OFDM

Subchannels

Fig. 12.13 Block diagram of OFDM

of channels and m is the number of bits in the data stream. The value of m depends
on the modulation technique used by the Modulation block shown in Fig. 12.13. If
QPSK is used for modulation, then m is equal to 2 bits. Each bit stream will use a
different subcarrier for transmission.
OFDM has been used in IEEE 802.11a/g, IEEE 802.11n, IEEE 802.16a, and
Digital Audio Broadcast (DAB).
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) In OFDM, only
one user transmits on a subcarrier channel. Multiple users transmit on subcarrier
channels at different times, where each user is assigned subchannels for transmission.

12.5.2 IEEE 802.11b Physical Layer

The IEEE 802.11b standard extends the DSSS physical layer of 802.11 to provide
higher data rates of 5.5 Mbps and 11 Mbps. 802.11b uses Complementary Code
Keying (CCK that may be used) to support the two data rates: 5.5 Mbps and 11
Mbps, in addition to 1 Mbps and 2 Mbps.
IEEE 802.11b Channels The IEEE 802.11b standard defines 11 channels; each
channel is represented by its center frequency. For example, channel 1’s center
­frequency is 2412Mhz, and channel 2’s is 2417 Mhz. The center frequency of each
channel is separated from adjacent channels by 5 MHz. The bandwidth of each
12.5 Wireless LAN Physical Layer 253

AP(1) AP(6) AP(11)

AP(11) AP(1) AP(6)

AP(6) AP(11) AP(1)

Fig. 12.14 Locations of Access Points in a three-story building

5.15Ghz 5.25Ghz 5.35Ghz 5.725Ghz 5.825GHz

40 mW 200 mW 800 mW

100 MHz 100 MHz 100 MHz

Fig. 12.15 Frequency of operation for U-NII band

Table 12.2 Characteristics of IEEE 802.11 a, b, and g

802.11b 802.11g 802.11a
Available RF channel 3 nonoverlapping 3 nonoverlapping 8 nonoverlapping
Frequency band 2.4 GHz 2,4 GHz 5 GHz
Maximum data rate 11 Mbps 54 Mbps 54 Mbps
Rate/typical range 100ft at 11Mbps 50ft at 54 Mbps 40 ft at 54 Mbps
300ft at 1Mbps 150 ft at 11 Mbps 300 ft at 6Mbps

channel is 16 MHz, and using adjacent channels will cause interference. IEEE
802.11b supports three nonoverlapping channels, 1, 6, and 11, to overcome interfer-
ence. To avoid channel overlap, the most common used channels are 1, 6, and 11.
Figure 12.14 shows an arrangement of APs in a three-story building, where each
row represents one floor with its Access Point and channel number.
IEEE 802.11a Physical Layer IEEE 802.11a operates at 5 GHz and it is not com-
patible with IEEE802.11b; it uses DSSS technology. IEEE 802.11a operates in the
Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure Band (U-NII). The U-NII band
consists of three 100 MHz frequency bands, as shown in Fig. 12.15. The physical
layer of IEEE 802.11a uses Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
for transmitting data at higher rates. IEEE 802.11a offers data rates of 6, 9, 12, 18,
24, 36, 48, and 58 Mbps. The physical layer can use any of the BPSK, QPSK,
16QAM, and 64QAM for modulation depending on the data rate. The frequency of
the operation is made of twelve 20Mhz channels.
IEEE 802.11g Physical Layer IEEE 802.11a and IEEE 802.11b define different
standards, which are not compatible with each other. IEEE 802.11b operates at
2.4 GHz and transmits data at the rate of 11 Mbps using DSSS technology, whereas
IEEE 802.11a uses OFDM. IEEE 802.11g operates in 2.4 GHz using DSSS and
OFDM for the transmission of information. Table 12.2 shows the characteristic of
IEEE 802.11 a, b, and g.
254 12 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

12.6 Physical Layer Architecture

Figure 12.16 shows the physical layer architecture of the IEEE 802.11 family. The
physical layer is divided into two sublayers: the Physical Layer Convergence
Procedure (PLCP) and Physical Medium Dependent.
The MAC layer transfers a frame to the Physical Layer Convergence Procedure
(PLCP). The PLCP adds its own header to the MAC frame and transmits the frame
to PMD for transmission. The IEEE 802.11 defines frequency hopping and DSS for
the physical layer. Figure 12.17 shows the PLCP header for DSSS, and Fig. 12.18
shows the PLCP frame format for frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS).
The following describes the function of each field in the PLCP frame format:
Sync Field: Sync Field is used for synchronization. It is 80 bits of alternating 0’s
and 1’s.
SFD Field: The SFD Field is 00001100 10111101.
Length Field: This field defines the length of PLCP in bytes.
Signaling: This field indicates to the physical layer the modulation type that must
be used for transmission of the frame. The data rate is calculated as follows:

Fig. 12.16 Physical layer

architecture
Data Link Layer

Physical Layer
Convergence Procedure
Physical Medium Physical
Dependent (PMD) Layer

80 16 12 4 16 bits

Syn SFD Length Signaling CRC MAC Frame

PLCP Header for DSSS

Fig. 12.17 PLCP frame format for DSSS

128 16 8 8 16 16 bits

Syn SFD Signaling Service Length CRC MAC Frame

Fig. 12.18 PLCP for FHSS

12.7 WLAN Medium Access Control 255

Table 12.3 Value of Value of signal field in Hex Data rate in Mbps
signaling field and data rate 0A 1
14 2
37 5.5
6E 11

Data rate  Value in signal field 100 Kbps

The value of signaling field and its data rate is shown in Table 12.3.
CRC-16: Is used for error detection in the PLCP header.
Service Field: This field is reserved.
IEEE 802.11b has two types of PLCP Preamble headers, Short PLCP preamble
headers and Long PLCP preamble headers. The short PLCP Preamble header has 56
bits for the Synchronization field and the Long Preamble header has a 128-bit
Synchronization header.
Interframe Space
In general, the Interframe space enables the receiver to complete the frame before
the next frame comes. The IEEE 802.11 defines three types of Interframe Spaces
(IFS) among the frames transmitted between source and destination. They are:
1. Short Interframe Space (SIFS): This Interframe Space is used for immediate
responses such as ACK, CTS and RTS.
2. Distribution Coordination Function Interframe Gap Space (DIFS): DIFS is used
for the spacing of data frames.
3. Point Coordination Function Interframe Space (PIFS): This interval is used for
the point condition access method and the gap is used for polling of a client. The
client should respond after this time.

12.7 WLAN Medium Access Control

The Medium Access Control (MAC) layer performs the following functions:
• Supports multiple physical layers
• Supports access control
• Fragmentation of frame
• Frame encryption
• Roaming
IEEE 802.11a defines distribution coordination function (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access with Collision Avoidance CSMA/CA) and point coordination function as
methods for a station to access Wireless LANs.
256 12 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

Fig. 12.19 CSMA/CA

flowchart
Station
Ready to transmit

Is channel no
idle

yes

Wait for IFS

Is channel No
idle

yes

Transmit packet

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) is similar to
CSMA/CD. In CSMA/CA, when a station wants to transmit a frame, first it listens
to the medium. If there is no traffic, it continues to wait for a Short Interframe
Space, and if there is still no traffic on medium, then the station will start transmit-
ting. Otherwise, it has to wait for the medium to become clear. Figure 12.19 shows
the CSMA/CA flowchart operation.
In order to reduce the probability of two stations transmitting simultaneously
because they cannot hear each other, the standard defines a Virtual Carrier Sense
mechanism.
Virtual Carrier Sense Figure 12.20 shows two stations and one Access Point.
Stations B and C are covered by an Access Point, but station B cannot cover station
C. While the Access Point communicates with station B, C can listen to the AP and
detect if that medium is clear or not. Station C waits for the media to be clear. When
B is transmitting to the AP, C is not in the range to detect that B is transmitting to
the AP. Therefore, C will see the media as clear and start transmission. B and C will
12.7 WLAN Medium Access Control 257

Fig. 12.20 CSMA/CA

for WLAN

Coverage B Coverage C

AP

Coverage A

Fig. 12.21 CSMA/CA Station B AP device

process

RTS

or
Busy

CTS

Data

ACK/ NACK

be transmitting to the AP at the same time and cause a collision. Station C is a hid-
den station; therefore, there is no physical connection to detect this collision. The
following steps describe the CSMA/CA operation and Fig. 12.21 shows the CSMA/
CA process.
1. Station B wants to transmit to the AP so it senses the medium. If the medium is
clear, it sends a short message to the AP called the Request to Send (RST). This
message contains the destination and source addresses, and the size of the data
to be transmitted.
2. If the AP is ready to communicate with B, the AP will send a Clear to Send
(CTS) frame to B; otherwise, it will send a busy frame. This signal can be
detected by station C and is taken as a busy medium. Station B receives a CTS
signal and then transmits its frame. The receiver acknowledges each frame trans-
mitted by B.
258 12 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

Point Coordination Function (PCF) Access Method

IEEE 802.11 provides the point coordination function as an optional access method.
The AP polls each user for transmission. In the PCF method, the AP listens to the
medium; if there is no traffic in the medium it sends a Beacon frame to all users
indicating that the PCF method will be used for the access method and all users
must stop transmission. Then the AP sends a poll frame to a specific user. If the user
has any data, it will transmit; otherwise, the user will send a null frame to the AP.

12.8 MAC Frame Format

IEEE 802.11 defines three types of frames for WLAN: Management frames, Control
frames, and Data frames. Figure 12.22 shows the MAC frame format for IEEE 802.11.
The function of each field in MAC frame of IEEE 802.11 are described as
follows:
Frame Control: The Frame Control field is 2 bytes and defines the type of frame,
as shown in Fig. 12.23.
The following describes the function of each field of Fig. 12.23:
Protocol: Defines the protocol version. The current version is zero.
Type: Defines the type of the frame. 00 means management frame, 01 means control
frame, and 10 means data frame.
Subtype: Defines the subframe in each type. There are several subtype manage-
ment frames.
To DS and From DS Fields: To DS and From DS define the direction of the frame
and the function of the address fields in Fig. 12.23. Table 12.4 describes the func-
tion of To DS, From DS, and address fields (Address1, Address2, Address 3, and
Address 4 fields).
In Table 12.4, DA is the destination address (MAC address) and SA is the source
address.
More Fragment: The fragment field set to 1 indicates that more frames, belonging
to the same application, are coming. This field set to zero indicates to the destina-
tion that the current frame is the last frame.
Power Management: This bit set to 1 indicates that the transmitter is operating
under power management.

2 2 6 6 6 2 6 0-2312 4 bytes

Frame Duration/ID Address Address Address Sequence Address Information CRC

Control 1 2 3 4
number

Fig. 12.22 MAC frame for IEEE 802.11

12.9 WLAN Frame Types 259

bits 2 2 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Protocol More
Type Subtype To DS Fro m Retry Power More WE R
DS Frag ment Man Data P S

Fig. 12.23 Frame Control field

Table 12.4 To DS and from DS

To From
DS DS Address 1 Address 2 Address 3 Address 4 Comments
0 0 DA SA BSS ID Unused Transferring a frame between
two stations located in the
same BSS or Cell
0 1 DA BSS ID SA Unused Transferring frame from DS
to a station in a cell
1 0 BSS ID SA DA Unused Transferring a frame
from a station to DS
1 1 Receiver Transmitter DA SA This is used for wireless
Address Address distribution system

Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP): This bit set to 1 to indicate that a Cryptographic
Algorithm has changed the information.
Retry: Retry set to1 indicates that this is a copy of the previous frame.
RS: Reserved bit.
Duration/ID This field contains the duration value (Network Allocation Vector
NAV value) to inform other stations how long it will take for the source to complete
its transmission (in microseconds). The other stations use the NAV value to defer
their transmissions.
Sequence Number This field is divided into two fields: a 4-bit field and a 12-bit
field. The first four bits indicates a fragment number, and the 12-bit field indicates
the sequence number of the frame.

12.9 WLAN Frame Types

The IEEE defines three types of frames: management frames, control frames, and
data frames.
Management Frames The management frame is used by a station to make a con-
nection to the AP, to disconnect the station from the AP, and for timing and synchro-
nization. Some of the management frames are:
• Association Request (subtype = 0000): Client sends a request frame for joining
a BSS network.
• Association Response (subtype = 0001): AP responds to client request as to
whether the AP is accepting this request or not.
260 12 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

• Reassociation (Subtype = 0010) Sending a frame by a client when moving from

one BSS to another.
• Reassociation Response (Subtype = 0011): In response to reassociation, AP
sends a reassociation frame to the client on whether it accepts the client joining
the AP to BSS or not.
• Disassociation (Subtype = 1010): Used by a client to terminate its association
with BSS.
• Beacon (Subtype = 1000): A Beacon frame is transmitted by the Access Point
periodically to inform other wireless stations of its presence. This frame contains
the following information:
(a) The Beacon interval, which is used by the station to know when to wake up
for the next beacon
(b) Timestamp, which is used for synchronization between the Access Point and
wireless station
(c) Types of signaling, such as FHSS and DSSS
(d) Supported data rates
• Probe Request (Subtype = 0101): Station requesting information from another
station.
Control Frames Used for flow control such as positive acknowledgement (ACK),
RTS (Subtype = 1011), and CTS (Subtype = 1100).
Power Management Most of the Clients in a Wireless LAN are laptop computers
and mobile phones, and power saving is an important factor for a wireless client.
Therefore, IEEE 802.11 defines two power management modes. They are: Active or
Continuous Aware Mode (CAM) and Power Save polling (PSP) “sleep” mode.
Active Mode or Continuous Aware mode (CAM): In this mode, the wireless Client
uses full power.
Power Save polling (sleep): In this mode, the wireless client goes to sleep, meaning
that the client uses less power and turns off power to the display, disks, and other
peripherals that are not needed.
In PSP mode, the following operations take place:
(a) The client sends a frame to the AP informing the AP that the client is going
to sleep.
(b) The Access Point records the stations that are asleep.
(c) The Access Point buffers the sleeping client’s frames.
(d) The clients that are asleep continuously receive beacon frames.
(e) The Access Point sends beacon frames with traffic indication map (TIM) which
informs clients that were asleep that they have frames in the AP.
(f) The clients that have frames in the AP switch their power mode to active mode.
(g) The client sends a request for its frames.
Data Frames Data frames are used for the transfer of information.
12.13 WLAN Signal Distortion 261

12.10 Station Joining A Basic Service Set

In order for a client to associate with an Access Point, it must perform the probe
phase, authentication phase, and association phase. The following describes each
phase in detail:
Probe phase: When a station wants to join a BSS, the station needs to get synchro-
nization information from the AP (clock value of AP). This can be accomplished
in two ways: by passive scanning and active scanning.
Passive scanning: In this method, the station can receive a beacon frame,
which is being sent out periodically by the Access Point. This beacon frame
contains synchronization information.
Active scanning: In this method, the station transmits a Probe request frame
to locate an Access Point and waits for a Probe response. The Probe response
frame contains the synchronization clock.
Association phase: If the authentication phase is completed successfully, the sta-
tion will send an association request packet to the Access Point. The Access
Point adds the station to its association table. A station can associate only with
one Access Point at a time.

12.11 Roaming

Roaming is when a station moves from one cell to another cell without losing con-
nection. In WLAN, moving from one cell to another must be performed between
packet transmissions, meaning the packet must be transmitted completely before
moving to another cell.

12.12 Wi-Fi Certification

Since there are many manufacturers of wireless equipment, it is necessary to ensure

that all wireless devices are interoperable. Therefore, the Wireless Ethernet
Compatibility Alliance (WECA) offers certification for wireless equipment interop-
erability, referred to as Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi).

12.13 WLAN Signal Distortion

The RF signal can be distorted while going through physical obstacles such as a
wall, a ceiling, or by multipath fading.
262 12 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

Ceiling

Access Point

Reflector

Fig. 12.24 Multipath fading

Multipath Fading Multipath fading occurs when a communication signal trans-

mitted through the air takes multiple paths to reach the destination, as shown in
Fig. 12.24. The receiver receives multiple signals with different delays and ampli-
tudes. When the delay of the transmitted signal increases, it will distort the signal
causing data to be corrupted and reduce data throughput.

12.14 IEEE 802.11n

The IEEE 802.11n protocol adds several enhancements to the physical and MAC
layers of the IEEE802.11a/b/g protocols in order to improve performance, effi-
ciency, and throughput. These enhancements are:
1. Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO): MIMO uses multiple transmitters and
multiple receivers. MIMO, as defined under IEEE 802.11n, is characterized by
the formula N*M, where N is the number of transmitters and M is the number of
receivers ranging from 1*1 to 4*4.
2. 40 MHZ operation band.
3. Frame aggregation: Combining two or more frames into a single frame for
transmission.
4. Block acknowledgment: Multiple packets can be acknowledged with sin-
gle packet.
5. Backward compatibility with IEEE 802.11 a/b/g.
6. Spatial multiplexing: Simultaneously send multiple data stream to the receivers.
12.14 IEEE 802.11n 263

7. Beamforming transmissions: Used to improve the signal to noise (S/N) ratio in

order to increase the coverage area. This is applicable only for the use of one
receiver (IEEE80.11a/b/g).
The following are IEEE 802.11n characteristics:
A. Ratified date: 2009
B. Operation band: 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz
C. Modulation: up to 64 QAM
D. Channel bandwidth: 20 and 40 MHz
E. MIMO: up to 4*4
F. Maximum data rate: 600 Mbps
G. Technology: OFDM
H. 24 channels (20 MHz channels)
I. 12 channels (40 MHz channels)
MIMO (Multiple-Input and Multiple-Output)
The most important development of IEEE 802.11n is the use of MIMO (Multiple-­
Input and Multiple-Output) technology. MIMO technology consists of beamform-
ing and Spatial Multiplexing.
Beamforming
According Nyquist’s theorem, the maximum data rate of a communication channel
is defined by the equation:

MAX Data Rate  W log 1  S / N  , (12.3)

where S/N is the ratio of signal power to noise power.

The larger the S/N, the higher the channel data rate. MIMO technology uses
beamforming to increase the S/N ratio. If the transmitted signals are of the same
phase, the effect will be an increase of the amplitude of the signal at the receiver, as
seen in Fig. 12.25. If the transmitted signals are out of phase, the effect will be a
decrease in the amplitude of the signal seen at the receiver, as is seen in Fig. 12.26.
Beamforming is useful when there is only one receiver, and it is used to expand
the coverage area of the signal.
12.15.20 MHz bands and 40 MHz Bands The IEEE 802.11a/g uses 20 MHz
channel spacing with Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM). IEEE
802.11a/g divides the 20 MHz channel into 52 subchannels and uses 48 subchannels
for transmission. IEEE802.11n combines two 20 MHz channels resulting in a single
40 MHz bandwidth channel. The 40 MHz channel is then divided into 114 subchan-
nels, with 108 channels used for transmission, resulting in a doubling of the data rate.
Spatial Multiplexing
Spatial multiplexing subdivides a data stream into multiple pieces called Spatial
Streams (SP). Each spatial stream is transmitted through a different transmitter
using the same channel frequency. Figure 12.27 shows a 2*2 MIMO with a Data
Stream divided into four spatial streams; M1, M2, M3, and M4. The M1 and M2
264 12 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

Fig. 12.25 Beamforming (same phase)

Fig. 12.26 Beamforming (out of phase)

Fig. 12.27 2*2 MIMO

Spatial streams are transmitted by Tx1 and TX2, respectively, and the M3 and M4
spatial streams are transmitted by TX1 and TX2, respectively. The receiving side
reassembles the streams.
12.14 IEEE 802.11n 265

Modulation and Coding

The IEEE 802.11n protocol will negotiate its capability with clients for selection of
spatial stream, RF modulation, coding rate, and guard interval (guard interval is the
time between transmitted frames). The guard interval of the IEEE 802.11a/g proto-
col is 800 ns, but the guard interval of the IEEE 802.11n protocol is 400ns.
Frame Aggregation
IEEE 802.11n combines multiple frames into a single frame for transmission. There
are two types of frame aggregation:
1. Aggregated MAC Service Data Unit (A-MSDU)
2. Aggregated MAC Protocol Data Unit (A-MPDU)
A-MSDU: A-MSDU is used by a station that has multiple data packets to send to
a single destination. The station combines the data packets into a single MAC
Protocol unit for transmission as shown in Fig. 12.28. In Fig. 12.29, all three packets
are combined by the MAC layer, which then adds its own header.
A-MPDU: A-MPDU is used by a station that has multiple data packets to send to
a single destination but which originates from different applications. Each packet
has its own MAC header but the combined packet uses only one physical layer
header as shown in Fig. 12.29.
Block Acknowledgment
Block acknowledgment is used to acknowledge multiple frames. If the receiver
receives three frames, then it acknowledges all three frames with one frame, as
shown in Fig. 12.30.

Data Packet1 Data Packet2 Data Packet3

MAC header Data Packet1 Data Packet2 Data Packet3

Fig. 12.28 A-MSDU aggregation

Fig. 12.29 A-MPDU aggregation

Fig. 12.30 Block acknowledgment

266 12 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

Guard Interval (GI)

The guard interval is the space between sequentially transmitted frames. It is used
to ensure that frames taking a longer path will not collide with newly transmitted
frames. IEEE 802.11a/g defines an 800 ns guard interval but IEEE 802.11n uses a
400 ns guard interval.
Coding Rate
The coding rate defines the useful data in a packet. Extra bits are added to packets
for forward error correction. If the useful information is represented by K bits and
N represents the total bits in the packet, then the code rate is denoted by K/N.
Data rates
Table 12.5 shows the data rate of IEEE 802.11n for different types of modulation,
code rate, and GI.

Table 12.5 Data rate of IEEE 802.11n (wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11n-­2009)

Data rate (Mbit/s)
20 MHz channel 40 MHz channel
800 ns 400 ns 800 ns 400 ns
MCSindex Spatialstreams Modulationtype Codingrate GI GI GI GI
0 1 BPSK 1/2 6.50 7.20 13.50 15.00
1 1 QPSK 1/2 13.00 14.40 27.00 30.00
2 1 QPSK 3/4 19.50 21.70 40.50 45.00
3 1 16-QAM 1/2 26.00 28.90 54.00 60.00
4 1 16-QAM 3/4 39.00 43.30 81.00 90.00
5 1 64-QAM 2/3 52.00 57.80 108.00 120.00
6 1 64-QAM 3/4 58.50 65.00 121.50 135.00
7 1 64-QAM 5/6 65.00 72.20 135.00 150.00
8 2 BPSK 1/2 13.00 14.40 27.00 30.00
9 2 QPSK 1/2 26.00 28.90 54.00 60.00
10 2 QPSK 3/4 39.00 43.30 81.00 90.00
11 2 16-QAM 1/2 52.00 57.80 108.00 120.00
12 2 16-QAM 3/4 78.00 86.70 162.00 180.00
13 2 64-QAM 2/3 104.00 115.60 216.00 240.00
14 2 64-QAM 3/4 117.00 130.00 243.00 270.00
15 2 64-QAM 5/6 130.00 144.40 270.00 300.00
16 3 BPSK 1/2 19.50 21.70 40.50 45.00
17 3 QPSK 1/2 39.00 43.30 81.00 90.00
18 3 QPSK 3/4 58.50 65.00 121.50 135.00
19 3 16-QAM 1/2 78.00 86.70 162.00 180.00
20 3 16-QAM 3/4 117.00 130.70 243.00 270.00
21 3 64-QAM 2/3 156.00 173.30 324.00 360.00
22 3 64-QAM 3/4 175.50 195.00 364.50 405.00
23 3 64-QAM 5/6 195.00 216.70 405.00 450.00
24 4 BPSK 1/2 26.00 28.80 54.00 60.00
25 4 QPSK 1/2 52.00 57.60 108.00 120.00
(continued)
12.15 IEEE 802.11AC 267

Table 12.5 (continued)

Data rate (Mbit/s)
20 MHz channel 40 MHz channel
800 ns 400 ns 800 ns 400 ns
MCSindex Spatialstreams Modulationtype Codingrate GI GI GI GI
26 4 QPSK 3/4 78.00 86.80 162.00 180.00
27 4 16-QAM 1/2 104.00 115.60 216.00 240.00
28 4 16-QAM 3/4 156.00 173.20 324.00 360.00
29 4 64-QAM 2/3 208.00 231.20 432.00 480.00
30 4 64-QAM 3/4 234.00 260.00 486.00 540.00
31 4 64-QAM 5/6 260.00 288.80 540.00 600.00

Table 12.6 Comparison of IEEE 802.11n and IEEE 802.11ac

802.11n 802.11ac
Channel bandwidth 20 and 40 MHz 80 and 160 MHZ
Frequency band 2.4 and 5GHz 5 GHZ
Modulation methods BPSK, QPSK 16QAM, and Same as 802.11n plus
64QAM 256QAM
MIMO 4*4 8*8
Transmission Single client Multiple Clients
Support MAC A-MSDU, AMPDU A-MSDU, AMPDU
combination
Maximum, data rate >600 Mbps > Gigabits ( 80 MHz Channel)

12.15 IEEE 802.11AC

IEEE 802.11ac is an improvement of 802.11n in the 5 GHz band. The IEEE802.11ac

specification was certified by the Wi-Fi Alliance in mid-2013, and it is referred to as
very high throughput (VHT).
The IEEE 802.11AC also adds new technology to the MIMO called Multiuser
MIMO. The MIMO increases the data streams for a single client, but Multiuser
MIMO enables the Access Point to stream data to multiple clients. The following
table compares 802.11n with 802.11ac (Table 12.6).
802.11 g, n, and ac use OFDM and divide the channel into subchannels with a
bandwidth of 312.5 kHz for each channel.
268 12 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

Summary

• The standard for wireless LANs is the IEEE 802.11 series.

• Components of WLANs are the WLAN NIC, Access Point, and NOS.
• WLANs uses RF and IR signals for transmitting information.
• The IR ray mode of transmission is used indoors and cannot penetrate through
obstacles.
• IEEE 802.11 defines Frequency hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) and Direct
Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) for the physical layer using RF signals.
• IEEE 802.11 defines Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance for
the access method.
• WLANs use the ISM-band and the U-NII band.
• WLAN topologies are: managed wireless network and unmanaged wireless
network.
• Managed Wireless network topologies are: Basic Service Set (BSS) and Extended
Service Set (ESS).
• Wireless unmanaged networks are called Ad-Hoc networks.
• Narrow band signal refers to a signal with narrow spectrum.
• Spread spectrum signal refers to a signal with a range of frequencies.
• IEEE 802.11, IEEE 802.11b, and IEEE 802.11g operate in the ISM band, and the
data rates for IEEE 802.11b are 1, 2, 5.5, and 11 Mbps.
• IEEE 802.11b offers three nonoverlapping channels; channels 1, 6, and 11.
• IEEE 802.11b uses complementary code keying for the transmission of
information.
• The IEEE 802.11 family uses CSMA/CA and point of coordination function
(PCF) for the access method.
• IEEE 802.11g operates in 2.4 GHz and uses DSSS and OFDM for the transmis-
sion of information.
• The Wireless alliance offers certification for wireless equipment interoperability
as referred to Wi-Fi.
• WLAN uses SSID, MAC filtering, WEP, and authentication for security.
Review Questions 269

Key Terms

Access Point (AP) Infrared (IR)

Ad-Hoc Infrastructure band (U-NII)
Authentication Multipath fading
Basic Service Set (BSS) Narrowband signal
Beacon frame Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
(OFDM)
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Peer-to-Peer-Network
Cell Radio frequency (RF)
Chip Roaming
Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) Service Set Identifier
Complementary Code Keying (CCK) Spread spectrum
Direct sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) Unlicensed National Information
Extended Service Set (ESS) Wi-FI
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FSH) Wireless local area network
Industrial Scientific and medical Band (ISMB)

Review Questions

Multiple Choice Questions

1. What is the transmission media for WLAN?
(a) Air
(b) Cable
(c) Optical cable
(d) UTP
2. An advantage of using spread spectrum signals over narrowband signals is that:
(a) Spread spectrum has more power.
(b) Spread spectrum signals use a range of frequencies.
(c) Narrowband signals use a range of a frequencies.
(d) Spread spectrum uses a single frequency.
3. The area covered by an Access Point is called a ____.
(a) frame
(b) token
(c) cell
(d) chip
270 12 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

4. Which of the following technologies are used for WLAN?

(a) Infrared
(b) Radio frequency
(c) a&b
(d) Digital signal
5. What is the IEEE standard for WLAN?
(a) IEEE 802.10
(b) IEEE 802.11
(c) IEEE 802.12
(d) IEEE 802.13
6. IEEE 802.11g offers data rates of _____.
(a) 1 and 2 mbps
(b) 1, 2, and 11 mbps
(c) 54 mbps
(d) 11 and 45 mbps
7. The nonoverlapping channels for IEEE 802.11b are_________.
(a) 1, 10, and 11
(b) 1, 6, and 11
(c) 1, 4, and 10
(d) 3, 4, and 5
8. IEEE 802.11g operates in the _______ band.
(a) U-NII
(b) ISM
(c) B
(d) C
9. IEEE 802.11n operates in the ________ bands
(a) U-NII
(b) 2.4 GHz
(c) 5 GHz
(d) b&c
10. IEEE 802.11g uses ________ and _________for transmitting information.
(a) DSSS and FHS
(b) DSSS and OFDM
(c) DSSS and CCK
(d) FHS and OFDM
Review Questions 271

11. A Beacon frame is transmitted by a ________

(a) client station
(b) Access Point
(c) client and Access Point
(d) distributed system
12. DSSS uses _______chip bits.
(a) 11
(b) 12
(c) 15
(d) 20
13. IEEE 802.11G uses_________ technology for transmission of information.
(a) CCK
(b) OFDM
(c) FHS
(d) HR-DSSS

Short Answer Questions

1. What does WLAN stand for?
2. What are the components of a WLAN?
3. What are the WLAN topologies?
4. What is a cell?
5. What is an AD-Hoc topology?
6. Explain narrowband signals and spread spectrum signals.
7. What is the function of an Access Point device in a WLAN?
8. What are the advantages of a spread spectrum signal over a narrowband signal?
9. What are the IEEE standards for WLANs and their data rates?
10. What does OFDM stand for?
11. Explain OFDM operation.
12. What does DSSS stand for?
13. Explain DSSS.
14. What are the data rates for IEEE 802.11b?
15. How many nonoverlapping channels are offered by IEEE 802.11b or g?
16. What is the maximum data rate for IEEE 802.11a?
17. What is the range of frequencies for the U-NII band?
18. What are the types of access methods for WLANs?
19. What are the types of frame formats for WLANs?
20. What is the function of the association request frame?
21. Which devices transmits beacon frames?
22. What is the Service Set Identifier?
23. What does CSMA/CA stand for?
272 12 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

24. What is the function of Wi-Fi?

25. What are the causes of signal distortion?
26. Explain multipath fading.
27. Explain the operation of FHSS.
28. Explain access methods for WLAN.
29. What does ISM stand for?
30. What does MIMO stand for?
31. What is the maximum number of transmitters and receivers for IEEE 802.11n?
32. What are the frequency bands for IEEE 802.11n?
33. What are the channel frequencies in which IEEE 802.11n can operate?
34. List the types of frame aggregation used by IEEE 802.11n.
35. What is the advantage of frame aggregation?
36. What type of frame aggregation is used for single destination and single
application?
37. What type of frame aggregation is used for single destination and multiple
applications?
38. Does MIMO transmit spatial streams in one frequency or several different
frequencies?
39. What is the guard interval?
40. What is application beamforming?
41. What is the maximum data rate of IEEE 802.11n?
Chapter 13
Low Power Wireless Technologies
for Internet of Things (IoT)

Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
• List types of Low Power Wireless Networks.
• Describe Low Power Wide Area Networks.
• List the applications of ZigBee.
• Explain ZigBee topologies.
• Show the ZigBee Protocol Architecture.
• List ZigBee device types.
• Show the ZigBee physical layer frame format.
• Describe ZigBee node address assignment.
• List ZigBee physical management services.
• Explain the IEEE standard for ZigBee’s MAC and physical layers.
• Show the 6LoPAN Protocol Architecture.
• Describe the Application of 6LoPAN.
• List the applications of the LoRa Wide Area Network.
• Describe LoRaWAN characteristics.
• List LoRa WAN components and their function.
• Show LoRaWAN Protocol Architecture.
• Describe LoRaWAN end devices.
• List LoRaWAN security keys.

Introduction
Internet of Things technology (IoT) is growing fast due the advancement of low
power wireless sensor networks. These low power networks find use in automation
of commercial building systems, home automation, industrial automation, energy
and utility automation, healthcare, and remote control. The power of a wireless
network can be classified based on the network’s distance coverage.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 273
A. Elahi, A. Cushman, Computer Networks,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42018-4_13
274 13 Low Power Wireless Technologies for Internet of Things (IoT)

A. Low Power Wireless networks cover up to 100 m and include Bluetooth, ZigBee,
Z-wave, Thread, 6LoWPAN, and WirelessHart.
B. Low Power Wide Area network technologies cover up to 15 km and include
LoRa, Sigfox, and DASH.
The remainder of this chapter will cover ZigBee, 6LoWPAN, and LoRa in detail.

13.1 ZigBee

In 2007, the ZigBee Alliance published two feature sets called ZigBee and ZigBee
PRO. The ZigBee has the following characteristics:
• Low battery consumption: a ZigBee end device should operate for months or
even years without battery replacement.
• Low data rate: the maximum data rate for ZigBee device is 250 Kbps.
• Easy to implement.
• Supports up to 65,000 nodes connected in a network.
• ZigBee can automatically set up its network.
• ZigBee uses small packets, unlike Wi-Fi and Bluetooth
Table 13.1 shows a comparison of ZigBee with Bluetooth and Wi-Fi.

13.1.1 ZigBee Operation and Components

ZigBee Node Each ZigBee node consists of a microcontroller containing the

ZigBee protocol stack and a transceiver, as shown in Fig. 13.1.

Table 13.1 Comparison of ZigBee with Bluetooth and Wi-Fi

Wi-Fi IEEE Bluetooth IEEE
802.11n 802.15.1 ZigBee IEEE 802.15.4
Application Wireless LAN Cable replacement Control & monitor
Frequency bands 2.4 GHz 2.4 GHz 2.4 GHz, 868 MHz,
915 MHz
Battery life (days) 0.1–5 1–7 100–7000
Nodes per 30 7 65,000
network
Bandwidth 2–600 Mbps 3 Mbps 20–250 Kbps
Range (meters) 1–100 1–10 1–75 and more
Topology Tree Tree Star, tree, cluster tree, and
mesh
Standby current 20∗10−3amps 200∗10−6amps 3∗10−6amps
Memory 100 KB 100 KB 32–60 KB
13.1 ZigBee 275

Fig. 13.1 ZigBee node

ZigBee Node Operation The ZigBee node can operate as a full function device
(FFD) or reduced function device (RFD) for specific operations. The full function
device operates in the full IEEE 802.15.4 MAC layer, while the reduced function
device performs only a limited number of tasks.
ZigBee Device Types ZigBee offers following device types:
A. Coordinator: A coordinator is a FFD and is responsible for overall network
management. Each network has exactly one coordinator. The coordinator per-
forms the following functions:
• Selects the channel to be used by the network.
• Starts the network.
• Defines how addresses are allocated to nodes or routers.
• Permits other devices to join or leave the network.
• Holds a list of neighbors and routers.
• Transfers application packets.
B. Router: A router is a FFD which is used in tree and mesh topologies to expand
network coverage. A router performs all functions like a coordinator except for
the establishing of a network.
C. End Device: An end device is a RFD that performs the following functions:
• Each end device (child) can be connected to a router or coordinator (parent).
• Can join or leave a network at will.
• Transfers application packets.
D. ZigBee Trust Center (ZTC): The ZigBee Trust Center is a device which pro-
vides security management, security key distribution, and device authentication.
E. ZigBee Gateway: The ZigBee Gateway is used to connect the ZigBee network
to another network, such as a LAN, by performing protocol conversion.
276 13 Low Power Wireless Technologies for Internet of Things (IoT)

13.1.2 ZigBee Topologies

ZigBee offers Star, Tree, and Mesh topologies. Figure 13.2a–c all show ZigBee
topologies. Note that each topology uses only one controller.

13.1.3 ZigBee Application Profiles

The ZigBee alliance developed several application profiles that are ready to be used
by the users, which are as follows:
• Home automation (HA)
• Smart Energy (SE)
• Commercial Building Automation (CBA)
• ZigBee Health Care (ZHC)
• Telecom Applications (TA)
• ZigBee RF4CE Remote Control
One the most popular ZigBee profiles is Smart Energy (SE). The Smart Energy
network is a combination of Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) and Home

Fig. 13.2 (a) Star topology. (b) Tree topology. (c) Mesh topology
13.1 ZigBee 277

Area Network (HAN), where each meter is equipped with ZigBee node. The AMI
network is connected through a gateway and to a server. The Home Area Network
consists of a connected washer, dryer, thermostat, and display. The Smart Energy
network can perform the following functions:
• The utility company can read the meters at any time.
• Smart energy enables the utility companies to give specific information to cus-
tomers regarding how to save energy.
• Detects power interruption and location.
• The meter can receive commands and, in the case of emergency, turn off cus-
tomer power.
• Notify customer of high peak, allowing the customer to reduce consumption.
• Customers can receive time-based pricing, allowing them to make smart energy
choices.
• Time-based billing report (monthly, weekly or daily).
• Communicates in two ways: from meter to central utility and from central utility
to meter.
Another application profile is the RF4CE Remote control. Radio Frequency for
Consumer Electronics (RF4CE) is a protocol developed by a consortium of compa-
nies as such as Freescale, Texas Instruments, OKI, Panasonic, Philips, Samsung,
and Sony. It defines a standard specification for designing remote control devices
for the TV, VCR, and DVD player. The characteristics of a RF4CE device are as
follows:
• Does not require line-of-sight to the receiver.
• Supports two-way RF communication between the controller node and the tar-
get device.
• Communication between target devices.
• Enables the remote control to display device status.
• Supports paging to locate the remote control.
• Operates in 2.4 GHz.
• Uses a multi-star topology.

13.1.4 ZigBee Protocol Architecture

Figure 13.3 shows the ZigBee Protocol Architecture. The ZigBee Alliance devel-
oped the ZigBee Device Object (ZDO), the Application Support Sub-layer (APS),
the Network Layer, and Security Management. IEEE 802.15.4 is used for the MAC
layer and physical layer.
278 13 Low Power Wireless Technologies for Internet of Things (IoT)

Application Frame Work

ZigBee Device Object
(ZDO)

ZDO Public
Application Application Application

Interface
or ZigBee
Object 240 Object 239 Object 1
Endpoint 0 Application
or or or
Endpoint 240 Endpoint 239 Endpoint 1 Device Binding, Management
and Security

APSDE-SAP APSDE-SAP APSDE-SAP APSDE-SAP

ZigBee
Alliance
Application Support Sublayer (APS) AIB

ZOD Management
Security
Service

NLDE-SAP NLME-SAP

NLDE Network Layer NLME NIB

MLDE-SAP MLME-SAP

MDLE MLME
MIB
Medium Access Control (MAC)

PD-SAP P LME-SAP IEEE 802.15.4

2.4 GHz Physical Layer 868 and 915 MHz

Fig. 13.3 ZigBee Protocol Architecture

13.1.5 Physical Layer

The physical layer performs data service and physical layer management. The func-
tions of the data service are as follows:
• Receiving frames from the upper layer and converting to RF signals for
transmission.
• Receiving RF signals from the air and converting them to bits for transfer to the
upper layer.
The physical layer management services are as follows:
• Activation and deactivation of the transceiver.
• Clear Channel Assessment (CCA): Checks if the channel is clear or not.
• Energy Detection (ED): Measures energy level of the channel.
• Link Quality Indication (LQI): Indicates the quality of incoming packets.
• Channel Selection: As channels are divided into pages, IEEE 802.15.4 offers 27
channels on page 0 and 11 channels each on pages 1 and 2.
13.1 ZigBee 279

Table 13.2 IEEE 802.15.4 Channels

Page number Frequency band Data rate Modulation Channel number
0 868 MHz 20 Kbps BPSK 0
0 915 MHz 40 Kbps BPSK 1 through 10
0 2.4 GHz 250 Kbps O-QPSK 11 through 26
1 868 MHz 250 Kbps ASK 1
1 915 MHz 250 Kbps ASK 1 through 10
2 868 MHz 100 Kbps O-QPSK 0
2 915 MHZ 250 Kbps O-QPSK 1 through 10
3–31 Reserved Reserved

The IEEE 802.15.4 uses 32 bits to represent the page number and channel num-
ber, where the five most significant bits represent the page number and the 27 least
significant bits represent the channel number. Table 13.2 shows examples of page
numbers and the channel numbers related to each page, as well as the frequency
bands, data rate, and the types of frequency modulations. As shown in the table,
there are 27 channels in page 0, and on page 2 the type of modulation used is
O-QPSK (Offset-QPSK).
The physical layer uses Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) for transmis-
sion of information.
Physical Layer Frame Format Figure 13.4 shows the physical layer frame for-
mat. The physical layer can carry only 127 bytes from the MAC layer.

13.1.6 IEEE 802.15.4 Medium Access Control (MAC Layer)

The MAC layer performs data services (transmits and receives frames from the
upper and lower layers) and management services. The management services per-
form following functions:
• End device association and disassociation.
• In a coordinator, it offers optional Guarantee Time Slot (GTS) for each device
accessing the network.
• In a coordinator, it generates the beacon frame.
• Provides Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
as the access method for the network.
• Provides reliable connection between two MAC layers by using an acknowledg-
ment frame.
Device Address and PAN ID Each node is assigned a unique address which can
either be a 64-bit address assigned by the IEEE or a 16-bit short address. Each net-
work is assigned a 16-bit PAN ID (Personal Wireless Network ID).
280 13 Low Power Wireless Technologies for Internet of Things (IoT)

From MAC layer

4 Bytes 1 Bytes 7 Bits 1 bit 0-127 Bytes

Physical Service Data Unit
Preamble SFD Frame Length Reserved
(PSDU)

SHR PHR

Fig. 13.4 Physical layer frame format

MAC Layer Scanning Channels The MAC layer can perform the following chan-
nel scanning operations:
• Energy Detection: Energy detection is used by a coordinator to measure the
energy level of selected channels in order to select the best channel.
• Active Scan: The active scan is used to determine if any network is in its vicinity.
This is done by sending a beacon request command.
• Passive Scan: The full functional device or reduced functional device listens for
any beacon transmitted by any coordinator. A passive scan is used by a device in
order to join a network.
• Orphan Scan: Orphan scan is used by a device which has lost its parent and is
trying to re-associate itself with the parent device.
General MAC frame format Figure 13.5 shows the MAC frame format and
Fig. 13.6 shows the frame control fields.
The FCS is calculated over the MHR and MAC payload parts. FCS uses CRC
G(16) = X16 + X12 + X5 + 1
Frame Type 000 denotes a Beacon Frame, 001 a Data Frame, 010 an Acknowledge
Frame, 011 a Command Frame, and 100–111 are all reserved.
PAN ID Compression This bit indicates if the destination device is located in the
same network or a different network as the source device.
Source and Destination Addresses Mode 00 means indirect addressing, 10 means
16-bit addressing, and 11 means 64-bit addressing.
Frame Pending This field indicates there is more data being held for this device
which the device can request.
Auxiliary Security ZigBee does not support MAC layer security.

13.1.7 ZigBee Network Layer

The Network Layer performs Data and Management services. Management ser-
vices are as follows:
13.1 ZigBee 281

Bytes 2 1 0 or 2 0 or 2 or 8 0 or 2 0 or2 or 8 variable variable 2

Frame Sequence Dest Dest Source Source Auxiliary Frame

FCS
Control Number PAN ID Address PAN ID Address Security Payload

Address fields
MAC Footer
(MFR)
MAC header (MHR)

Fig. 13.5 MAC frame format

3 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
Dest Source
Frame Security Frame Ack PAN ID Reserved Frame
Address address
type enable pending Request Compression Version
Mode Mode

Fig. 13.6 Control field

• Configuration of new devices: Configures a new device in order to be the coor-

dinator or simply as a device joining to the network.
• Starting a network: Only performed by the network’s coordinator.
• Addressing: The coordinator and routers can assign addresses to each end device
joining the network.
• Neighbor Discovery: Discovers one hop neighbors, recording their addresses
and capabilities.
• Route Discovery: Finds the most efficient route over which to transfer messages
to a destination.
• Discover other networks.
• Security: Applies the security protocol to outgoing and incoming frames.
• Joining and leaving a network
• Establishing Network Topologies: Star, Mesh or Tree.
• Address Assignment: Stochastic Address Assignment is used by ZigBee Pro.
ZigBee Pro uses a Mesh Topology and each node when joining the network is
assigned a random number from 0 to 65,536. The device will broadcast a device
announcement to inform the other devices of its presence in the network. If any
device in the network discovers an address conflict with the new device, a con-
flict notification will be broadcasted, and the parent of the child will assign
another address to the child.
• Distributed scheme (Cskip): used by a network with tree topology.
Routing The function of a router in a ZigBee network is to provide a routing pro-
tocol so that a message may be routed from a source to a destination. ZigBee sup-
ports the following routing protocols:
• Tree Routing
• Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV)
• Many-to-one
• Source routing
282 13 Low Power Wireless Technologies for Internet of Things (IoT)

13.1.8 Application Layer

The application layer consists of application objects (endpoints) which hold user
applications and ZigBee Device Objects (ZDOs). Each node has 240 endpoints
meaning each node can have 240 sensors.
ZigBee Security ZigBee provides message integrity, authentication, freshness and
privacy for a ZigBee device.
• ZigBee security uses Counter Mode (CTR) with 128-bit AES for the encryption
of messages.
• ZigBee security uses Cipher Block Chaining (CBC) with 128-bit AES for the
generation of the Message Integrity Code (MIC).
• ZigBee security uses symmetric keys for all levels of security.
• ZigBee security can apply cryptography and frame integrity at the application
and network layers.
ZigBee Security Keys and Trust Center ZigBee defines three types of keys for
security: the link key which is used for the application link key and Trust Center
Link, as well as the Network Key and Master Key.
Application Link Key This key is used for security of application data between
two devices and it is shared only between two devices. An application link key may
be preconfigured, distributed by a trust center to the devices, generated from a mas-
ter key, or installed using the Symmetric-Key Key Establishment (SKKE) protocol.
Trust Center Link Key This key is used by the trust center and devices on the
network for securing communication between the trust center and devices. This key
is preconfigured in the devices.

13.1.9 ZigBee Security Modes

Standard Mode Standard security mode is used by ZigBee and ZigBee Pro.
Standard security uses two network keys that are transmitted by the trust center to
the devices for encryption and decryption.
High Security Mode High security mode is used by ZigBee Pro. The high security
mode provides all functions supported by standard security with the following addi-
tional functions:
• Entity authentication: This is used by two devices to authenticate each other
based on their active network key.
• Permission table: This table indicates which devices have permission for using
commands such as permission to join or leave.
• Generating link keys between devices using the SKKE protocol.
• Two network keys
• The trust center holds network keys, master keys, and list of devices
13.2 6LoWPAN Architecture 283

13.2 6LoWPAN Architecture

6LoWPAN stands for IPV6 over Low Power Personal Area Network. 6LoWPAN
was developed by the IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force) to enable Low Power
Wireless Devices to be able to carry IPv6 packets in order to support the Internet of
Things. 6LoWPAN defines encapsulation and header compression mechanisms that
allow IPv6 packets to be sent and received over IEEE 802.15.4-based networks.
Assume in Fig. 13.5 that the Auxiliary Security field is 8 bytes, then the size of
MAC header will be 31 bytes. Add to that the size of the MAC Header and MAC
footer = 31 + 2 = 33 bytes.
The Physical Layer Payload of IEEE802.15.4 can carry only 127 bytes; there-
fore, the maximum size of IPV6 will be 127 − 33 = 96 bytes. From these 96 bytes,
40 bytes are used for IPV6, resulting in 56 bytes used for the TCP packet. The IETF
developed 6LoWPAN layered architecture as shown in Fig. 13.7.
The functions of the Adaptation Layer are as follows:
A. Compression: The IPv6 header can be compressed from 40 bytes to a minimum
of 3 bytes, but the hop limit cannot be compressed. When the Adaptation Layer
is set to 01000001, it means that there is no IPV6 header compression, as shown
in the uncompressed IPv6 header in Fig. 13.8.
If the Adaptation Layer is set to 01000010, then that means the IPV6 header is
compressed based on information provided in the HC1 field, as shown in Fig. 13.9.
The HC1 field determines which field of IPV6 is to be compressed.
B. Fragmentation: Fragments the IPv6 payload into multiple frames. Figure 13.10
shows a combination of fragmentation with compression.
Figure 13.11 shows the 6LoWPAN architecture where the Low Power Wireless
Networks are connected to the Internet through the Border Routers. The Border
Routers perform the following functions:
• Compress incoming packets from an IPv6 Network and forward them to
6LoWPAN.
• Segmentation of large IPv6 packets and forward the segments to 6LoWPAN.
• Decompress incoming packets from 6LoWPAN and forward them to an IPv6
Network.

Fig. 13.7 6LoWPAN

architecture
284 13 Low Power Wireless Technologies for Internet of Things (IoT)

Fig. 13.8 Adaption layer with no compression

1 byte 1 bytes 1 byte

01000010 HC1 Hop Limit

Adaptation Header Network Header

Fig. 13.9 Header compression

Fig. 13.10 Fragmentation with compression of IPV6

Fig. 13.11 6LoPAN Network

13.3 LoRa Wide Area Network Technology (LoRa WAN) 285

13.3 LoRa Wide Area Network Technology (LoRa WAN)

Low Power Wide Area Network (LPWAN) technology is capturing a large market
of IoT, which offers long range, low power, low data rate communications. There
are several LPWAN technologies such as LoRa, SIGFOX, and NB-IoT. LoRa stands
for Long Range, and it is a wireless modulation method that is used for LPWAN. LoRa
WAN wireless technology was developed by the LoRa Alliance and LoRa wireless
radio frequency technology was developed by SEMTECH Corporation. Table 13.3
shows some of the applications of LoRa.

13.3.1 LoRa WAN Characteristics and Architecture

The following are LoRa WAN characteristics:

1. LoRaWAN Topology: LoRaWAN is a Star of Star topology network. Several
end devices communicate with one Gateway in the form of a Star topology, and
Gateways and Network servers also form a Star topology.
2. LoRaWAN operates in unlicensed ISM band.
3. LoRaWAN offers long range coverage, up to 5 km in an urban and 15 km in a
suburban environment.
4. LoRaWAN uses low power consumption, 10 years of battery life at +14 dBm
(31 mW) transmitter power at 868 MHz.
5. LoRaWAN offers bidirectional communications.
6. LoRaWAN can have up to 300 K Nodes.
7. LoRaWAN offers Adaptive Data Rate (ADR).
8. LoRaWAN offers Authentication and Security.
9. LoRaWAN offers data rates from 300 bps up to 5 kbps at the 125 KHz frequency
band and 10 Kbps at the 250 KHz band.

13.3.2 LoRaWAN Components and Functions

LoRa End Device (Sensor Node) The end device communicates with the Gateway
through LoRa RF, and the Gateways communicate with a network server through
TCP/IP through a public or private network. The end device transmits packets in the

Table 13.3 LoRa applications

Smart metering Agriculture Smart city Health
Electric meters Irrigation control Smart parking Medical wearable
GAS meters Environmental sensing Street lighting Connected bracelets
Water meters Animal tracking Vending machine Condition monitoring
286 13 Low Power Wireless Technologies for Internet of Things (IoT)

form of broadcasts and receives from multiple gateways within the range. The gate-
ways then transmit the packets to a network server. With this design, the network
server will receive multiple copies of a packet and select one of the packets to trans-
mit to the appropriate application server. For example, if the packet belongs to the
gas meter, then the network server will transmit the packet to the Gas Meter Server
(an application server).
End Device Identifiers Each end device has the following identifiers:
A. Device Identifier (DevEUI): This is a 64-bit unique identifier which is set by
vendors or developers.
B. End Device Address: Each end device has a 32-bit address which is used for
communication between the end device and gateway. The device address is
unique in the network and assigned by the network server to the device during
the join process.
C. Application Identifier (AppEUI): AppEUI is a unique identifier for the applica-
tion server that assigns to the end device. This is used by the network server to
send the packet to the appropriate application server.
LoRa Gateway The LoRaWAN gateway is connected to the network server
through Ethernet or the Internet. The end device transmits the packet to gateway,
then the gateway demodulates the received signals, adds the following information
to the packet, and then transmits to the network server:
(a) The arrival time of the packet
(b) SNR (Signal to Noise Ratio)
(c) RSSI (Receive Signal Strength)
(d) Data rate
(e) Channel number
The gateway listens to multiple channels and processes multiple packets. In a
LoRaWAN with multiple gateways, the end device broadcast message may be
received by multiple gateways. The gateways transmit the packets to the network
server, then the network server will select the best packet based on signal quality
and reject rest of the packets.
Network Server The network server performs the following functions:
A. The network server receives the data packets from multiple gateways and
removes duplicate packet if received by multiple gateways then transmit one
packet to the application server.
B. The communication between the Gateways and application servers can use by
Public or Private Networks
C. The network server responsible for managing end devices and Gateways such as
device Join request, device authentication, assign an address to the end device,
and register new device.
D. The Network Server supports channel re-configuration. It will automatically
disable channels on the node that are not being used by the network.
13.3 LoRa Wide Area Network Technology (LoRa WAN) 287

E. The network server can implement Adaptive Data Rate (ADR) for the end
device. The ADR is used to assign the best data rate to end device with the least
transmission power.
F. The network server uses information when receiving the packet from the gate-
way, such as the SNR or SSR to select the best gateway for the downlink
transmission.
Application Server The application server is connected to the network server. It
decrypts incoming packets and encrypts outgoing packets using the Application
Session Key.
Join Server The function of the join server is to activate and de-activate the end
device, as well as to also generate session security keys.

13.3.3 LoRaWAN Protocol Architecture

The LoRa Alliance developed the LoRa Protocol Architecture. Figure 13.12 shows
the LoRaWAN Protocol Architecture, which consists of a Physical, Data Link, and
Application Layer. The word “LoRa” refers to the Physical (PHY) layer of
LoRaWAN.
The physical layer consists of LoRa Modulation with regional ISM bands. The
LoRa physical layer uses Chirp Spread Spectrum (CSS) modulation which enables
LoRaWAN to consume low power and transmit rf signals up to 15 km.
LoRa MAC Layer
The LoRa MAC Layer offers three different types of end-user operations, those
being Class A, Class B, and Class C. The LoRa MAC Layer performs the following
functions:

Fig. 13.12 LoRaWAN Protocol

288 13 Low Power Wireless Technologies for Internet of Things (IoT)

A. Determine end device type and its operation

B. Defines access method
C. Generates security keys
D. Defines Adaptive Data Rate (ADR)
LoRaWAN defines the three types of end device operations as Class A, Class B
(Beacon), and Class C (Continuous)
Class A Class A supports bidirectional transmission and initiates transmission. Class
A devices can transmit at any time but will receive after transmission. The Class A is
used for end device transmission with minimum downlink transmission from the
server, such as for temperature sensors and meters. Each end-device uplink transmis-
sion is followed by two short downlink receive windows, which is shown in Fig. 13.13.
Class B Class B receives a Beacon frame from the gateway which contains the
schedule for allocating a time slot for transmission. The end devices of Class B
consume more energy than Class A.
Class C End devices of Class C are in receiving mode can receive the packet at any
time. They will only switch to transmitting mode when transmitting. Class C end
devices will use more power to operate when compared with Class A and Class B.
LoRaWAN Access Method LoRaWAN uses the Aloha Protocol as an access
method. In the Aloha Protocol, the device transmits and waits for an acknowledg-
ment. If the device did not receive acknowledgment, then it assumes a collision
occurred and the device re-transmits according to a back-off algorithm.
Adaptive Data Rate (ADR) The ADR is a method that can adapt the data rate of
the channel based on the strength of radio signal, the S/N. If the S/N is small, then
the data rate must be lowered (using a higher Spreading Factor). Selecting a lower
SF results in a higher data rate.

13.3.4 LoRaWAN Security

When a node requests connection to LoRaWAN, then the network server and nodes
generate several keys that are used for security, authentication, and message integ-
rity. The LoRaWAN specification defines two versions of LoRa Security, version 1,
and version 1.1. LoRAWAN version 1 only uses one root key called the APPKey
(Application Key) to generate the Application Session Key and Network Session
Key for security. To address the shortcomings of security version 1, the LoRa
Alliance published LoRaWAN security version 1.1.

Fig. 13.13 Class A operation

Summary 289

LoRaWAN Version 1.1 Security

LoRa defines two methods that an end device can use to join a LoRaWAN, and they
are as follows:
A. Over-The-Air-Activation (OTAA)
B. Activation by Personalization (ABP)
Over-The-Air-Activation (OTAA) and Security Keys Generation
The Join process consists of a Join Request sent by an end device to the Network
Server, and the Network Server then sends a response to the end device before an
end device can join the LoRaWAN network. The end device and Network Server
share two root keys called the NewkKey (Network Key) and AppKey (Application
Key). These two keys are used to generate the Network Session Keys, Application
Session Key, and Joint Session Keys. The following identifications are stored in the
end device:
A. Device Identifier (DevEUI): It is a 64-bit unique identifier which is set by ven-
dors or developers.
B. JoinEUI: It is a global Application ID using IEEE EUI 64 that identifies the
Join Server
C. Application Keys: AppKey and NewkKey (Network).

Summary

• ZigBee end devices can operate for months and years without battery replacement.
• The maximum ZigBee data rate is 250 Kbps.
• ZigBee supports Mesh, Star, and Tree topologies.
• ZigBee supports 65,000 nodes per network.
• The ZigBee device types are the end nodes, the coordinator, the router, and
ZigBee trust center.
• In a ZigBee network, only one coordinator can exist.
• The function of the coordinator is to manage the network and assign addresses to
the end nodes and routers.
• ZigBee defines two types of node operations: full function and reduced function.
• End devices operate at reduced function and the coordinator operates at full
function.
• ZigBee developed applications for home automation, Smart Energy, healthcare,
and more.
• ZigBee uses IEEE 802.15.4 for the physical and MAC layers.
• ZigBee operates at 2.4 GHz band in USA.
• ZigBee end devices use CSMA/CD to access the network.
• ZigBee offers Standard and High security modes.
• ZigBee operates at a short-range distance of 100 m.
• 6LoWPAN stands for IPV6 over Personal Area Network.
290 13 Low Power Wireless Technologies for Internet of Things (IoT)

• IETF developed 6LoPAN in order to allow Low Power Wireless Devices to con-
nect to the Internet using IPv6.
• IEEE802.15.4 can carry only 137 bytes.
• LoRa offers long-range communication up to 5 km in urban and 15 km in subur-
ban environments, called a LoRa Wide Area Network.
• LoRa stands for Long Range.
• LoRa applications are electric meters, irrigation control, water meters, and more.
• LoRa uses the star of star topology.
• LoRa operates in the ISM band.
• LoRa uses frequency modulation.
• LoRa offers a data rate between 300 bps and 5 Kbps.
• LoRa components are LoRa end devices, LoRa Gateway, and Network Server.

Key Terms

Active Scan LoRa WAN

Adaptive Data Rate (ADR) LoRaWAN Access Method
Application Link Key Orphan Scan
Border Router Passive Scan
Commercial Building Automation (CBA) Over-The-Air-Activation (OTAA)
Coordinator Smart Energy (SE)
Distributed scheme (Cskip) Trust Center Link Key
End device Telecom Applications (TA)
Energy Detection ZigBee
Home automation (HA) ZigBee Health Care (ZHC)
IEEE802.14.5 ZigBee Protocol Architecture
IETF ZigBee RF4CE Remote Control
Low Power Wireless Technologies 6LoWPAN

Review Questions

Multiple Choice Questions

Short Answer Questions
1. List the name of the Low Power Wireless Network that covers up to 100 m.
2. List the name of the Low Power Wide Area Network Technology that covers
more than 100 m.
3. What is the maximum data rate for ZigBee?
4. What is the maximum number of nodes that can be used in a ZigBee network?
5. What is the frequency band for ZigBee in the USA?
6. List the ZigBee topologies.
7. What are the components of a ZigBee device?
Review Questions 291

8. List ZigBee device types and explain the function of each device.
9. List the applications of ZigBee.
10. What is IEEE 802.15.4?
11. Show the ZigBee Protocol Architecture.
12. List the functions of the ZigBee physical layer.
13. How many channels does ZigBee Support on page 0?
14. Show the ZigBee physical layer frame format.
15. What is the maximum payload for ZigBee?
16. How many bits are addressed to a ZigBee end device?
17. List three functions of the ZigBee MAC layer.
18. What is the difference between a full function device and a reduced func-
tion device?
19. What is the function of the Coordinator in a ZigBee network?
20. What method does ZigBee use for encryption?
21. What method does ZigBee use for message integrity?
22. List the ZigBee security modes.
23. What does 6LoWPAN stand for?
24. What is the application of 6LoWPAN?
25. Show the 6LoWPAN Protocol Architecture.
26. What is the function of the Adaptation Layer in 6LoWPAN?
27. What is the function of the Border Router in 6LoWPAN?
28. List four applications for LoRa WAN.
29. What is the topology of LoRa WAN?
30. What frequency band does LoRa operate?
31. What is the maximum coverage of LoRa WAN?
32. What is the data rate of LoRa WAN?
33. List LoRa WAN components
34. Show the LoRa WAN Protocol Architecture
Chapter 14
Introduction to Cryptography

Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
• Explain different types of network attacks.
• Define the elements of network security.
• Understand the basics of cryptography.
• List encryption algorithms.
• Distinguish between symmetric and public key cryptography.
• Explain how Diffie–Hellman generates symmetric key.
• Explain how elliptic curve is used for cryptography.
• Understand the application of digital certificates and signatures.

Introduction
Cryptography is a technique used to establish secure communications and is used
frequently in the case of network security. Information flowing across public spaces
such as the internet drives a need for encrypted communications to prevent eaves-
dropping or any other malicious activity. Additionally, cryptography can assist in
verifying the integrity of data to ensure that it is not modified or otherwise altered in
transit. There are two main types of network attacks:
(i) Direct Attack: The attacker is able to disrupt the system by breaking passwords
accessing the system to modify information. For example, a person breaks the
security of a bank server and then alters the account information.
(ii) Indirect Attack or Passive Attack: The attacker obtains the information and
data in a system (such as a name, address, social security, or credit card num-
ber). For example, a person using a cable modem can use a packet sniffer to
capture packets transmitted over the modem and obtain sensitive information.
A packet sniffer is a piece of software that captures packets traveling in and out
of a network. The packet sniffer is used for network monitoring or analysis. The
following are some common attacks used against an organization’s network:

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 293
A. Elahi, A. Cushman, Computer Networks,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42018-4_14
294 14 Introduction to Cryptography

• Eavesdropping or Packet Sniffing: The attacker intercepts network data or

authentication information.
• Impersonation: The attacker will impersonate a user and create unauthor-
ized content such as email messages.
• Denial of Service (DoS): Make the network resources unavailable.
• Replay Messages: Gain access to a data packet, change information within
it a then retransmit the falsified information.
• Password Cracking: Breaking the password by using dictionary or brute
force attacks.
• Guessing of Encryption Key: Guessing encryption key in order to decrypt
information.
• Port Scanning: To find open and insecure ports and services which may be
exploited.

14.1 Elements of Network Security

In order to have secure network, the following network security components are
necessary:
(i) Confidentiality: Confidentiality, or secrecy, means that information being sent
through the network must remain unknown to unauthorized people. This is
handled through the use of various encryption methods.
(ii) Authentication: Authentication methods verify the identity of a person or
computer accessing the network.
(iii) Authorization: To prevent unauthorized access.
(iv) Integrity: Integrity maintains data consistency and prevents tampering with
information.
(v) Non-repudiation: Non-repudiation provides proof of origin to the recipient.

14.2 Introduction to Cryptography

Cryptography is the analysis and deciphering of codes and ciphers. In computer

networking, cryptography is the science of keeping information secure. The process
of encoding and decoding information is called encryption and decryption respec-
tively. Figure 14.1 shows a cryptographic model.
In this model, the message is referred to as plaintext or cleartext and the
encrypted text is called ciphertext. The plaintext is encrypted by an encryption
algorithm and an encryption key. The ciphertext is then transmitted over the com-
munication channel. At the receiving side, the ciphertext is decrypted by a decryp-
tion algorithm and a decryption key resulting in plaintext. The encryption and
decryption algorithms are called Ciphers. Cryptanalysis is the art of breaking
14.2 Introduction to Cryptography 295

Decryption Key
Encryption Key

PlainText
Encryption Ciphertext Decryption
plaintext Algorithm
Algorithm

Receiver side
Transmission side

Fig. 14.1 Cryptographic model

ciphers or decrypting information without having the key. Cryptography can be

divided into two classes:
A. Classical Cryptography: Classical cryptography was used in the early days for
non-computing applications such as character substitution and transposition
ciphers.
• Substitution Cipher: Substitution replaces each character in the text with a
different character. This is an early cryptography method that was developed
by Caesar and is known as the Caesar Cipher. Caesar Cipher substitutes the
original letter with a different letter that comes later in the order of the alpha-
bet. For example, the letter “A” is replaced with the 4th letter in the alphabet,
substituting “A” with “E.” Another method of substitution is to add a number
to the ASCII value of the letter. The ASCII value of “A” is 41h. Adding 4 to
41h results in 45h (the letter “E”). The number 4 is the value of the key.
Example 14.1 Encrypt the word “BOOK” assuming the encryption key is 4.
The word “BOOK” in ASCII code is 41, 4F, 4F, 4B. Adding 4 to each character
results in 45, 53, 53, 4F which stands for “ESSK.”
• Transposition Ciphers: In a transposition cipher, the plaintext is divided into
groups of characters where the number of groups defines the key. For exam-
ple the phrase “WELCOME TO CLASS” is divided into groups of 4 charac-
ters as shown below.

1 2 3 4
W E L C
O M E –
T O – C
L A S S

• Reading from column 1 to 4, the ciphertext is “WOTLEMOALE-SC-CS.” In

this example the key is 1234. Also note that the order of the key can be
changed to 2341.
296 14 Introduction to Cryptography

B. Modern Cryptography. Modern cryptography is now used for modern data

communication. The types of modern cryptography are symmetric key cryp-
tography (private key or secret key) and asymmetric key cryptography or
public key cryptography.
Symmetric Cryptography
In symmetric cryptography, the transmitter and the receiver of a message share the
same key for encryption and decryption as shown in Fig. 14.2.
Plaintext is encrypted using an encryption algorithm and a key, resulting in
ciphertext which is then transmitted to the receiver. The receiver uses the same key
as the transmitter to decrypt the ciphertext into plaintext. Some of the symmetric
cryptographies are RC4, Data Encryption Standard (DES), Blowfish, and
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
The advantages of symmetric cryptography are that it is simple and fast. The
disadvantage is that the transmitter and the receiver must possess the same key,
meaning that there must be some sort of transfer mechanism. The symmetric algo-
rithm can be divided into stream ciphers and block ciphers.
Stream Ciphers The plaintext is encrypted one bit at a time, text is converted to
binary, and then the binary string is XORed with another binary string (the key),
resulting in ciphertext. An example of a stream cipher is the RC4 algorithm.

Example 14.2

The word “BOOK” in binary form is 1000010 1001111 1001111 1001011

The encryption key is 0111111 0111110 0111010 1010101

Figure 14.3 shows the stream cipher and output of XOR is ciphertext. The cipher-
text is transmitted to the receiver which uses the same key to decrypt the text.
Block Ciphers A block cipher is a group of bits that are encrypted. Some of the
symmetric cryptography algorithms using block cipher are the Data Encryption
Standard (DES) that takes 64 bits per block and the Advanced Encryption
Standard (AES).

Key Key

Plaintext Ciphertext Plaintext

Encryption Decryption

Fig. 14.2 Block diagram of symmetric cryptography

Fig. 14.3 Stream cipher operation

14.3 RC4 Algorithm 297

14.3 RC4 Algorithm

RC4 was developed by Ron Rivest and it is also called Ron’s Code. RC4 is a sym-
metric key stream cipher which encrypts bit by bit. The RC4 encryption algorithm
consists of two sub-algorithms, and they are as follows:
A. Key Scheduling Algorithm (KSA)
B. Pseudo Random Generation Algorithm (PRGA)
Key Scheduling Algorithm (KSA)
KSA consists of two sub-algorithms, initialization of State Array or S-box and
scrambling of State Array.
A. Initialization State Array
The RC4 algorithm uses an array of 256 elements which is represented by S[I]
where the value of I goes from 0 to 255 and is initialized to a state where S[I] = I.
Initialization Algorithm

For I= 0 to 255
S[I] = I means S[0] = 0, S[1] = 1, S[2] = 0, S[3] = 0, ….
S[255] = 255,
or it can represent S[I] in the following form:
S =[0, 1, 2, 3, …….255]

B. Scrambling of Key Scheduling Algorithm (KSA)

The encryption key is represented by K[I] and it is L bytes long. The scrambling
KSA is represented by:

Set J=I
For I = 0 to 255 then
J= (J+ S[I] + K[I modulo L]) ( modulo N)
where N represents the number of elements in S[I] and L is the key
length in bytes.
Swap S[I], S[J]

Example Assume S = [0, 1, 2, 3] which holds 4 values and each value represented
by three bits rather than 8 bits for simplicity
Assume encryption K = [1, 5, 2, 4] and apply the scrambling algorithm:
298 14 Introduction to Cryptography

Fig. 14.4 RC4 generation

Iteration 0 for I=0, J=0

J = ( 0 + 0 + K( 0 modulo 4) ) modulo 4) = ( 0 + K[0] ) modulo
4 = ( 0 + 1 ) modulo 4 = 1
Swap S[0] with S[1] result S= [ 1 , 0, 2 , 3]
Iteration 1 for I=1, J=1, and S = [1, 0, 2, 3]
J= (J+ S[I] + K[I modulo L]) ( modulo 256)
J= (1 + 0 + K[ 1 modulo 4] (modulo 4) = (1 + k[1]) modulo 4 =
(1 +5 ) modulo 4 = 2
Swap S[1] with S[2] result S =[ 1, 2,0, 3]
Iteration 2: for I=2, J=2, and S = [1, 2, 0, 3]
J = (2 + 2 + K[ 2 Modulo 4]) modulo 4 = (4 + 2)modulo 4 = 2
Swap S[2], with S[2]
Iteration 3: I=3, J=3 , S=[1,2,0,3], K = [1, 5, 2, 4]
J= (J+ S[I] + K[I modulo L]) ( modulo N) = (3 + 3+ 0)
modulo 4= 2
Swap S[3] with S [2], then the result is S =[1,2,3,0]

If message represented by M = M0, M1, M2, M3, then the cipher text is the out-
put of Fig. 14.4.

14.4 Data Encryption Standard

Figure 14.5 shows a block diagram of DES. DES is a block cipher, where a message
is divided into 64-bit blocks of plaintext (b0… b63) and utilizes an initial key of 56
bits. The function of the permutation box is to change the order of bits in the
plaintext. For example, bit b0 becomes b58, b1 becomes b50, etc. The function of the
key generator is to generate 16 different 48-bit keys from a 56-bit key. As shown in
Fig. 14.5, the plaintext goes through 16 iterations using different keys and the results
are permutated to generate the ciphertext.
Figure 14.6 shows a diagram of a single iteration of DES. The output of the per-
mutation box is divided into two groups of 32 bits, called L0 and R0. R0 is changed
to 48 bits by using the expansion/permutation table. The output of the expansion/
permutation box is XORed with the 48-bit key creating a 48-bit result. The 48 bits
14.4 Data Encryption Standard 299

56 Key

64 bits data Key generator

Permutation

Key1 48 bits
Iteration1

Key2 48 bits
Iteration2

Key16
Iteration 16

Permutation

Ciphertext
Fig. 14.5 Block diagram of DES

are converted by the substitution box (S-BOX is a table used for converting 48 bits
to 32 bits) to 32 bits. These 32 bits are XORed with L0 yielding the result R1 for the
next iteration. The output of R0 becomes L1 for the next iteration.
Key generation is done by dividing 56 bits into two groups of 28 bits. Both
groups of 28 bits are shifted by one bit and the output becomes the input to the per-
mutation table where 48 bits are generated for the first key. The following method is
repeated with 16 different keys to produce ciphertext as shown in Fig. 14.6.
Triple DES (3DES)
Triple DES is similar to DES but applied three times in series as shown in Fig. 14.7.
The 3DES offers following options:
A. All three keys are independent.
B. K1 and K2 are impendent and K3 = K1.
C. All three keys are the same K1 = K2 = K3.
300 14 Introduction to Cryptography

Permutation

L0=32 bits Ro=32bits 56 bit key

Expansion/
permutation
Left shift Left shift
48 bits
48 bit
+ Key permutation
48 bits

Substitution
32 bits

L1 R1

Fig. 14.6 Block diagram of one iteration of DES

Fig. 14.7 3DES encryption algorithm

14.5 Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)

AES, or Rijndael (the combination of the names Rijman and Daemen, the develop-
ers of the AES algorithm), is a block cipher which can use a 128-bit block of plain-
text and either a 128-, 192-, or 256-bit key for encryption. Figure 14.8 shows a block
diagram of AES. The key generator generates different key for each round.
The number of the rounds is dependent on the key size, and Table 14.1 shows the
number of rounds for a given key size.
The cipher text and key are each represented by a 4 * 4 array of bytes (16 bytes
* 8 = 128 bits) called the cipher state and key, respectively. Figure 14.9 shows the
cipher state and key.
Pre-round Transformation In pre-round transformation, each element of cipher-
text is XORed with the encryption key and the result of the Metrix is input to the
first round.
14.5 Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) 301

Fig. 14.8 Block diagram

of AES

Table 14.1 AES rounds and Number of rounds Key size

key sizes 10 128 bits
12 192 bits
14 256 bits

S0,0 S0,1 S0,2 S0,3 K0,0 K0,1 K0,2 K0,3

S1,0 S1,1 S1,2 S1,3 K1,0 S1,1 K1,2 K1,3

S2,0 S2,1 S2,2 S2,3 K2,0 K2,1 K2,2 K2,3

S3,0 S3,1 S3,2 S3,3 K3,0 K3,1 K3,2 K3,3

Fig. 14.9 Representation of cipher state and key

302 14 Introduction to Cryptography

Table 14.2 S-box table used in AES substitution step

| 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 a b c d e f
---|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
00 |63 7c 77 7b f2 6b 6f c5 30 01 67 2b fe d7 ab 76
10 |ca 82 c9 7d fa 59 47 f0 ad d4 a2 af 9c a4 72 c0
20 |b7 fd 93 26 36 3f f7 cc 34 a5 e5 f1 71 d8 31 15
30 |04 c7 23 c3 18 96 05 9a 07 12 80 e2 eb 27 b2 75
40 |09 83 2c 1a 1b 6e 5a a0 52 3b d6 b3 29 e3 2f 84
50 |53 d1 00 ed 20 fc b1 5b 6a cb be 39 4a 4c 58 cf
60 |d0 ef aa fb 43 4d 33 85 45 f9 02 7f 50 3c 9f a8
70 |51 a3 40 8f 92 9d 38 f5 bc b6 da 21 10 ff f3 d2
80 |cd 0c 13 ec 5f 97 44 17 c4 a7 7e 3d 64 5d 19 73
90 |60 81 4f dc 22 2a 90 88 46 ee b8 14 de 5e 0b db
a0 |e0 32 3a 0a 49 06 24 5c c2 d3 ac 62 91 95 e4 79
b0 |e7 c8 37 6d 8d d5 4e a9 6c 56 f4 ea 65 7a ae 08
c0 |ba 78 25 2e 1c a6 b4 c6 e8 dd 74 1f 4b bd 8b 8a
d0 |70 3e b5 66 48 03 f6 0e 61 35 57 b9 86 c1 1d 9e
e0 |e1 f8 98 11 69 d9 8e 94 9b 1e 87 e9 ce 55 28 df
f0 |8c a1 89 0d bf e6 42 68 41 99 2d 0f b0 54 bb 16

The following steps describe the operation of each AES round:

1. Substitution Step: Each byte in the state is replaced by another byte using an
S-box (Table 14.2). For example, if the current byte state is 0x19, it is replaced
with the number located at row 0x10 and column 0x09 which is 0xd4.

2. Shift Row Step: Performs the following operation on each row of the result of
step 1 as shown in Fig. 14.10.
(a) No shift on first row.
(b) Circular shift left one byte (each bit is shifted 8 times) on the second row.
(c) Circular shift two bytes (each bit is shifted 16 times) on the third row.
(d) Circular shift three bytes (each bit is shifted 24 times) on the fourth row.

3. Mix Column: As shown in Fig. 14.11, the result of step 2 is represented by

matrix S where the given matrix is multiplied by each column of matrix S to
produce matrix A.
Where
A0,0 = 2S0,0 + 3S1,1 + S2,2 + S3,3
A0,1 = 1S0,1 + 2S1,2 + 3S2,3 + S3,0
A0,2 = S0,2 + S1,3 + 2S2,0 + 3S3,1
A0,3 = 3S0,3 + S1,0 + S2,1 + 2S3,0
4. Add Round Key: Each element of the 4 * 4 array, A, resulting from step 3, is
XORed with the same element of array K encrypting the plaintext which results
in the ciphertext as shown in Fig. 14.12.
14.5 Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) 303

Fig. 14.10 Result of shift S0,0 S0,1 S0,2 S0,3

process
S1,1 S1,2 S1,3 S1,0

S2,2 S2,3 S2,0 S2,1

S3,3 S3,0 S3,1 S3,2

S0,0 S0,1 S0,2 S0,3 A0,0 A 0,1 A0,2 A0,3

2 3 1 1
S S S S A1,0 A 1,1 A1,2 A1,3
1 2 3 1 X 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,0
1 1 2 3 =
S2,2 S2,3 S2,0 S2,1 A2,0 A2,1 A2,2 A 2,3
3 1 1 2
S3,3 S3,0 S3,1 S3,2 A3,0 A3,1 A3,2 A3,3
Fig. 14.11 Mix column operation in AES

A0,0 A0,1 A0,2 A0,3 K0,0 K0,1 K0,2 K0,3

A1,0 A1,1 A1,2 A1,3 K1,0 S1,1 K1,2 K1,3

A2,0 A2,1 A2,2 A2,3 K2,0 K2,1 K2,2 K2,3
A3,0 A3,1 A3,2 S3,3 K3,0 K3,1 K3,2 K3,3

B0,0 B0,1 B0,2 B0,3

B1,0 B1,1 B1,2 B1,3
B2,0 B2,1 B2,2 B2,3

B3,0 B3,1 B3,2 B3,3

Fig. 14.12 XOR operation of array A with array K
304 14 Introduction to Cryptography

5. The result of step 4, array B, becomes the new state for step 1 and this process is
repeated 10 times. The encryption key is generated by key generator for
each round

14.6 Asymmetric Cryptography

Public key cryptography, which is also called asymmetric cryptography, uses a

different key for encryption and decryption. Public key cryptography uses two keys:
a public key and a private key where the private key is kept secret. Figure 14.13a
shows the plaintext encrypted by the public key and decrypted by the private key.
Figure 14.13b shows the plaintext encrypted by the private key and decrypted by the
public key.
Figure 14.14 shows that the key generator produces the public and private key.
The key generator sends the public key to the transmitter. Then, the transmitter uses
the public key and an encryption algorithm to produce the ciphertext. The transmit-
ter then sends the ciphertext to the receiver and the receiver uses the private key and
a decryption algorithm to decrypt the ciphertext.
The application of public key cryptography can be illustrated as follows: Assume
a stockbroker serving 100 customers as shown in Fig. 14.15. The server generates a
public key Kp for each customer, private key Ks, and a number N. When any cus-
tomer connects to the server, the server passes the customer Kp and N. The cus-
tomer uses these two numbers to encrypt information and transmit ciphertext to the
broker server. The server then uses the private key Kp of the specific customer to
decrypt the information.
Applications of Public Key Cryptography
Public key cryptography can be used for privacy, authentication, and non-­
repudiation. Some of the public key algorithms are as follows:

Fig. 14.13 (a) Public key encryption and private key decryption. (b) Private key encryption and
public key encryption
14.7 RSA Algorithm 305

Key generator

Public key Private key

plaintext Ciphertext Decryption Plaintext

Encryption
Algorithm Algorithm

Fig. 14.14 Key generator

Request Connection
Customer#1
Stock
Kp1, N1 Broker
Server
Ks1,N1
Ks2,N2
Customer ..
#2 Kp2, N2 Ks99, N99
Kp99, N99

Customer
#99

Fig. 14.15 Application of public key cryptography

A. RSA: RSA was named after three inventors: Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir, and
Leonard Adleman, and it is a standard for public key cryptography algorithms.
B. Diffie–Hellman Key Exchange: The Diffie–Hellman key exchange enables
two parties to establish a shared secret key over an insecure network.

14.7 RSA Algorithm

One of the most useful public key cryptography algorithms is the RSA, which is
named after its inventors Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Leonard Adleman (already
stated above). RSA is based on number theory and works as follows:
306 14 Introduction to Cryptography

1. Select two prime numbers p and q (prime number is a number divisible by 1 and
itself only). The larger the number, the harder it is to break the RSA algorithm.
2. Let N = p * q, where N is the product of two prime numbers p and q.
3. Let Z = (p − 1) * (q − 1), where Z is the product of p − 1 and q − 1.
4. Select Kp (public key) such that Kp is less than N and has no common fac-
tors of Z.
5. Find Ks (secret key) such that Ks * Kp − 1 is divisible by Z or Ks = (1 + n * Z)/
Kp; where n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
6. The transmitter uses Kp and N to encrypt message M using Eq. 14.1.

EM = M kp modulo N (14.1)

where:
EM is ciphertext
The transmitter then transmits EM to the receiver.
7. The receiver decrypts EM using Ks and N according to Eq. 14.2.

M = EM Ks Modulo N (14.2)

Example Find Ks and Kp assuming p = 3 and q = 5, also encrypt message M = 2

at the transmitted side then decrypt ciphertext at the receiving side (in this example,
the prime numbers are selected for ease of understanding).
N = 3 * 5 = 15 and Z = (3 − 1) (5 − 1) = 8
Select a number that is less than N and is not a factor of Z (for this example,
Kp = 3).
Ks = (1 + n * 8)/3 and n = 4, thus Ks = 11
Transmitter uses Kp to encrypt M = 3
EM = 33 modulo 15 = 12
The transmitter transmits cipher text of 12 to the receiver, then the receiver uses
the secret key with N to decrypt the ciphertext of value 12.
M = EMKS modulo N
or
M = 1211 modulo 15 = 3

14.8 Diffie–Hellman Key Exchange Algorithm

The Diffie–Hellman Algorithm is used by two parties to generate a symmetric key.

The following steps describe Diffie–Hellman key generation.
14.9 Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) 307

1. Alice and Bob share two random numbers: G for the generator and P for a
prime number.
2. Alice uses equation A = GN Modulo P to generate A, where N is Alice’s
secret number.
3. Alice transmits A, P, and G to the Bob
4. Bob calculates B = GM Modulo P, where M is Bob’s secret number.
5. Bob transmits B to Alice.
6. Alice uses the following equation to calculate the symmetric key.

KA = BN Modulo P

7. Bob uses the following equation to calculate KB.

KB = A M Modulo P

8. As result the KA = KB.

Example
1. Alice selects G = 5, P = 7, and N = 3.
2. Alice calculates A = GN Modulo P, A = 53 modulo 7, results A = 6.
3. Alice transmits A = 6, P = 7 and G = 5 to Bob.
4. Bob calculates B, B = GM Modulo P, where M is a secret number, B = 55 mod-
ulo 7 = 3.
5. Bob transmits B = 3 to Alice.
6. Bob calculates KB = AM Modulo P, KB = 65 modulo 7 = 6.
7. Alice calculates the secret key.
8. KA = BN Modulo P, Ks = 33 modulo 7 = 6.
9. Result shows KA = KB.

14.9 Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC)

Elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) is used to implement symmetric key cryptogra-

phy. ECC was invented by Victor Miller of IBM and Neil Koblitz of the University
of Washington in 1985. The ECC offers a shorter key length with the same security
provided by RSA, with the following advantages:
• Shorter key lengths: ECC uses 128 bits for encryption and 256 bits for digital
signatures, with RSA needing 3072 bits to provide the same security as ECC.
• Very fast key generation: ECC generates symmetric keys faster than RSA.
• Faster signature generation: ECC generates digital signatures faster than RSA.
• Faster encryption and decryption: ECC implements faster encryption and
decryption using ECDH than RSA.
308 14 Introduction to Cryptography

Fig. 14.16 Elliptic curve

Elliptic Curve Mathematics

An elliptic curve is a two-dimensional curve that is represented by the equation
y2 = x3 + ax + b. The equation will not have repeated factors if 4a3 + 27b2 ≠ 0. For
any given value of X on the curve, there is a Y value reflected over the x-axis.
Figure 14.16 shows a general image of an elliptic curve and a non-vertical line that
intersects the curve at three points.
A. Finding points on the curve: The are infinite points on an elliptic curve, and in
order to limit the number of points available, elliptic curve cryptography works
with a limited field of numbers as shown in Eq. 14.3:

y 2 mod P   x 3  ax  b  mod p, where the P is prime a number (14.3)

14.9 Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) 309

Example Find the points on the curve y2 mod 11 = (x3 + x + 3) Mod 11, where in
the above equation a = 1, b = 3, and P = 11.
By using the equation 4a3 + 27b2 ≠ 0 to verify that y2 = (x3 + x + 3) does not have
repeated factors, therefore 4 * 13 + 27 * 32 ≠ 0.
Table 14.3 shows the values of X from 0 to 10 and the corresponding values for
(x3 + x + 3) Mod 11. Also shown are the values of Y from 0 to 10 and the corre-
sponding value of y2 Mod 11.
By observing the results of Table 14.3:
When (x3 + x + 3) mod 11 = Y2 mod 11 = 3, the results are points (0, 5) and (0, 6).
(x3 + x + 3) Mod 11 = Y2 Mod11 = 5 results in the points (1, 4), (1, 7), (4, 4), (4,
7), (0, 4), and (0, 7).
(x3 + x + 3) Mod 11 = Y2 Mod11 = 0 results in the point (3, 0).
(x3 + x + 3) Mod 11 = Y2 Mod11 = 1 results in the points (7, 1), (7, 10), (10, 10),
and (10, 1).
(x3 + x + 3) Moe 11 = Y2 Mod11 = 4 results in the points (8, 2), (8, 9), (9, 2),
and (9, 9).
Therefore, the points on the curve are: (0, 5), (0, 6), (1, 4), (1, 7), (3, 0), (4, 4),
(4, 7), (5, 1), (5, 10), (6, 4), (6, 7), (7, 1), (7, 10), (9, 2), (9, 9), (10, 1), (10, 10)
B. Adding points on the elliptic curve: The elliptic curve is symmetrical about the
x-axis. When given any point P, point −P has to be the point opposite to P.
If P and Q are two points on the curve, then they can uniquely describe a third
point, P + Q. by drawing the line that intersects P and Q it will intersect the curve at
point R, where P + Q is −R, or the point opposite of R, as shown in Fig. 14.17. The
following properties apply for adding two points:
P + Q = R, Q + P = R, P + P = 2P
If P = P(x, y), then −P = P(x, −y)
P − P = 0.

Finding Point R
Assume points P, Q, and R are represented by P = (xp, yp), Q = (xq, yq), and R = (xr, yr).
Table 14.3 (x3 + x + 3) mod 11 and Y2 mod 11

X
F1 = (x3 + x + 3) mod 11 y F2 = y2 mod 11
0 3 0 0
1 5 1 1
2 2 2 4
3 0 3 9
4 5 4 5
5 1 5 3
0 5 6 3
7 1 7 5
8 4 8 9
9 4 9 4
10 1 10 1
310 14 Introduction to Cryptography

Fig. 14.17 Adding point P y

to itself

R
P

–R= 2P

The slope of the line PQ is defined by:

yq  y p
m
xq  x p

and the point R is calculated by:

 
xr  m 2  xq  x p mod p

 
y r  m  x r – x q  – y r mod p

Example Adding points P(1, 4) and Q(7, 10)

10  4 6
m  1
7 1 6

Xr = (1 − 1 − 7) = −7 mod 11 = 4
Yr = (1(−7 − 7) − 4) = −18 mod 11 = 4
R (4, 4), which is listed on the points discovered in the previous section.
Adding a point to itself (P + P = 2P)
To add a point P to itself, a tangent line to the curve is drawn at the point P as
shown in Fig. 14.17. If YP is not 0, then the tangent line intersects the elliptic curve
at exactly one other point, −R, where −R is reflection of R on the x-axis.

P  P  2P

The slope of the line that passes through the ECC curve is defined by:
14.9 Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) 311

3x p2  a
m
2 yp

The point Xr and Yr are calculated as follows:

 
x r  m 2 – 2 x p mod P

 
y r  m  x p – x r  – y p mod P

Example Find the P + P = 2P for P(1, 4):

3  1  1
2

m 1
24 2
7 mod 11
 
x r  1 / 22  2  1 mod 11  7 / 4 mod 11 
4 mod 11
 4 / 4 1

 
Yr  1  1  1  4 mod 11  4 mod 11  7
2

Therefore, 2p = (1, 7).

Mr. Nicholas Brenckle from Southern Connecticut State University has devel-
oped a program that can find the points on the elliptic curve and the sum the two
points, found at: http://ecdh.southernct.edu
Table 14.4 shows the resulting points and sums of those points on an elliptic
curve y2 mod 11 = (x3 + x + 3) mod 11 using http://ecdh.southernct.edu

Table 14.4 Points and sums of points

312 14 Introduction to Cryptography

Elliptical Curve Diffie–Hellman (ECDH) Key Exchange

With the Diffie–Hellman key exchange, a public key cryptosystem can be devel-
oped. This is known as “ECDH,” or the elliptic curve Diffie–Hellman method.
After two parties, Alice and Bob, select common curve parameters (a, b, P) and
a common point along the curve called G, they can then use the following steps to
develop a symmetric key.
Alice and Bob select a point on the curve as the generator (G), and they calculate
the cofactor (h) as follows:
They use the G to find 2G, 3G, 4G, …. nG, where nG reaches infinity.
Example: If Alice and Bob select G(4, 4) and use the table’s addition to find:
2G = G + G = (7, 1), 3G = 2G + G = (1, 4), 4G = 2G +2G = (6, 7), 5G = (6, 4),
6G = (1, 7), 7G = (7, 10), 8G = (4, 7), and 9G = 8G + G = infinity, then n = 8.
The following represents G,2G………up to 8G
(4, 4), (7, 1), (1, 4), (6, 7), (6, 4), (1, 7), (7, 10), (4, 7)
h = the number of points on the curve / n = 17 / 8 = 2.1
The smaller h shows a good selection of G and results in better security.
The following steps describe the generation of a public key using ECDH:
• Alice and Bob select a secret random number between 1 and n. Alice’s secret
number is N, and Bob’s secret number is M.
• Alice calculates the public key (AP) = N * G, and sends it to Bob.
• Bob calculates the public key (BP) = M * G, and sends it to Alice.
• Alice uses Bob’s public key (BP) to generate the symmetric key (SK):
SK = N * M *G.
• Bob uses Alice’s public key (AP) to generate the symmetric key (SK):
SK = M * N *G.
Example: Find the secret keys for Alice and Bob, assuming Alice’s random num-
ber N = 3 and Bob’s random number M = 5, with a generator G = (1, 4).
Alice’s public key AP = N * G = 3G = 3 * (10, 10), which is (10, 10) + (10,
10) + (10, 10). Table x.1 shows that (10, 10) + (10, 10) = (6, 4), and then (6, 4) + (10,
10) = (0, 5), so AP = (0, 5).
Bob’s public key BP = M * G = 5 * (10, 10), or (0, 5) + (10, 10) + (10, 10). Again,
using Table 14.1, (0, 5) + (10, 10) = (4, 4), and (4, 4) + (10, 10) = (9, 2), so BP = (9, 2).
Alice and Bob exchange their public keys.
Alice uses Bob’s public key to generate their secret key (AS).
Alice’s secret key AS = N * (BP) = 3 * (9, 2) = (0, 6).
Bob’s secret key BS = M * AP = 5 * (0, 5) = (0, 6).
Encryption and Decryption using ECDH
Alice selects a point on the curve which represents their message and encrypts the
point. Then, the ciphertext is transmitted to Bob.
Assume that Alice’s message is S = (3, 0), Alice uses Eq. 14.4 for the encryp-
tion of S:
 
C  AP, S  N BP  Y1, Y2

(14.4)
14.10 Hash Value or Message Digest 313

where C is cypher text, AP is Alice’s public key, N is Alice’s random number, and
BP is Bob’s public key. Using Table 14.4 to evaluate, the results are as follows:
C   0,5  ,   3,0    0,6     0,5  , 1,7 

Bob uses Eq. 14.3 to decrypt C:

S  Y2 – Nb Y1  (14.5)

S = (1, 7) − 5(0, 5) = (1, 7) − (0, 6) = (1, 7) + (0, −6)

−6 mod 11 = 5
M = (1, 7) + (0, 5) = (3, 0)

14.10 Hash Value or Message Digest

A hash function generates a hash value (message digest) from a given message as
shown in Fig. 14.18, and it is used for data integrity and password protection. Hash
values have the following characteristics:
1. A hash function must be collision resistant which means it is hard to find two
messages that will generate the same message digest.
2. Changing any bit of message will totally change the message digest.
3. It is impossible to generate the original message from the message digest.
Applications of hash function include hashing passwords and verifying message
integrity
Hashing Passwords If a server holds encrypted passwords and a hacker accesses
the password file and has the encryption key, then the passwords will be open to
decryption. By hashing the passwords, the attacker will not be able to recover the
passwords. When a user enters their password, the server will use the hash algo-
rithm and generate the hash value of the password. If the hash value is the same as
the stored hash value, then the password is correct.
The following are some of the basic hash functions:

Fig. 14.18 Data integrity using message digest

314 14 Introduction to Cryptography

Frame Check Sequence (FCS) as a Hash Value: Host B generates the FCS of
the information, encrypts the FCS, and sends it to Host A. If one alters the docu-
ment, the new FCS will differ from the one generated by Host B.
Checksum (generating checksum from a message): Information can be bro-
ken into blocks of characters and arranged in each column, the message $6,578,100
can be broken into 4 ASCII characters per block as shown below, and the checksum
of each column can be calculated

$657 44 36 35 37
8100 38 31 30 30
Checksum 7C 67 65 67

If the message changes to $5,578,200, it will generate the same checksum; there-
fore, the checksum method is not a strong message digest. The simplest form of a
hash function is to break the message into m blocks of n bits as shown below.

Block0 b01 b02 b03 … b0n

Block1 b11 b12 b13 … b1n
… … … … … …
Blockm bm1 bm2 bm3 … bmn

Hash bits are represented by:

H  H1H 2 H 3  Hn

where:

H1  b 01 XORed b11 XORed b 21 XORed  XORed bm1

Or in general:

Hi  b i1 XORed b i 2 XORed b i 3 XORed b i 4 XORed  XORed b in

Example 14.3 Find the hash code for the word “WELCOME.”

W 1010111
E 1000101
L 1001100
C 1000011
O 1001111
M 1001101
E 1000101
Hash code 1001001
14.11 Message Authentication Code (MAC) 315

Some of the most popular message digests are as follows:

A. MD4: MD4 is a message digest type 4 that generates a 128-bit hash value or
message digest.
B. MD5: MD5 is an improved version of MD4 that generates a 128-bit hash value
C. SHA-1 (Secure Hash Algorithm 1): SHA-1 generates a 160-bit hash
D. SHA-256
Data Integrity
A hash function is used for verifying data integrity. Alice generates a hash value
from a message and attaches it to the message and transmits it to Bob as shown in
Fig. 14.18. Bob takes the message and generates a hash value using the same hash-
ing function used by Alice. If the hash value generated by the Bob is the same as the
hash value generated by Alice, then nobody tampered with the message. Figure 14.18
shows the application of hash value for data integrity.
What happens if another person generates a message and message digest instead
of Alice and transits it to Bob? How will Bob know if this message is from Alice or
not? The Message Authentication Code (MAC) is used for authentication of sender
messages and data integrity.

14.11 Message Authentication Code (MAC)

MAC is used for message integrity and authentication of the sender. To generate a
MAC both Alice and Bob must share a secret key. The secret key is used for authen-
tication, and the following steps describe the message authentication process.
Figure 14.19 shows the Message Authentication Code generation and usage.
1. Alice generates a hash value from the message and encrypts it with the shared
key. This is called the MAC.
2. Alice attaches the MAC to the message and transmits it to Bob.
3. Bob generates the hash value of the message and decrypts the MAC to generate
a Hash value.
4. If both hashes are equal, there was no message tampering.

Fig. 14.19 Data integrity and authentication

316 14 Introduction to Cryptography

Fig. 14.20 HMAC generation

Keyed-Hash Message Authentication (HMAC)

HAMC is a message authentic code where the sender and the receiver share a secret
key. The application of HMAC is to authenticate the source of a message and the
integrity of a message. A HMAC is generated using a secret key and message.
Figure 14.20 shows HMAC generation where:
K: Secret key.
N: Size of secret key in bytes.
B: Size of the message in bytes.
K0: If the message is the same size as K (secret key), then K = K0.
IPAD (Inner Pad): IPAD = 0x3636 … the 36 will repeat in order to become the same
sizeofsecretkey,ifthesecretkey(K)is10bytesthenIPAD=0x36363636363636363636
(each byte can be represented by two digits in hex).
OPAD (Outer Pad): OPAD = 0x5C 5C……, the 5C repeated until the size of OPAD
become the same size as K.
||: Means concatenation, concatenation of 34 and 76 is 3476.
L: Number of bytes generated by Hash.
14.12 Digital Signature 317

The following steps describe HAMC generation:

1. Compare the N (number of bytes in secret key) with B (number of bytes in
message).
2. If they are equal, then K0 = K. Jump to step 4.
3. If N is less than B, then add zeroes to the left of the K in order N = B. Then K=K0.
4. If N is greater than B, then find the Hash value of K (H(K)) which is L bytes,
then left pad the result with L-B bytes of zeros, resulting in K=B.
5. K0 XOR with IPAD concatenated with message results (K0 XOR IPAD) ||
Message.
IPAD = 0x36 and the 36 repeated in order that Size of IPAD = N.
Hash the result of step 5: H ((K0 XOR IPAD) || Message.
6. OPAD = 0x5C and 5C repeated in order the size of OPAD become N bytes then
K0 XORed with OPAD K0 XOR OPAD.
7. K0 XOR OPAD concatenated with H((K0 XOR IPAD)|| Message results in
(K0 XOR OPAD)||H((K0 XOR IPAD)|| Message).
8. The result of step 8 passes through Hash function results H[(K0 XOR
OPAD)||H((K0 XOR IPAD)|| Message)] which is the HAMC.

14.12 Digital Signature

In business transactions, we sign various documents such as checks and contracts.

The reason we sign documents is to indicate our understanding and acceptance of
the contents of the document. The objective of a digital signature is to sign an elec-
tronic document rather than a paper document. Public cryptography is one of the
methods used for digital signatures. An example of this is shown in Fig. 14.21. In
Fig. 14.21, Alice sends a document to Bob. Bob encrypts the document with its
private key and sends it back to Alice. Alice stores the encrypted document in case
Bob denies the signature. Alice decrypts the document for her use.

Fig. 14.21 Digital

signature
318 14 Introduction to Cryptography

Fig. 14.22 Digital signature using private key

The disadvantage of the above method is that the entire document must be
encrypted and stored on the receiver side thus requiring a large amount of memory.
Another method is when one signs a message digest (i.e., a summary of the docu-
ment contents) rather than the entire document. A message digest is a summary of
the message such as a frame check sequence. A hash value encrypted by private key
is called digital signature as shown in Fig. 14.22.

14.13 Kerberos

Kerberos is an authentication system that was developed at the Massachusetts

Institute of Technology (MIT). It is used for the authentication of two systems over
an unsecured network. The components of Kerberos are shown in Fig. 14.23. For
Host A to access Server B, the following steps should take place:
1. User A logs into the Kerberos server (KS) and requests to access Server B.
2. The KS prompt the user A for a password, a user ID, and a server ID.
3. KS checks the user’s password and ID and also checks if user A has permission
to access Server B.
4. If user A passes step 3, then KS creates a ticket that contains a user ID and a
server ID. KS encrypts the ticket and transmits it to user A and server B. Only
server B can encrypt the ticket.
Summary 319

Fig. 14.23 Kerberos

authentication system
Kerberos
Server
KS

User A

Server
B

5. User A sends the ticket to server B; server B encrypts the ticket and compares it
with the ticket that was sent by KS. If both tickets are the same, then user A is
allowed to access server B.

Summary

• A direct attack is when the attacker breaks the security of a system.

• An indirect attack is when the attacker gets information and data (such as a name,
address, social security, or credit card number).
• The elements of network security are confidentiality, authentication, integrity,
and non-repudiation.
• When plaintext is encrypted by an encryption algorithm, it is called a ciphertext.
• The algorithm that is used for encryption and decryption is called a cipher.
• Cryptography is the science of keeping information secret.
• Modern cryptography is classified into two types: symmetric cryptography (pri-
vate key) and asymmetric cryptography (public key).
• In symmetric cryptography, the transmitter and the receiver use the same key for
encryption and decryption.
• In asymmetric cryptography (public key), the transmitter and the receiver use
different keys for encryption and decryption.
• The Data Encryption Algorithm is an example of symmetric cryptography.
• The elliptic curve equation is y2 = x3 + ax + b.
• The RSA algorithm is an example of public key cryptography.
• A digital signature is a process that is used by a client to sign an electronic
document.
320 14 Introduction to Cryptography

Key Terms

Authentication Firewall
Authenticator Hash function
Block cipher Hash value
Certificates Indirect attack
Ciphertext Integrity
Cryptography Kerberos
Data Encryption Standard Mutual authentication
Decryption Public key cryptography
Digital signature RSA algorithm
Direct attacks Stream cipher

Review Questions

Multiple Choice Questions

1. __________ provides privacy and protects information from an attacker.
(a) Authentication
(b) Confidentiality
(c) Integrity
(d) Non-repudiation
2. Plaintext encrypted is called a/an __________
(a) Cipher
(b) Encryption
(c) Ciphertext
(d) Hash value
3. When a transmitter and a receiver use the same key, the key is called a
__________
(a) Public key
(b) Private key
(c) Secret key
(d) Hash key
4. The science of encryption and decryption is called __________
(a) Authentication
(b) Cipher
(c) Cryptography
(d) Hash value
5. The algorithm is used for encryption and decryption is called a __________
Review Questions 321

(a) Cleartext
(b) Cipher
(c) Ciphertext
(d) Digital signature
6. Stream ciphers encrypt information __________
(a) One bit at a time
(b) One byte at a time
(c) One block at time
(d) All at the same time
7. Which of following algorithms use a private key?
(a) DES
(b) RAS
(c) Hash function
(d) Digital signature
8. Computer A uses a public key for encrypting its information and sends it to sta-
tion B. What does Computer B Use for decryption?
(a) Computer B uses its public key for decryption
(b) Computer B uses its private key for decryption
(c) Computer B uses Computer A’s public key for decryption
(d) Computer B randomly chooses a key for decryption
9. The objective of a digital signature is __________
(a) To verify the identity of a user or a client
(b) To provide privacy for a document
(c) To inform the acceptance of the document by user
(d) For the user to copy the document
10. A hash function is used for __________
(a) Digital signature
(b) Digital certificates
(c) Encryption
(d) Authentication
11. Keberos is used for:
(a) Encryption of a document
(b) Digital signatures
(c) Digital certificates
(d) Authentication purposes
(e) None of the above
322 14 Introduction to Cryptography

Short Answer Questions

1. List the types of attacks and explain each type.
2. List the elements of network security and explain the function of each.
3. List some of the common attacks in networking.
4. What is the definition of cryptography?
5. Show the cryptography model.
6. What is a cipher?
7. List the classes of cryptography.
8. Explain symmetric cryptography.
9. Explain asymmetric cryptography.
10. Distinguish between stream ciphers and block ciphers
11. Name an encryption algorithm that uses a stream cipher.
12. List three encryption algorithms that use block ciphers.
13. What does DES stand for?
14. What does AES stand for?
15. What is 3DES?
16. Name an algorithm which generates asymmetric keys.
17. What are the applications of public key cryptography?
18. What are the characteristics of a hash value?
19. What is the function of a hash function?
20. What is the equation for elliptic curve?
21. What is a condition for the elliptic curve in order to not have repeated factors?
22. What are the advantages of ECC?
23. What are some popular hash functions?
24. Explain digital signatures.
25. Explain the function of Kerberos.
26. Find the public key, the private key, and N using the RSA (assume the two
prime numbers p = 7 and q = 11).
27. Encrypt the message M = 5
(a) Using the public key in Problem 20.
(b) Decrypt the encrypted message using the private key in Problem 20,
28. What are the applications of MAC?
29. How is MAC generated?
Chapter 15
Network Security

Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
• Explain the application of the Secure Socket Layer (SSL).
• Describe the components of SSL/TLS.
• Understand VPNs and how they operate.
• Explain the application of EAP.
• Explain the application of the SSH protocol.
• Discuss different applications of a firewall.
• Explain the purpose of certificates.
• Distinguish between WPA, WPA2, and WPA3.

Introduction
The transfer of information across networks and the Internet is increasing exponen-
tially due to e-commerce and business transactions. Network security plays an
important role in successful e-commerce. Currently, many people are accessing
their bank accounts, buying and selling stocks, and paying bills over the Internet.
People using these services need to have their transactions be secure. This means
that the information transmitted should not be able to be accessed or modified by
anyone other than the authorized user. Network security is implemented to protect
information in transit and to protect a system from an attack.

15.1 Secure Socket Layer Protocol (SSL)

The Secure Socket Layer protocol (SSL) was developed by the Netscape
Communication Corporation in 1995 for secure communication between a web
browser and a web server. Version 3 is the latest version of SSL. The IETF modified
SSL v3 and called it Transport Layer Security (TLS), which is what is typically seen

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 323
A. Elahi, A. Cushman, Computer Networks,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-42018-4_15
324 15 Network Security

Fig. 15.1 SSL/TLS

protocol architecture

in use today. However, even when TLS is in use, the term “SSL” tends to be used
interchangeably. The main difference between TLS and SSL is that TLS uses
Keyed-Hash Message Authentication Code (HMAC), and SSL uses MAC. SSL/
TLS provides data encryption, server authentication, message integrity, and client
authentication (optional) for both ends.
The SSL/TLS protocol is located between the TCP protocol layer and the appli-
cation protocol layer as shown in Fig. 15.1. HTTPS is Hypertext Transfer Protocol
over Secure Socket Layer, which replaces HTTP. HTTPS uses port 443, where
HTTP uses port 80 for interaction with TCP, as shown in Fig. 15.2. The SSL/TLS
protocol consists of the following components:
A. The Handshake Layer consists of Handshake, Change Cipher Specification, and
Alert Protocols
B. The Record Layer consists of Record Protocol

SSL Handshake Protocol

The SSL handshake protocol performs a series of message exchanges between an
SSL client and SSL server to authenticate each other and negotiate the encryption
algorithm established via a secure connection. SSL/TLS can use symmetric cryp-
tography or public key cryptography and is decided based on the cryptography algo-
rithm negotiation.
Figure 15.3 shows Handshake packets between a client and a server. The follow-
ing steps describe the SSL/TLS handshake packets:
1. The client makes a connection to a server using the standard TCP handshake.
2. The client transmits a Hello Packet to the server as shown in Fig. 15.4. This
Hello Packet contains the following information:
(a) The SSL/TLS version.
(b) Random Number: This random number, along with a random number and
a third value referred to as the premaster key, is used to generate a master
secret key from which the encryption key will be generated.
(c) Session ID: This is used if the session becomes disconnected, alleviating the
need for the client and server to perform another handshake.
(d) Cipher Suites: This is a list of the client’s supported cryptographic algo-
rithms, message digest algorithms, and key exchange algorithms, which
may be used for SSL handshaking. The list may contain up to 31 cipher suites.
(e) Compression method: This is optional.
15.1 Secure Socket Layer Protocol (SSL) 325

Fig. 15.2 HTTPS

architecture
HTTPS

Secure Socket Layer

TCP

IP

Fig. 15.3 SSL/TLS handshake packets

3. The server acknowledges the client’s Hello Packet.

4. The server transmits its Hello packet to the client, as shown in Fig. 15.5, with
the following information:
(a) Random Number: Just like the client, the server also generates and sends
over its own random number for later use.
326 15 Network Security

Fig. 15.4 Hello Packet

Fig. 15.5 Server Hello Packet

(b) Session ID.

(c) Security Suite: The server selects the first security suite from the list that
was transmitted by the client. If the server supports the security suite, then it
is used, otherwise the server selects the next one.
15.1 Secure Socket Layer Protocol (SSL) 327

Fig. 15.6 Client Key Exchange Packet

(d) Server Certificate: The server provides the client with a digital certificate,
which establishes the server’s identity, contains the server’s public key, and
is digitally signed in a chain of trust. Digital certificates will be covered in
detail in Sect. 15.6.
(e) Handshake Done.

5. The client, now with the server’s certificate, sends a Key Exchange Packet, as
seen in Fig. 15.6, with the following information:
(a) Premaster Key: Another random number is chosen by the client to be a
premaster key, which is then encrypted using the public key provided in the
server’s certificate. Both the client and the server will use this premaster key,
as well as the other random numbers generated by the client and server, to
generate a symmetric session key. The server does so by decrypting the pre-
master key that was just sent, which it should only be able to do if it has the
corresponding private key for the public key provided in the certificate.
(b) The client transmits a Change Cipher Specification packet to the server as
shown in Fig. 15.7. This message notifies the server that all messages from
now on will be encrypted using the key and algorithms negotiated. If the
server is able to decrypt the premaster key, then the client and server should
have identical session keys and should now be able to communicate securely.

Record Protocol The Record Protocol receives the data from the application
layer or TCP layer and performs following functions:
(a) Fragments the data into blocks or reassembles the data packet.
(b) Adds sequence numbers to each block.
(c) Compresses or decompresses the data packet using the compression algorithm
negotiated in the handshake protocol.
328 15 Network Security

Fig. 15.7 Change Cipher Specification

(d) Encrypts or decrypts the data.

(e) Applies an HMAC (or a MAC for SSL 3.0) to outgoing data.
(f) Computes the HMAC and verifies that it is identical to the value transmitted.
This check ensures data integrity when a message is received.
Alert Protocol The Alert Protocol is used to notify both client and server about
errors and session termination.

15.2 Virtual Private Network (VPN)

Large organizations and corporations have multiple sites in different locations and
would often like to connect LANs together. One solution is to lease a data commu-
nication line and connect the LANs together thus creating a private network. A
corporation with 100 offices in different locations throughout a country must lease
100 lines to connect its LANs together. This method is not cost-effective. In order
to reduce the cost of leasing private lines, Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) can be
employed over Internet.
Figure 15.8 shows two networks that are connected through the Internet using
VPN devices. The function of a VPN device is to make a secure communication
between two LANs by establishing a tunnel between its two endpoints. The disad-
vantage of using the Internet as a communication channel between corporations is
poor security. Therefore, the VPN needs to provide security components such as
authentication, confidentiality and data integrity.
Tunneling
Tunneling is the process of placing one packet inside another packet for transmis-
sion over a public network. In Fig. 15.8, it is assumed that both networks are run-
ning IP. If station A wants to send an IP packet to station B, it sends the packet to the
VPN device A first. VPN device A then encapsulates the packet into an IP packet
and transmits it over the Internet. When VPN device B receives the IP packet, it
15.3 IP Security Protocol (IPsec) 329

VPN device
VPN device Tunnel
B
A

B
A
Fig. 15.8 Virtual Private Network (VPN)

discards the IP header and sends the IP packet to station B. Some of the tunneling
protocols are listed below.
1. Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP): PPTP was developed by the PPTP
forum. PPTP supports 40 and 128-bit encryption.
2. Layer-2 Forwarding (L2F): L2F was developed by CISCO and it uses any
authentication method.
3. Layer-2 Tunneling Protocol (L2FT): L2FT was developed by CISCO and
IETF. It is a combination of L2F and Point-to-Point Tunnel Protocol
4. IP security (IPsec) Protocol: The IP Security Protocol was developed by IETF.

15.3 IP Security Protocol (IPsec)

In order to protect information traveling via VPNs from attack, the IETF developed
the IPsec protocol for integrity, authentication, and confidentiality of data over IP
networks. The IPsec Protocol is an open standard and does not define any specific
protocol for authentication and encryption. The IP Security Protocol is becoming
increasingly more popular than the other protocols. IPsec is made of two protocols
Authentication Header Protocol (AH) and Encapsulation Security
Protocol (ESP).
Authentication Header Protocol
The Authentication Header Protocol (AH) is used for identification of a user or
application and it can operate in either tunneling mode or transport mode. AH does
not provide any encryption. Figure 15.9 shows the AH packet format.
The following describes the function of each field of authentication header:
• Next Header: Identifies the next header (such as TCP).
• Payload Length: Number of 32-bit words in AH.
330 15 Network Security

1 8 16 32
Next Header Payload Length Reserved

Security Parameter Index (SPI)

Sequence Number

Authentication Data ( variable)

Fig. 15.9 AH packet format of IPsec

• Security Parameter Index (SPI): The SPI informs the receiving station of the
location of the security information such as the decryption key.
• Sequence Number: Every packet has a unique number. If an intruder copies a
packet and resends it with the same sequence number, then the receiver discards
the packet.
• Authentication Data: This is digital signature of the payload.
Figure 15.10 shows the AH location in an IPsec packet in transport mode. In the
IP header, the protocol type is 50 thus indicating that the next header is an IPsec
header. Figure 15.11 shows the location of AH in the IPsec packet using tunneling
mode. In tunneling mode, the entire packet is encapsulated into another IP packet
and AH includes the entire IP packet.
Encapsulation Security Packet (ESP)
The Encapsulation Security Packet performs encryption and authentication of data.
Figure 15.12 shows an ESP format.
ESP can operate in tunneling mode or in transport mode. Figure 15.13 shows the
ESP format using transport mode. In transport mode, only the TCP header and data
fields are encrypted. The authentication data is a digital signature of the data, pad-
ding, TCP header, and ESP header. As shown in Fig. 15.13, the protocol type in IP
header is 50 thus indicating that the next protocol is ESP. Figure 15.14 shows ESP
using tunneling mode. In tunneling mode, the entire IP packet is encrypted and has
the entire ESP header encapsulated into the IP packet for transmission.

15.4 Secure Shell (SSH)

SSH was developed in 1995 and is widely used in many Unix systems to overcome
the weaknesses of Telnet and FTP. The SSH standards were developed by the IETF
and then the Secure Shell was commercialized in 1998 by www.ssh.com where it
was implemented for the Windows and UNIX systems. SSH version one (SSH1)
had numerous weaknesses, but SSH2 overcame these. SSH2 is open source, and it
can be found at the following websites:
15.4 Secure Shell (SSH) 331

IP header TCP Data

IP Header
AH TCP Data
Protocol type=50

Fig. 15.10 Authentication header using transport mode

IP header TCP Data

New IP Header IP Header

AH TCP Data
Protocol type 50

Fig. 15.11 Authentication header using tunneling mode

1 32
Security Parameter Index (SPI)

Sequence Number

Payload

Padding Pad length Next Header

Authentication Data

Fig. 15.12 ESP format

IP header
ESP Header TCP Header Data and Padding Authentication Data
Protocol type=50

Encrypted fields

Fig. 15.13 ESP in transport mode

New IP header
ESP Header IP header TCP Header Data and Padding Authentication Data
Protocol type 50

Encrypted fields

Fig. 15.14 ESP using tunneling mode

332 15 Network Security

Fig. 15.15 SSH Protocol Stack

1. www.openssh.com
2. http://www.freesshd.com/
3. www.filezilla.com
Telnet is used for remote logging and FTP is used for file transfer from a remote
computer. These protocols have the following weaknesses.
1. Telnet and FTP use passwords as an authentication method. When transmitted
for authentication, these passwords are transmitted in plaintext.
2. Telnet and FTP transmit all data in plaintext, which does not provide protection
from attacks that monitor data that can read plaintext.
3. Telnet and FTP clients do not authenticate the server.
Advantages of SSH Secure Shell SSH offers logging into a remote device securely
with the following features:
1. SSH transmits data in cipher text.
2. SSH transmits user authentication information in cipher text.
3. SSH clients authenticate the server.
4. SSH dynamically generates a key exchange between the client and the server for
encryption and decryption between the server and the client.
SSH Protocol
SSH protocol is used to establish a secure connection between client and server. The
objective of the creation of SSH was to replace Telnet and File Transfer Protocol.
Figure 15.15 shows the SSH Protocol Stack.
SSH User Authentication Protocol (SSH-AUTH) This verifies the client’s iden-
tity by using the provided public key or password.
SSH Connection Protocol (SSH-CONNECT) The SSH connections provide
multiple channels, and these channels are multiplexed to one encrypted tunnel.
SSH Transport Protocol (SSH-TRANS) SSH-TRANS runs on top of TCP with
the port number 22. It makes a secure connection between a client and a server by
providing Integrity and Confidentiality
SSH-TRANS performs the following operations:
15.5 IEEE 802.1X 333

Fig. 15.16 SSH Client and Server connection establishment

1. The server and the client negotiate the SSH version and software to be used.
2. Another negotiation takes place to determine the algorithm for encryption and
the MAC algorithm for integrity. Some of the used encryption algorithms are
AES128-CBC, AES256-CBC, AES-CTR, and Blowfish-CBC. Some of the
algorithms for Message Authentic Code (MAC) are HMAC-MD5, HMAC-­
SHA-­256, and HMAC-SHA-512.
3. Key exchanges such Diffie–Hellman. The client and the server share a secret key
and use the secret key to generate encryption and authentication keys.
Figure 15.16 shows a client and a server exchanging packets for establishing a
secure connection.

15.5 IEEE 802.1X

Security is one of the most important issues in the development of Wireless LAN. In
a wired LAN, users have a direct connection to the network, whereas WLAN users
do not. WLAN users must verify their identity before accessing the network.
Authentication is a process used by a wireless station or a wired station to identify
oneself on the network. A password is used for authentication when accessing a
network’s resources.
Typically, the communication channel between a user and a WLAN is not secure.
An attacker can monitor the communication channel and collect user data and
334 15 Network Security

Authenticator
(Access Point)

Network
Controlled Port
Server
Supplicant
or
Client Uncontrolled
Port
Authentication
Server

Fig. 15.17 Components of IEEE 802.1X extensible authentication protocol

passwords. The network administrator operates the access point (where a user
accesses the network), but a hacker may set up a rogue access point to capture the
connection of an unsuspecting client. Therefore, a method is needed such that the
user can verify the authenticity of the access point. This method of authentication is
called Mutual Authentication.
The IEEE 802.1X is a standard for port-based network access control and is an
open standard for authentication of both wireless and wired stations using an
authentication server. Figure 15.17 shows the components of a network employing
the IEEE 802.1x standard.
Supplicant A supplicant can be any device using IEEE 802.11 protocol for net-
working, or any PC connected to the network.
Authenticator The authenticator can be an access point for 802.11 LAN or a
switch for a wired LAN. The authenticator uses controlled and uncontrolled ports
for authentication of a supplicant.
Authentication Server The authentication server performs an authentication pro-
cess for a supplicant. One type of authentication server is called a RADIUS (Remote
Authentication Dial-In User Service). A RADIUS is both an authentication server
and an accounting server and is used to authorize a station on the network.
Authentication Protocol An authentication protocol is a procedure that is used by
the client and the authentication server for the authentication process. IEEE 802.1x
uses EAP for exchanging messages during the authentication process. EAP sup-
ports the following authentication messages between client and server:
(a) Request
(b) Response
(c) Success
(d) Failure
EAP messages between the client and the AP are carried by the EAPOL (EAP
over LAN) protocol. EAP messages from the AP to the server are carried by the
EAP over RADIUS protocol.
15.6 Certificates 335

IEEE 802.1X does not define which authentication protocol to use. There are 40
authentication protocols available, and some of the most popular are as follows:
1. EAP-MD5 (Message Digest 5): EAP-MD5 is a password-based authentication
protocol.
2. EAP-TLS (EAP-Transport Layer Security): EAP-TLS is based on mutual
authentication of the client to the server and the server to the client. Both the cli-
ent and the server must be assigned a digital certificate.
3. LEAP (Lightweight Extensible Authentication Protocol): Used by CISCO.
4. EAP-TTLS (Tunneled TLS).
5. PEAP (Protected EAP).
802.1X Operation
The authenticator (i.e., access point) contains both the logical controlled and uncon-
trolled ports for authentication. When using the uncontrolled logical ports, the client
can communicate with the authentication server but does not have access to the
network services. The following steps describe the authentication process of a client
by an authentication server.
1. The client requests an association with the AP (access point).
2. The AP responds to the client’s request.
3. The client sends an EAP start message to the AP.
4. The AP requests the identity of the client (such as the user name).
5. The client sends an EAP packet containing their identity to the authentica-
tion server.
6. The authentication server identifies the client.
7. The authentication server can accept or reject the client request.
8. Upon accepting the client’s request, the AP sends an EAP success packet to the
client and authorizes the controlled port so that the client can access the network
services.

15.6 Certificates

A customer requests a web page from a stockbroker by logging into to the broker’s
server. The server requests an account number and a password for verification. If the
information submitted by the customer is correct, then the server sends its public
key to the customer for encryption. Suppose an intruder installs a system between a
customer and a broker’s server, as shown in Fig. 15.18. When the customer requests
the broker’s web page, the intruder system responds with a fake web page. The
customer logs into the fake web page and the intruder sends a fake public key to the
customer to use for encryption. To check the authenticity of the public key, the pub-
lic key must be certified by a certificate authority.
Certificates verify the identity of a server, a program, or personal identification
information such as a pictured driver license and number. A driver license is issued
336 15 Network Security

Intruder Stock Broker

Server
Customer System
Internet

Fig. 15.18 Application of certificates

by the Department of Motor Vehicles. Digital certificates are issued in a similar

fashion by the Certificate Authority (CA). Some of the certification authorities are
the US Postal Service, Commercenet, and Versign.
A digital certificate contains a public key, the full name of the certificate holder,
the name of the certification authority, and a digital signature of the CA. All certifi-
cates use X.509 Standard, which has been recommended by the ITU. The X.509
standard defines the information in a certificate. This information is usually divided
into two sections: the data section and signature section.
The data section of X.509 contains the following information:
• Version Number: This number identifies the X.509 version such as V1,
V2 and V3.
• Certificate Serial Number: This number is assigned to a certificate by the CA.
• Signature Algorithm: The type of algorithm that is used for the signature of a
certificate.
• Name of the Certificate Authority.
• Duration of the Certificate: The period in which a certificate is valid.
• Public Key Algorithm: The algorithm that is used to generate a public key.
The signature section contains the following information:
• The cryptographic algorithm used by the CA to create its digital signatures.
• The digital signature of all data in the certificates.
For a user to check the validity of a certificate, he or she must perform the fol-
lowing functions:
1. Check the expiration date.
2. Check if the certified authority name is on the trusted list.
3. Find the digital certificates of all data and compare against those attached to the
certificates.
When all of the above tests are passed, then the certificate is valid. Figure 15.19
shows a certificate.
15.7 Firewalls 337

Fig. 15.19 Image of a

certificate

15.7 Firewalls

A firewall is a system that is used for preventing unauthorized users from accessing
private networks. Firewalls are located between private networks and the Internet
(un-trusted Network) as shown in Fig. 15.20. They can be implemented by a com-
bination of software and hardware. Firewalls examine all packets leaving and enter-
ing a private network, blocking packets that do not meet security criteria. Firewall
technologies are classified into the following types:
(a) Packet Filtering Firewall
(b) Application Proxy Server or Network Address Translation Firewall
(c) Stateful Firewall
Packet Filtering A firewall can examine each incoming packet’s header such as
the IP header, TCP, or UDP header, and, based on security criteria set by the net-
work administration, accept or reject any packet. These criteria are as follows:
A. Source IP Address and Destination IP Address: A firewall can be programmed
to block packets based on the IP address of the packet. This task is done at the
Network Level of the TCP/IP model.
B. Protocol Type: The firewall can block packets based on protocols such as TCP,
UDP, and ICMP protocols. For example, protocol filtering can filter any packet
338 15 Network Security

Trusted Network Firewall Internet

or or
Private Network Un-trusted

Fig. 15.20 Location of a firewall

intended for ICMP. Protocol filtering is done at the Network Level of the TCP/
IP model.
C. Source Port and Destination Port Filtering: The firewall can block packets
based on the port number of the incoming packets. The port number is used to
define application protocols such as HTTP, SMTP, Telnet, and TFTP. For exam-
ple, a firewall may block any incoming mail by blocking SMTP or port 25. Port
filtering is done at the transport level of the TCP/IP model.
D. Packet Payload (information on the payload): A firewall can block packets
based on the information contained in a packet’s payloads such as a packet con-
taining a “dirty word” or a specific sentence. The information filtering is done at
the application level of TCP/IP model.
Application Proxy Server or Network Address Translation (NAT) The proxy
server application is located between the trusted network and the un-trusted net-
work. Assume a client of the private network wants to access the un-trusted network
such as Internet. First, it sends a request to the proxy server and the proxy server
uses its IP address to send the request, on the behalf of client, to the destination
server. Therefore, destination server sees only the proxy server’s IP address. The IP
addresses of the clients in the private network are not exposed to the Internet. A
proxy server should contain a software module for each application protocol such as
HTTP, Telnet SMTP, and TFTP.
Stateful Firewall A Stateful Firewall keeps track of its connections and deter-
mines if the incoming packets belong to the current connections or not. This type of
firewall can be configured such that it will deny any connection from the un-trusted
network to the trusted server. The un-trusted network can only send packets to the
trusted server if the trusted server requests them; otherwise, the un-requested pack-
ets will be discarded by the firewall.
Dual Firewall In any organization, there are some servers that clients from both
inside and outside the network must be able to access including Web servers, DNS
servers, and E-mail servers. Within these same organizations are servers which only
clients from inside the organization are allowed access to, such as database servers
or file servers. To protect both types of servers, two firewalls will be used as shown
in Fig. 15.21. The servers that both inside and outside clients must have access to
are located between two firewalls in an area known as the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ).
15.8 WLAN Security 339

Fig. 15.21 DMZ Architecture

15.8 WLAN Security

A WLAN is less secure than a wired LAN. In a wired LAN, any person who wants
access to the network must make a physical connection. In WLANs, users can
access an AP if the AP signal is detectable. The following methods are used for the
security of WLANs:
(a) Service Set Identifier
(b) MAC Address Filtering
(c) Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)
(d) Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA), WPA2 and WPA3
(e) Authentication
Packet Sniffer
A packet sniffer is a piece of software that captures packets coming into and going
out of a network. It is used for network monitoring or analysis. A packet sniffer
captures all the data that passes through a network and is set to capture packets for
a specific machine.

15.8.1 Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)

The IEEE 802.11 standard includes WEP in the MAC layer of WLAN to protect
wireless communications. WEP uses a secret key that is shared between the AP and
the users. At the transmitter side, a 24-bit Initialization Vector (IV) is appended to
the secret key at the transmitter side and secret key can be 40 or 108 bits. WEP uses
RC4 algorithm to generate a keystream for encryption as shown in Fig. 15.22.
340 15 Network Security

Data ICV

Data Frame FCS

Encrypted Data

IV RC4 XOR
algorithm Keystream
IV Secret Key

IV Encrypted Data

Transmitted Packet

IV RC4 XOR
Keystream Data ICV
algorithm
IV Secret Key

Fig. 15.22 WEP Process

The IEEE 802.11 standard defines two types of authentications: Open System
Authentication and Shared Key Authentication.
Opens System Authentication
This is the simplest method of authentication for a WLAN as the access point and
the client set their own criteria for authentication. If a client has the SSID of the
access point, the client sends an authentication frame with its secret key to the
access point. If the secret key of the client matches the secret key of the access point,
then the AP sends a positive response to the client and the client becomes associated
with the AP.
Shared Key Authentication Figure 15.23 shows the shared key authentication
process. In shared key authentication, the clients and AP use the same key, which
makes it easy for a hacker to obtain the shared key by using special sniffer software
such as AirSnort or WEPcrak. Therefore, the network administrator needs to change
the shared secret key frequently, which is difficult in large networks. Some of the
WEP weakness are as follows: WEP does not support key management and all cli-
ents use the same shared key, WEP uses a small key size, WEP uses a 24-bit
Initialization vector which is appended to a 40-bit secret key, resulting in a 64-bit
WEP key and WEP does not support replay prevention.
15.9 IEEE 802.11i 341

Fig. 15.23 Shared Client Access Point

authentication process

Request Authentication

Challenge Text

Encrypted challenge text

Authentication response

15.9 IEEE 802.11i

The IEEE802.11i-2004 amendment consisted of two sets of security protocols

which are as follows:
(a) A set of protocols to overcome the weakness of WEP. It was certified by the
Wi-Fi Alliance and called Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA).
(b) A second set of security protocols called the robust security network (RSN).
RSN was also certified by the Wi-Fi Alliance and called WPA2.

15.9.1 WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access)

WPA is a subset of IEEE 802.11i and was developed to overcome the weakness of
WEP by adding TKIP (Temporal Key Integrity Protocol), IEEE802.1X, Extensible
Authentication Protocol (EAP), and the RADIUS Server. TKIP enhanced WEP by
adding the following features:
1. Initialization vector (IV)
(a) IV size changed from 24 bits to 48 bits.
(b) IV created from a number sequence to avoid replay attacks.
2. For each packet a new IV is used.
3. Key management.
342 15 Network Security

4. Use of the RC4 algorithm for encryption.

5. WPA uses a Message Integrity Code known as Michael. The key management
and authentication protocols used by WPA and WPA2 are the same. The only
difference is that WPA uses the RC4 algorithm for encryption with Michael as a
Message Integrity Code, while WPA2 uses AES–CCMP for encryption and mes-
sage integrity.

15.9.2 Wi-Fi Protected Access-2 (WPA2)

WPA2 operates in two modes, WPA2 Pre-shared Key (WPA2-PSK) and WPA2
Enterprise.
WPA2 Enterprise mode uses RADIUS Server and EAP for authentication. The
user provides authentication information and is authenticated by an authentica-
tion server (RADIUS). Larger networks use WPA2 Enterprise mode.
WPA2 Personal mode (WPA2-PSK) provides a simple authentication method
called pre-shared key for authentication and does not require a specific authenti-
cation server.
IEE802.11i ratified the Robust Security Network (RSN) for Wireless LANs.
RSN includes the following:
1. IEEE 802.1x Authentication.
2. Extensile Authentication Protocol (EAP).
3. WPA2 Enterprise uses the AES algorithm with Counter Mode (CTR) for encryp-
tion and combines CTR with Cipher Block Chaining Message Authentication
Code to generate the MAC. This is called AES-CCMP for encryption and mes-
sage integrity.
4. Supports multiple Authentication Protocols.
Counter Mode (CTR)
The information is divided into blocks as shown in Fig. 15.24. The counter value is
encrypted by AES and XORed with each block of data resulting in encrypted text,
or ciphertext.
Cipher Block Chaining Message Authentication Code (CBC-MAC)
Figure 15.25 shows the Cipher Block Chaining Message Authentication Code. The
ciphertexts of Fig. 15.24 are the inputs to the CBC-MAC.
WPA and WPA2 Key management
IEEE 802.11i defines a Pairwise Key for unicast transmission and a Group Key for
multicast and broadcast transmission:
Pairwise Master Key (PMK): This key can be generated by a server-based key
generator and transmitted to an AP and a client during an authentication operation,
or as a pre-shared key.
Temporal keys consist of the following 128-bit keys:
15.9 IEEE 802.11i 343

Fig. 15.24 Counter Mode Encryption

Fig. 15.25 Cipher Block Massage Authentication Code (CBC-MAC)

Fig. 15.26 Cipher Block Massage Authentication Code (CBC-MAC)

A. Data Encryption Key: This key is used for encryption.

B. Data Integrity Key: This key is used to generate a Message Integrity
Code (MIC).
C. EAPOL-Key Encryption Key: This key is used for the Extensible Authentication
Protocol over LAN for the authentication of a client.
D. EAPOL-Key Integrity Key: Used by the EAPOL protocol to check integrity.
Every time a device joins the network, the above keys are generated. Figure 15.26
shows a block diagram of the temporal key generator, which creates the four keys
that make up the Pairwise Transient Key (PTK).
344 15 Network Security

MAC1 and MAC2 are the MAC addresses for a client and access point.
Nonce1 and Nonce2 are random numbers which are used only once.
ASE-CCMP uses the same key for encryption and message integrity, and the
PTK for WPA2 utilizes 3 keys instead of 4.

15.9.3 WPA3 (Wi-Fi Protected Access-3)

WPA3 is the latest generation of wireless network security based on IEEE802.11s.

WPA3 improves the level of security used by WPA2 standard. WPA3 offers two
modes of operation, WPA3 Personal (WPA-3 SAE) and WPA3-Enterprise
WPA3 Personal (WPA-3 SAE) Mode The WPA2 pre-shared key does not protect
wireless networks from dictionary attacks. WPA3 Personal uses Simultaneous
Authentication of Equals (SAE) for authentication process to protect against the
weaknesses of WPA2 Personal from brute force/dictionary attacks. SAE offers
secure password-based authentication even if the password is not complex. The
SAE uses elliptic curve and Diffie–Helman to generate a Pairwise Master Key, as
shown in Fig. 15.27. In the SAE commit phase, the AP and the client send their
password and ECC Group (elliptic curve cryptography) to each other and they gen-
erate a Pairwise Master Key (PMK) then confirm the generation of PMK to each
other. WPA3-Personal supports only the AES encryption mode. Table 15.1 shows a
comparison of WEP, WPA, WPA2, and WPA3.
WPA3-Enterprise Mode WPA3 Enterprise is used for governments and financial
institutions that require higher security. WPA3-Enterprise is similar to WPA2-­
Enterprise and offers optional 192-bit cryptography. The following are the list
improved security features of WPA3:

Fig. 15.27 WPA3

Personnel PMK generation
Summary 345

Table 15.1 Comparison of WEP, WPA, and WPA3

WEP WPA WPA2 WPA3
Timeline 1997 2003 2009 2018
Authentication Challenge PSK or IEEE PSK or IEEE 802.1x
Password 802.1x
Key size (bits) 40 128 128 128 bits
(Personal)
192 bits
(Enterprise)
Encryption RC4 with RC4 with CCMP with AES-128 AES
shared key TKIP (AES-CCMP)
Data integrity CRC-32 MIC CBC-MAC Secure Hash
Replay No Yes Yes Yes
detection
Key No Yes Yes Yes
management

• Data protection: The Suite-B 192-bit security suite is used to increase the
key length.
• Key protection: The HMAC-SHA-384 algorithm is used to export keys in the
four-way handshake phase.
• Traffic protection: The 256-bit Galois/Counter Mode Protocol (GCMP-256) is
used to protect wireless traffic after STAs go online.
• PMF (Protect Multicast Frame): The 256-bit Galois Message Authentication
Code (GMAC-256) is used to protect multicast management frames.
WPA3-Enterprise supports the following EAP cipher suites:
• TLS_ECDHE_ECDSA_WITH_AES_256_GCM_SHA384
• TLS_ECDHE_RSA_WITH_AES_256_GCM_SHA384
• TLS_DHE_RSA_WITH_AES_256_GCM_SHA384

Summary

• The Secure Socket Layer (SSL) is used for secure communication between a
web browser and a web server.
• The IETF modified SSL v3 and called it Transport Layer Security (TLS).
• The SSL/TLS protocol is located between the TCP protocol layer and the appli-
cation protocol.
• HTTPS uses port 443, where HTTP uses port 80 for interaction with TCP.
• The SSL/TLS protocol consists of a Handshake Layer and Record Layer.
• The function of a VPN (Virtual Private Network) device is to make secure com-
munication between two LANs by establishing a tunnel between its two
endpoints.
346 15 Network Security

• VPNs provide security components such as authentication, confidentiality, and

data integrity.
• IETF developed the IPsec protocol for integrity, authentication, and confidential-
ity of data over IP networks.
• Tunneling is the process of placing one packet inside another packet for trans-
mission over a public network.
• IPsec is made of two protocols: Authentication Header Protocol (AHP) and
Encapsulation Security Protocol (ESP).
• SSH (Secure Shell) was developed to overcome the weaknesses of Telnet
and FTP.
• SSH protocol is used to establish a secure connection between client and server.
• The IEEE 802.1X is a standard for port-based network access control and is an
open standard for authentication of both wireless.
• IEEE 802.1X does not define which authentication protocol to use.
• A certificate is used to identify a server to a client.
• Certificates verify the identity of a server, a program, or personal identification.
• Some of the certification authorities are the US Postal Service, Commercenet,
and Versign.
• X.509 is a standard that is used in a certificate.
• A firewall is a system that is used for preventing unauthorized users from access-
ing private networks.
• Types of firewalls are as follows: Packet Filtering, Application Proxy Server
(Network Address Translation), and Stateful Firewall.
• WLAN Security methods are follows: Service Set Identifier, MAC Address
Filtering, Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP), Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA)
WPA2, WPA3, and Authentication.

Key Terms

802.1X Secure Shell (SSH)

Authentication Header Protocol Secure Socket layer (SSL)
Certificates Secure Socket Layer Protocol (SSL)
Encapsulation Security Packet (ESP) Security Suite
Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP) SSH Protocol
Firewall SSL Handshake Protocol
Firewalls TLS/SSL
Hello Packet Tunneling
HTTPs Virtual Private Network (VPN)
HTTPS uses port 443 Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA)
IEEE 802.11i Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)
IEEE 802.1X Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP) WPA2
IP Security Protocol (IPsec) WPA3
Mutual authentication
Review Questions 347

Review Questions

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The Secure Socket Layer provides __________
(a) Encryption
(b) Authentication
(c) Integrity
(d) All above
2. The Secure Socket Layer is located between the __________
(a) TCP and IP protocols
(b) TCP and HTTP protocols
(c) TCP and HTTPS protocols
(d) TCP and DNS protocols
3. The SSL/TLS Client Hello contains:
(a) Client Cipher Suite
(b) Client Encryption Algorithm
(c) Server Encryption Algorithm
(d) Client Hash Algorithm
4. Which of the following is not in the SSL/TLS handshake packet?
(a) Client Hello
(b) Server Hello
(c) Client Key Exchange
(d) Server Certificate
5. VPNs are used to connect the networks __________
(a) Located in the same building
(b) Located in a campus
(c) Located in different locations
(d) Located in the same room
6. VPNs use __________ to connect networks.
(a) Leased lines
(b) Modems
(c) The Internet
(d) Public Networks
7. IEEE 802.1x is a standard for __________
(a) Digital signatures
(b) Authentication
(c) Certificates
(d) All of the above
348 15 Network Security

8. Which of the following servers are usually in the DMZ?

(a) DNS Server
(b) Database Server
(c) Accounting Server
(d) Print Server
9. IPsec was developed by the __________
(a) ITU
(b) IETF
(c) IEEE
(d) EIA
10. IPsec is used for __________
(a) Ethernets
(b) The Internet
(c) VPNs
(d) VLANs
11. Which of the following is not a part of the IPsec protocol?
(a) Authentication Header
(b) Encapsulation Header
(c) HTTPs
(d) (a) & (b)
12. The X.509 is the standard for __________
(a) HTTPs
(b) Telnet
(c) EAP
(d) Certificates
13. A certificate is issued by a/the __________
(a) Client
(b) Server
(c) Certificate authority
(d) Internet
14. SSH is used to secure __________
(a) Telnet
(b) FTP
(c) VLAN
(d) (a) & (b)
Review Questions 349

15. IEEE 802.1x is used for __________

(a) Authentication
(b) Encryption
(c) Secure Hash
(d) None of the above
16. Which of the following firewalls perform NAT?
(a) Packet filtering
(b) Stateful
(c) Application Proxy
(d) None of the above
17. What methods does WPA2-Personal use for authentication?
(a) Pre-shared Keys
(b) IEEE 802.1X
(c) RADIUS Server
(d) None of the above
18. What methods does WPA2-Enterprise use for authentication?
(a) Pre-shared Keys
(b) IEEE 802.1X with EAP
(c) RADIUS Server
(d) None of the above
19. What methods does WPA2 use for encryption?
(a) RC4
(b) AES-CCMP
(c) DES
(d) ECC

Short Answer Questions

1. What does TLS stand for?
2. List the SSL/TLS protocols.
3. List the SSL handshake protocols.
4. List the information in the SSL/TLS Client Hello.
5. List information in the SSL/TLS Server Hello
6. What is an application of VPNs?
7. What is an application of IPsec?
8. List the IPsec modes of operation.
9. What does SSH stand for?
10. What are the applications of SSH?
11. List SSH protocols.
12. What is 802.1x?
13. What is EAP?
350 15 Network Security

14. List three EAP protocols.

15. What is the weakness of WPA2-PSK
16. What is the name of the algorithm used for encryption by WPA2?
17. What is a nonce?
18. Show the block diagram for Counter Mode (CTR).
19. Show the block diagram of CBC-MAC.
20. What are the different types of firewalls?
 hapter 1: Introduction to Communications
C
Networks

Selected Answers: Multiple Choice Questions

2. In a Client/Server network, the client submits a task to the server, then the
server executes and returns the result to the requesting client station.
(a) Peer-to-Peer
(b) Server Based
(c) Client/Server
(d) All of the above
4. A mail server stores all the client’s mail.
(a) File server
(b) Print server
(c) Communication server
(d) Mail server
6. In a star topology, all stations are connected to a central controller or hub.
(a) Star
(b) Ring
(c) Bus
(d) Mesh
8. A hybrid topology is a combination of different topologies connected together
by a backbone cable.
(a) Star
(b) Ring
(c) Bus
(d) Hybrid

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352 Chapter 1: Introduction to Communications Networks

10. Which type of topology uses multi-point connections? bus

(a) Bus
(b) Star
(c) Ring
(d) Full mesh
12. Which of the following networks is used for office buildings? LAN
(a) LAN
(b) MAN
(c) WAN
(d) Internet
14. The Internet is a collection of LANs connected together by gateways.
(a) Routers
(b) Switches
(c) Gateways
(d) Repeaters
16. The IEEE developed the IEEE 802 standard for LAN.
(a) IEEE 802
(b) RS232
(c) OSI Model
(d) All of the above
18. The ANSI defines standards for programming languages.
(e) IEEE
(f) ISO
(g) ANSI
(h) IETF
20. Microsoft’s version of IPX/SPX is called NWLink.
(a) Net BEUI
(b) TCP/IP
(c) NWLink
(d) X.25
22. The Network layer establishes a connection.
(a) Network
(b) Physical
(c) Data-Link
(d) Application
Chapter 1: Introduction to Communications Networks 353

24. Which layer of the OSI model is responsible for forming a frame? Data-Link
(a) Data-Link
(b) Transport
(c) Session
(d) Physical
26. The function of the network layer is Routing
(a) Error detection
(b) Routing
(c) To set up a session
(d) Encryption
28. Which layer determines the route for packets transmitted from source to desti-
nation? Network
(a) Data-Link
(b) Network
(c) Transport
(d) Physical

Selected Answers: Short Answer

2. Explain the function of a server.

A server is a computer on the network that holds the shared files and the
network operating system that manages the network operation.
4. Explain the term “client/server model.”
A client first submits a task to the server. The server then executes the cli-
ent’s task and returns the results to the requesting client station.
6. What are the three components of a network?
Network Interface Card, Transmission Medium, Network Operating System.
8. List the six networking topologies.
• Star
• Ring
• Bus
• Mesh topology
• Tree
• Hybrid
10. What is a hub?
A hub links stations in the network together. The function of the hub is to
accept information from one station and repeat the information to other
stations or hubs.
354 Chapter 1: Introduction to Communications Networks

12. What does MAN stand for?

Metropolitan Area Network
14. What does WAN stand for?
Wide Area Network
16. List the layers of the OSI Model.
• Application
• Presentation
• Session
• Transport
• Network
• Data-Link
• Physical
18. List three applications of TCP/IP Model
HTTP, FTP, Telnet
20. What layer deals with frames?
Data-Link layer
Chapter 2: Data Communications

Selected Answers: Multiple Choice Questions

2. Modern computers work with digital signals.

(a) Digital
(b) Analog
(c) (a) and (b)
(d) None of the above
4. Asynchronous transmission transmits data character by character.
(a) Asynchronous
(b) Synchronous
(c) Full duplex
(d) Half-duplex
6. In simplex mode, transmission of data goes only in one direction.
(a) Simplex
(b) Half-duplex
(c) Full duplex
(d) Serial
8. The bandwidth of a communication signal is the range of frequencies that the
signal occupies.
(a) Data rate
(b) Bandwidth
(c) Baud rate
(d) Broadband

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356 Chapter 2: Data Communications

10. Cyclic Redundancy Check can detect one or more errors.

(a) Detect a single error and correct it
(b) Detect double errors and correct them
(c) Detect one or more errors
(d) Correct more than one error
12. What is decimal value for (111101)2? 61
(a) 44
(b) 63
(c) 61
(d) 52
14. The binary value for 45 is 101101
(a) 101011
(b) 101101
(c) 101111
(d) 011111
16. Asynchronous communication uses: stop and start bits to indicate the start
and end of the character
(a) Stop and start bits to indicate the start and end of the character
(b) A start bit to synchronize transmission
(c) Start and stop bits used for clocking
(d) None of the above

Selected Answers: Short Answer

2. What is frequency?
Frequency is the number of cycles of a signal per second, which is mea-
sured in Hz.
4. What is the frequency of an analog signal that is repeated every .02 ms?
f = 1/T
f = 1/.02 ms
f = 1/.00002 s
f = 50 kHz
6. Sketch a digital signal.
Chapter 2: Data Communications 357

8. What is a byte?
A byte is eight bits grouped together.
10. Convert the following binary number to Hex.
(111000111001)2 = (E39)16
12. Convert the following number to binary.
(FDE6)16 = (1111110111100110)2
14. Convert the word NETWORK to hexadecimal.

N E T W O R K
4E 45 54 57 4F 52 4B

16. What is serial transmission?

Serial transmission is a transmission method in which information is sent
sequentially, bit by bit.
18. What is the advantage of parallel transmission over serial transmission.
Parallel transmission is faster than serial transmission when both are at
the same clock speed.
20. What is a synchronous transmission?
Synchronous transmission uses an external connection, typically a clock
pulse, to synchronize and set the speed of information going from a trans-
mitter to a receiver.
22. Show the format of asynchronous transmission.

Start D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 Parity Stop Stop

Bit Bit Bit Bi t
LSB MSB
One Character

24. List two types of digital encoding methods in which clock is embedded to
data signal
Manchester Encoding and Differential Manchester Encoding.
26. List sources of error in networking.
Crosstalk, white noise, impulse noise, and attenuation.
28. Find the BCC for word “ETHERNET.”

Row even parity ASCII Binary Character

1 1000101 E
1 1010100 T
0 1001000 H
1 1000101 E
1 1010010 R
358 Chapter 2: Data Communications

0 1001110 N
1 1000101 E
1 1010100 T
1 1101110 Odd parity for columns
The BCC is 11101110

28. Find the FCS for message 10110110 using circuit in question 29.

Input C2 C1 C0
Initial value 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 0 0 1

   The FCS 001

32. Show the digital wave form for 0101011110

34. Calculate frequency of a signal repeated every 0.0005 seconds.

f = 1/T
f = 1/0.0005
f = 2000 Hz
36. What is burst error?
When two or more consecutive bits in a frame have changed in error.
 hapter 3: Communications Channels
C
and Media

Selected Answers: Multiple Choice Questions

2. Coaxial and fiber-optic cables are used to transmit high-speed and analog
signals.
(a) UTP and coaxial
(b) STP and UTP
(c) Coaxial and fiber-optic
(d) Fiber-optic and STP
4. Wireless transmission does not use any transmission medium.
(a) WAN
(b) LAN
(c) Wireless
(d) Internet
6. Which of the following UTP cables is suitable for a data rate of 100 Mbps? Cat-5
(a) Cat-2
(b) Cat-4
(c) Cat-3
(d) Cat-5
8. What type of fiber-optic cable is used for long distance transmission?
Single-mode
(a) Multimode graded index
(b) Single mode
(c) UTP
(d) STP

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to 359
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360 Chapter 3: Communications Channels and Media

10. What is the maximum length that a fiber cable with a modal bandwidth of
1000 MHz*km can be in order to transmit information with a 200 MHz
speed? 5 km
(a) 1 km
(b) 10 km
(c) 5 km
(d) 20 km
12. SONET uses byte multiplexing in all levels.
(a) Upper
(b) Mid
(c) All
(d) None of the above
14. SONET transmits the STS-1 at the rate of 8000 frames/second.
(a) 6000
(b) 7000
(c) 8000
(d) 1000
16. STS-1 has data rate of 51.84 Mbps.
(a) 810
(b) 8000
(c) 51.84
(d) 1.54
18. An STS-1 frame made of 9 rows and 90 columns
(a) 9 columns and 90 rows
(b) 9 rows and 90 columns
(c) 10 rows and 100 columns
(d) None of the above
20. An STS-3 is generated by multiplexing three STS-1s
(a) Three STS-1s
(b) Six STS-1s
(c) Five STS-1s
(d) Two STS-1s
22. An STS-3 frame format is made up of 9 rows and 270 columns
(a) 270 rows and 9 columns
(b) 9 rows and 270 columns
(c) 10 rows and 300 columns
(d) None of the above
Chapter 3: Communications Channels and Media 361

Selected Answers: Short Answer

2. What does UTP stand for?

Unshielded twisted pair.
4. Which organization defines standards for cables?
The Electronic Industries Association (EIA).
6. What type of light source is used for fiber-optic cables?
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) or Injected Laser Diodes (IJDs).
8. What are the types of fiber-optic cables?
Single-mode fiber (SMF) and Multimode fiber (MMF).
10. What does MMF stand for?
Multimode fiber.
12. What is the application of multimode fiber?
Multimode fiber allows for multiple rays of light to propagate through dif-
ferent angles, allowing for transmission at distances less than 1 km.
14. What is the range of microwave frequencies?
1 GHz to 23 GHz
16. What are the advantages of optical cables over coaxial cables?
Optical cabling allows for transmission over a longer distance, greater
bandwidth, increased resilience to noise, and is more difficult to tap in to.
18. Explain digital bandwidth.
Digital bandwidth is the maximum data rate that can be transmitted
over a link.
20. Find the transmission time of a packet of 1500 bytes transmitted over a 100
Mbps channel.

 
Tx  1500 bytes 8 bits / byte / 100 Mbps 106 bits per second
 0.00012 s  .12 ms

22. 2000 bytes of data are to be transferred between a server and a host computer,
which are connected via a 1000-m Cat-5 cable with a transmission rate of 10
Mbps. Calculate the following:
(a) Transmission time
Tx = packet size (bits) / bandwidth
Tx = (2000 bytes 8 bits/byte) / (10 Mbps * 106)
Tx = 1.6 ms
(b) Propagation delay
Tp = Length of communication channel (meters) / Speed of light
Tp = 1000 m / 2 * 108
Tp = .5 ms
362 Chapter 3: Communications Channels and Media

(c) Round trip time

L = Tx + Tp + Tb
L = 1.6 ms + .5 ms + 0
L = 2.1 ms
RTT = 2 L
RTT = 2(2.1 ms)
RTT = 4.2 ms
24. What is the bandwidth of a 20-km link for transmitting 500 bytes of informa-
tion such that the propagation delay is equal to transmission delay?
Tp = Tx

 Length of communication channel  meters  / Speed of light 

  packet size  bits  / bandwidth 

 20 km 
 
10 3 km / m / 2 10 8  500 bytes 8 bits / byte / Bandwidth 
.1 s   4000 bits / Bandwidth 

Bandwidth   4000 bits / .1 s 

Bandwidth = 40 Mbps

26. Calculate the latency for transmitting 1500 bytes of data over the follow-
ing links:
(a) 100 m copper with a bandwidth of 10 Mbps

L  Tp  Tx  Tb

   
L  100 m / 2.3 10 8  1500 bytes 8 bits / byte / 10 Mbps 10 6  0 
L  .0004 ms    1.2 ms   0

L = 1.2004 ms

(b) 4000 m optical fiber with a bandwidth of 10 Mbps

L  Tx  Tp  Tb

   
L  4000 m / 2 10 8  1500 bytes 8 bits / byte / 10 Mbps 10 6  0 
L  .002 ms    1.2 ms   0

L = 1.202 ms
Chapter 3: Communications Channels and Media 363

28. Find the maximum data rate of a communication link with a bandwith of
3000 Hz using 8 signal levels.

max Data Rate  2 W  log 2 N bps

max Data Rate  2  3000 Hz  log 2  8 



max Data Rate = 18, 000 bps

30. What does SONET stand for?

Synchronous Optical Network.
32. What is an application of SONET?
SONET is a high-speed optical data carrier.
34. What is the transmission media for SONET?
SONET uses fiber-optic cabling as transmission media.
36. List the SONET components.
• STS Multiplexer
• STS Demultiplexer
• ADD/DROP Multiplexer
• Regenerator
38. What is OC-1?
Optical Carrier Type 1.
40. How many bytes is STS-1?
810 bytes.
42. SONET transmits how many frames per second?
8000 frames per second.
44. Explain the function of Add-Drop Multiplexing.
Add/Drop multiplexing is used to extract the lower signal from the multi-
plexer (drop) or add a signal to the multiplexer (add).
46. Why is the STS-1 bit rate 51.84 Mbps?
The STS-1 frame is made up of 810 bytes, transmitted at the rate of 8000
frames per second:

810 8 8000  51.84 Mbps

Chapter 4: Multiplexer and Switching Concepts

Selected Answers: Multiple Choice Questions

2. FDM divides the bandwidth of a transmission line into channels.

(a) TDM
(b) FDM
(c) SPM
(d) FSPM
4. Wave division multiplexing is used for optical signals.
(a) Optical signals
(b) Analog signals
(c) Digital signals
(d) Radio frequency signals
6. SPM and FPM dynamically allocate bandwidth to active inputs.
(a) TDM and FDM
(b) SPM and FPM
(c) FPM and TDM
(d) FDM and SPM
8. One of the applications of TDM is the T1 link.
(a) CABLE modem
(b) T1
(c) cable modem
(d) LAN

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366 Chapter 4: Multiplexer and Switching Concepts

10. Pulse Code Modulation is used to convert: analog to digital

(a) Digital to analog
(b) Analog to digital
(c) Digital to digital
(d) Analog to analog
12. The bandwidth of a telephone system is 4 KHz
(a) 3 KHz
(b) 4 KHz
(c) 8 KHz
(d) 40 KHz

Selected Answers: Short Answer

2. List the types of multiplexers.

• Time Division Multiplexer
• Statistical Packet Multiplexer
• Frequency Division Multiplexer
• Wave Division Multiplexer
• Code Division Multiplexer
4. Describe the Statistical Packet Multiplexer.
A Statistical Packet Multiplexer dynamically allocates bandwidth to the
active users.
6. What is an application of WDM?
WDM is used for transmitting multiple rays of light simultaneously across
a single fiber-optic cable.
8. What is the function of an optical transponder?
An optical transponder is used to change the wavelength of an optical sig-
nal, such as for WDM.
10. What is the function of a Codec?
A codec is used to convert analog signals to digital and vice versa.
12. Why must the human voice be sampled at the rate of 8000 samples per second?
According to the Nyquist Theorem when converting analog to digital sig-
nals, an analog signal must be sampled at twice the rate of the highest fre-
quency in the signal. The highest frequency of the human voice is generally
considered to be 4000 Hz.
14. What type of Multiplexer is used in a T1 link?
TDM.
16. What is the difference between a DS-1 and a T1 link?
DS-1 is the frame format of the T1 link.
Chapter 4: Multiplexer and Switching Concepts 367

18. How many voice channels can be carried by a T3 Link?

672.
20. Show the frame format of a T1 link

1 bit Byte#24 Byte#23 Byte#2 Byte#1

22. The following inputs are connected to a 4 * 1 Statistical Multiplexer, show the
outputs of the multiplexer:

a. Input #1 A- A-A
b. Input #2 BB- BB DBA CB DCA B DBA
c. Input #3 - CC- -
d. Input #4 D- D – D

24. Use the chip sequences from Table 4.2 to find the data transmitted for Node C
at the receiver side. Assume nodes A, B, and C have transmitted the follow-
ing data:
Node A 111
Node B 010
Node C 001

Node A −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1
Node B +1 −1 +1 −1 −1 +1 −1 +1 +1 −1 +1 −1
Node C −1 −1 +1 +1 −1 −1 +1 +1 +1 +1 −1 −1
Sum −1 −3 +1 −1 −3 −1 −1 +1 +1 −1 −1 −3
Node C’s chip bit +1 +1 −1 −1 +1 +1 −1 −1 +1 +1 −1 −1
Node C data 0 0 1
Inner product of Node C’s chip (−1 −3 −1 +1) /4 (−3 −1 +1 −1)/4 (+1 −1 +1 +3) /4
bit and Sum
Results −1 −1 1
Chapter 5: Error and Flow Control

Selected Answers – Short Answer

2. List three Data Link layer protocols.

SDLC. HDLC and LAPB.
4. What are the types Continuous ARQ flow control?
Go-Back-N ARQ and Selective Reject ARQ.
6. Show the frame format of IEEE 802.2.

1byte 1byte 1 or 2 bytes

DSAP SSAP Control Information

8. What is a frame transmission method?

A frame transmission method is the specific method that transmitters and
receivers use to transmit frames. An example is bit-oriented transmission,
where start and end of frame sequences are used to differentiate control
information from real data.
10. What is an application of HDLC?
HDLC is a Data Link layer link access protocol standardized by the OSI.
12. Explain the function of synchronization bits.
Synchronization bits are used to identify the start and end of a frame.
14. Explain Go-Back-N ARQ.
Go-Back–N ARQ has the transmitter continuously transmit while the
receiver acknowledges each frame in a different channel.

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370  

16. Show the transmitted frame after bit insertion for following frame:
01111111000000011111011111110
Bit-insertion will add the following zeroes:
011111(0)11000000011111(0)011111(0)110
 hapter 6: Modulation Methods, Cable
C
Modems, and FTTH

Selected Answers: Multiple Choice Questions

2. Cable TV is designed to transmit a broadband signal.

(a) Baseband
(b) Broadband
(c) Digital
(d) Optical signal
4. QAM modulation is a combination of PSK and ASK.
(a) ASK and FSK
(b) ASK and PSK
(c) PSK and FSK
(d) None of the above
6. What type of modulation is used in cable modems for upstream transmis-
sion? QPSK
(a) QAM
(b) DMT
(c) QPSK
(d) FSK
8. What is the lowest frequency of TV Channel 2? 54 MHz
(a) 40 MHz
(b) 54 MHz
(c) 60 MHz
(d) 30 MHz

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372 Chapter 6: Modulation Methods, Cable Modems, and FTTH

Selected Answers: Short Answer

2. Explain the function of a modem.

A modem converts analog signals to digital and vice versa. This is useful for
linking computers over preexisting telephone or cable connections, which
are analog.
4. Define baud rate.
Baud rate is the number of signals which a modem can transmit in 1 second.
6. Explain FSK modulation.
In FSK modulation, or Frequency Shift Key modulation, changes in fre-
quency are used to represent the bits of the signal.
8. The speed of modem is represented as a baud rate or data rate.
10. Draw a constellation diagram for 32 QAM using 2 amplitudes.

12. What does HFC stand for?

HFC stands for Hybrid Fiber Cable, which is a combination of optical fiber
and coaxial cabling.
14. What type of modulation is used in cable TV modems for upstream transmission?
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying is used as a modulation method for
upstream transmission.
16. What type of NIC is used in a computer connected to cable TV Modem?
A 10Base-T NIC card.
18. What is data rate of a QAM signal with baud rate of 1200 and each signal rep-
resented by 4 bits?
1200 signals per second * 4 bits per signal = 4800.
20. How many bits per signal can be represented by a 32 QAM signal?
32 = 25 = 5 bits.
22. What does FTTH stand for?
Fiber to the Home.
24. What is function of an optical splitter?
An optical splitter splits accepts an optical signal and splits it into a num-
ber of other optical signals.
Chapter 7: Ethernet Technology

Selected Answers: Multiple Choice Questions

2. The IEEE standard for Ethernet is IEEE 802.3.

(a) IEEE 802.3
(b) IEEE 802.4
(c) IEEE 802.5
(d) IEEE 802.2
4. A destination address in an Ethernet frame has 6 bytes.
(a) 2
(b) 3
(c) 6
(d) 8
6. Fast Ethernet uses the IEEE 802.3u standard.
(a) IEEE 802.2
(b) IEEE 802.5
(c) IEEE 802.3u
(d) IEEE 802.4
8. The role of the LLC sublayer is to interface the MAC sublayer to the physical
medium dependent.
(a) 100BaseT4
(b) 100BaseTX
(c) Convergence sublayer
(d) LLC sublayer

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374 Chapter 7: Ethernet Technology

10. The data rate of 100Base-TX is 100 Mbps.

(a) 100
(b) 10
(c) 200
(d) 1000
12. There are two types of repeaters.
(a) Five
(b) Two
(c) Three
(d) Four
14. Fast Ethernet’s data rate is 100 Mbps.
(a) 100
(b) 10
(c) 400
(d) 200
16. The data rate of Gigabit Ethernet is 1000 Mbps
(a) 100
(b) 1000
(c) 200
(d) 10,000
18. Gigabit Ethernet uses CSMA/CD access method for half-duplex operation.
(a) CSMA/CD
(b) Token passing
(c) Demand priority
(d) None of the above
20. 1000BaseFX uses fiber-optic cabling for the transmission of data.
(a) UTP
(b) Fiber-optic cable
(c) coaxial
(d) STP
22. Gigabit Ethernet can operate in full duplex and half duplex.
(a) Full duplex
(b) Half duplex
(c) (a) and (b)
(d) None of the above
Chapter 7: Ethernet Technology 375

24. What is the transmission medium for 1000BaseT? Cat-5 UTP

(a) Cat-5 UTP
(b) Cat 4 UTP
(c) Coaxial cable
(d) Fiber cable
26. What type of fiber cable is used for Gigabit Ethernet? Multimode and single-­
mode fiber.
(a) Multi-Mode fiber
(b) Single-Mode
(c) Both a and b
(d) None of the above
28. The data rate of 10 GbE is 10,000 Mbps
(a) 100
(b) 1000
(c) 10,000
(d) 100,000

Selected Answers: Short Answer

2. What do UTP and STP stand for?

Unshielded Twisted Pair and Shielded Twisted Pair.
4. Show the Ethernet II frame format and the function of each field.

Starting Destination Source Protocol Information Frame Check

Delimiter Address (6 Address Type field Sequence
(1 byte) bytes) (6 bytes) (2 bytes) 46–1500 (4 bytes)

Starting Delimiter – indicates the start of a frame.

Destination Address – the destination MAC address.
Source Address – the source MAC address
Protocol Type – the protocol in use
Information – generic data being sent.
Frame Check Sequence – error detection.
376 Chapter 7: Ethernet Technology

6. Show the IEEE 802.3 frame format and function of each field.

1 byte 1 byte 1-2 bytes 42-1497 bytes

DSAP SSAP Control Information
LLC Frame Format
Bytes 1 6 6 2 0-1500 0-46 4

SFD DA SA Length Data Unit Pad FCS

Start of Frame Delimiter – indicates the start of a frame.

Destination Address – the destination MAC address.
Source Address – the source MAC address.
Length – the length of the entire frame.
Destination Service Access Point – used by the LLC to determine the desti-
nation protocol.
Source Service Access Point – used by the LLC to determine the source
protocol.
Control – determines the type of data in the information field.
Infromation – generic data being sent.
Pad – used to pad out the frame if the information field is less than 46 bytes.
Frame Check Sequence – error detection.
8. What does CSMA/CD stand for?
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection.
10. What is a MAC Address?
A MAC address is a unique 48-bit address assigned to each network inter-
face card.
12. What is a jam signal?
A jam signal is sent when a collision is detected when two stations transmit
at the same time. The CSMA/CD jam signal is 32 bits of all ones.
14. Describe unicast addresses.
A unicast address is a type of address that indicates that the recipient is a
single station.
16. What is the application of CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check)?
CRC is used to check for errors and verify the integrity of a packet.
18. How many bits of a network address represent the manufacturer ID?
Of the 48-bit MAC address, 22 bits are used to represent the manufac-
turer ID.
20. What happens when two or more computers simultaneously transmit frames on
an Ethernet network?
This action will cause a collision, and according to CSMA/CD, one of the
stations will then send a jam signal to warn all other stations as such.
22. What is the function of the back-off algorithm in an Ethernet network?
The back-off algorithm is used with CSMA/CD after a jam is detected, and
it generates waiting times that the stations use to allow them to begin trans-
mission again.
Chapter 7: Ethernet Technology 377

24. What is function of the protocol type field in the Ethernet II frame format.
The protocol type field indicates what protocol is in use, such as ARP.
26. What is function of the pad field in the IEEE 802.3 frame format?
The pad field is used to pad extra bits if the total Ethernet’s data field is
lower than 46 bytes.
28. Explain the following terms:
(a) 100Base4T
100 Mbps, baseband, 4 pair Cat-3 cabling
(b) 100BaseTX
100 Mbps, baseband, Cat-5 cabling
(c) 100BaseFX
100 Mbps, baseband, fiber-optic cabling
30. What is the difference between 100BaseTX and 100BaseT4?
100BaseTX uses Cat-5 cabling, while 100BaseT4 uses Cat-3 cabling.
32. What is the application of a Class II repeater?
A class II repeater takes an input signal and repeats it out of its multi-
ple ports.
34. Name the IEEE committee that developed the standard for Fast Ethernet.
IEEE 802.3u.
36. What are the types of media used for Fast Ethernet?
Fast Ethernet uses UTP cabling and fiber-optic cabling.
38. What type of signal encoding is used for 100BaseFX?
NRZ-I
40. What is the IEEE standard number for Gigabit Ethernet?
IEEE 802.3z.
42. What type of frame is used by Gigabit Ethernet?
Gigabit Ethernet uses the IEEE 802.3 frame format.
44. List the kinds of transmission media used for Gigabit Ethernet.
UTP cabling and fiber-optic cabling.
46. What are the hardware components of Gigabit Ethernet?
Gigabit Ethernet connections use UTP or fiber-optic cabling to connect to
gigabit switches in order to transmit data to other stations with giga-
bit NICs.
48. Explain the following terms:
(a) 10GBASE-SR
10 gigabit, baseband, short wavelength, LAN connection
(b) 10GBASE-SW
10 gigabit, baseband, short wavelength, WAN connection
(c) 10GBASE-LR
10 gigabit, baseband, long wavelength, LAN connection
378 Chapter 7: Ethernet Technology

(d) 10GBASE-LW
10 gigabit, baseband, long wavelength, WAN connection
(e) 10GBASE-ER
10 gigabit, baseband, extended long wavelength, LAN connection
(f) 10GBASE-EW
10 gigabit, baseband, extended long wavelength, WAN connection
Chapter 8: LAN Interconnection Devices

Selected Answers: Multiple Choice Questions

2. Switches operate in the data link layer.

(a) Hubs
(b) Repeaters
(c) Switches
(d) Gateways
4. In a source routing bridge, the frame contains the entire route to the
destination.
(a) Source routing bridge
(b) Learning bridge
(c) Repeater
(d) Gateway
6. A gateway operates up to the application layer.
(a) Router
(b) Switch
(c) Gateway
(d) Repeater
8. A gateway is used to convert one protocol to another protocol.
(a) Router
(b) Switch
(c) Gateway
(d) Hub

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380 Chapter 8: LAN Interconnection Devices

10. A switch is a device with multiple port(s).

(a) Single
(b) Two
(c) Multiple
(d) None of the above
12. Layer 3 switches or routing switches work on the OSI physical layer, data link
layer and network layer.
(a) Application
(b) Session
(c) Presentation
(d) Network
14. What type of switch is used to connect LAN segments within the same net-
work? Layer 2 switch
(a) Layer 2 switch
(b) Layer 3 switch
(c) Layer 4 switch
(d) All of the above
16. What type of switch is also used to route packets? Layer 3 switch
(a) Layer 2 switch
(b) Layer 3 switch
(c) Layer 4 switch
(d) None of the above

Selected Answers: Short Answer

2. What is the function of a repeater?

The repeater accepts traffic from its input and then retransmits the traffic
at its output, usually in order to expand the network’s diameter. A hub is a
multiple output repeater.
4. What layer of the OSI model does a bridge operate at?
Bridges operate at the Data Link layer.
6. Explain the operation of a source routing bridge.
A source routing bridge routes a frame based on the information in the
routing field of the frame.
8. Explain a static router.
A static router requires the routing table to be manually configured by a
network administrator.
10. A router works in which layer of the OSI model?
A router operates at the Network layer.
Chapter 8: LAN Interconnection Devices 381

12. What is the application of a gateway?

A gateway connects networks communicating with different protocols,
such as by connecting an IEEE 802.3 network to one using DECNet.
14. What is the difference between a gateway and a router?
A router works at the Network layer and is used to route packets to other
networks. A gateway works at the Application layer, and is used to connect
networks operating with different protocols.
16. What is the application of a symmetric switch?
Symmetric switches connect LAN segments with similar data rates.
18. What does VLAN stand for?
Virtual Local Area Network.
20. Suppose a company has two working groups, A and B. Group A has 4 comput-
ers and group B has 3 computers; all connected to an eight port Ethernet switch.
Both groups need to access a common file server FS1. There is an in-house
requirement that group A computers should not be able to see Group B comput-
ers in the Network.

(a) Draw a diagram showing an Ethernet switch with seven computers and file
server.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Group A Group B

FS

(b) Show the VLAN connectivity matrix for the above requirements.

Port # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 + + + + + − − −
2 + + + + + − − −
3 + + + + + − − −
4 + + + + + − − −
5 + + + + + + + +
6 − − − − + + + +
7 − − − − + + + +
8 − − − − + + + +
Chapter 9: Internet Protocols Part I

Selected Answers: Multiple Choice Questions

2. The Internet uses the TCP/IP protocol.

(a) X.25
(b) NWLink
(c) TCP/IP
(d) Window NT
4. IP provides packet delivery between networks.
(a) IP
(b) TCP
(c) X.25
(d) ARP
6. TCP performs reliable delivery of data.
(a) IP
(b) UDP
(c) TCP
(d) RARP
8. What type of switching is used in the Internet? Packet switching.
(a) Virtual circuit
(b) Packet switching
(c) Circuit switching
(d) Message switching

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384 Chapter 9: Internet Protocols Part I

10. Telnet uses which of the following protocols for remote login: TCP
(a) UDP
(b) TCP
(c) IP
(d) FTP
12. Telnet enables a user to remote login.
(a) Transfer a file
(b) Send E-mail
(c) Remote login
(d) Transfer mail
14. What is the application of a loopback address? Used for testing.
(a) Reserved by Internet authority
(b) Used for testing
(c) Used for broadcast address
(d) Used for unicast
16. What protocol is used for the World Wide Web? HTTP
(a) TCP/IP
(b) HTTP
(c) UDP
(d) ARP
18. What is the function of the source and destination port in a TCP header?
(a) It is used to identify the source and destination host on the network.
(b) It is used to identify the application source protocol and application of
destination protocol.
(c) It is used to identify source protocol and destination protocol.
(d) None of the above.
20. What is the function of Time-to-Live (TTL) in a TCP header? It defines the
number of routers a datagram can pass.
(a) It holds time of the day.
(b) It defines the number of routers a datagram can pass.
(c) It defines transmission time of a datagram between the source and
destination.
(d) It defines the number of words in a packet.
22. How many bits is IPv6? 128 bits
(a) 32 bits
(b) 48 bits
(c) 64 bits
(d) 128 bits
Chapter 9: Internet Protocols Part I 385

24. What is the function of an IP sub-net mask?

(a) IP sub-net mask represents the bits in the network portion of IP
address.
(b) IP sub-net mask represents the bits in host portion of IP address.
(c) a and b
(d) None of the above

Selected Answers: Short Answer

2. What is the protocol used by the WWW to transfer a file?

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
4. List the DNS indicators.
com, edu, net, org, int, mil, and gov.
6. List the protocols in the Internet level.
IP, TCMP, ARP, and RARP.
8. What is the size of an IP header?
20 bytes.
10. Explain the function of TCP.
The TCP performs reliable delivery of packets by adding a sequence num-
ber and ACK number to the packets transmitted.
12. What is the function of the TTL field in an IP header?
This field specifies the number of routers that the datagram can pass through to
get to the destination before being dropped.
14. List the IP address classes.
Class A, B, C, D, and E.
16. What is the name of the organization applied to for IP addresses?
Internet Network Information Center (InterNIC).
18. What is the newest version of IP?
IPv6.
20. Convert the following IP address from hexadecimal to dotted decimal represen-
tation and find the class type of each IP address.
(a) 46EF3A94
70.239.58.148 – class A
(b) 23446FEC
35.68.111.236 – class A
22. The following E-mail address is given, identify the username and mail server
address:
[email protected]
The username is Elahi, the mail server address is Xycorp.
24. List three application protocols for TCP.
FTP, SMPT, and HTTP
386 Chapter 9: Internet Protocols Part I

26. What is the function of ICMP?

Internet Control Message Protocol is used for handling error messages and
control messages.
28. Explain the function of telnet.
Telnet is one of the application protocols of TCP/IP and is used for remote
connection of one computer to another computer.
30. What is an MTU?
Maximum Transfer Unit (MTU) is the largest possible frame size that can
be sent through the Internet.
32. How many bits is IPv6?
IPv6 addresses are 128 bit.
34. There are two computers, A and B, with IP addresses of 174.20.45.37 and
174.20.67.45. If these two computers have a sub-net mask ID of 255.255.0.0,
can you determine if these two computers are in the same network?
Yes. The subnet mask shows that these are both class B addresses, belong-
ing to the 174.20.x.x network.
 hapter 10: Internet Protocols Part II
C
and MPLS

Selected Answers: Multiple Choice Questions

2. How many root DNS servers exist? 13.

(a) 1
(b) 10
(c) 12
(d) 13
4. Which of the following protocol is used for DNS? UDP and TCP.
(a) UDP
(b) TCP
(c) ARP
(d) (a) & (b)
6. A DHCP server holds a range of IP addresses.
(a) Client server
(b) DHCP server
(c) Router
(d) Relay agent
8. DHCP Discovery packets are transmitted as broadcast packets
(a) Broadcast
(b) Unicast
(c) Multicast
(d) (a) & (b)

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388 Chapter 10: Internet Protocols Part II and MPLS

10. The function of a router is to find the path to a destination for transporting
packets.
(a) Find the destination IP addresses
(b) Find the destination MAC addresses
(c) Find the path to a destination for transporting packets
(d) None of the above
12. Dynamic routing tables are updated by automatic methods.
(a) A server
(b) The network administrator
(c) Automatic methods
(d) None of the above
14. A socket is a combination of a port number and IP address.
(a) IP address
(b) Hostname
(c) Default gateway
(d) (a) & (b)

Selected Answers: Short Answer Questions

2. List the types of DNS queries.

DNS queries can be iterative or recursive.
4. What is the transport layer protocol used for DNS?
DNS uses UDP as the transport layer protocol.
6. What commands are used to display the DNS cache table?
arp-a will show the DNS cache table.
8. List at least 5 TLDs.
.com, .edu, .net, .gov, .org
10. Does an organization have separate DNS servers for IPv4 and IPv6?
No, a single DNS server can be configured for both IPv4 and IPv6.
12. List the components of DHCP.
DHCP requires a DHCP server, DHCP client, and potentially a DHCP
relay agent.
14. List DHCP packets and explain the function of each.
DHCP Discover – a broadcast sent by a client looking for a DHCP server.
DHCP Offer – the DHCP server sees the discover packet and responds to
the request with an offer for an IP address.
DHCP Request – the client gets the offered IP address and accepts the
address and leasing term.
DHCP Acknowledge – the server acknowledges that the client has accepted
the offer, and officially leases the IP address to that client.
Chapter 10: Internet Protocols Part II and MPLS 389

16. List the link characteristics.

Hop count, throughput, communications cost, and delay.
18. What is the function of Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
ICMP is used to transport control messages, such as pings and error mes-
sages, across the IP protocol for diagnostics and troubleshooting.
20. What is the application of a socket?
A socket is a binding of an IP address and a port number used to send and
receive data.
22. Socket is combination of IP address and port number.
 hapter 11: Voice over Internet Protocols (Voice
C
over IP)

Selected Answers: Multiple Choice Questions

2. One of the factors that plays an important role in successful VoIP is:
(a) Cost
(b) Quality of service
(c) Speed
(d) Delay
4. The Internet Engineering Task Force approved ________ for VoIP.
(a) TCP
(b) SIP
(c) H.323
(d) RTP
6. Real time protocol is used for_________.
(a) Transporting data
(b) Transporting voice
(c) Transporting audio and video packet
(d) Transporting images
8. A ______ accepts a SIP user agent request and forwards it to another user agent.
(a) SIP endpoint
(b) SIP gateway
(c) SIP proxy server
(d) SIP Redirector server

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392 Chapter 11: Voice over Internet Protocols (Voice over IP)

Short Answer Questions

2. Does VoIP reduce or increase costs of voice communications?

VoIP reduces the cost of voice communications.
4. What is the most important factor to consider in VoIP?
Quality of service.
6. Define transmission delay and describe what causes it.
Transmission delay is the time that it takes a packet to reach its destina-
tion. This can be affected by the link’s data rate, the distance to the destina-
tion, and buffering time.
8. Define packet loss and describe what causes it.
Voice packets are transmitted over UDP, and therefore there is no guaran-
tee that packets will reach their destinations which may contribute to loss.
Packets may also be dropped by gateways when there is congestion in the
network.
10. What does PCM stand for and what is the function of PCM?
PCM stands for Pulse Code Modulation, which is used to convert voice
signals to digital signals.
12. What are the two protocols used for VoIP?
SIP and H.323 are used for VoIP.
14. What is a voice compression device called?
A voice compression device is called a codec.
16. What is the difference between a stateful and a stateless SIP proxy server?
The stateless proxy server does not keep any information about the for-
warded responses or requests. The stateful proxy server keeps information
about responses and requests.
18. Describe the SIP connection operation.
Refer to Fig. 11.5
20. Find the minimum bandwidth requirement of a VoIP channel using a 20 ms
audio frame and a G.729 codec.
G.729 compressed voice packets have a data rate of 8 Kbps, and with 20 ms
of audio there is a payload of 8000 * 20/1000 = 160 bits or 20 bytes.
The full voice packet consists of a 20-byte payload + 40-byte (RTP, UDP,
and IP) header + 26-byte Ethernet header, which makes for a total of 86
bytes. The voice packet must reach 100 packets per second, meaning the
bandwidth must be at least:

86 8 100  68.8 Kbps

 hapter 12: Wireless Local Area Network
C
(WLAN)

Selected Answers: Multiple Choice Questions

2. An advantage of using spread spectrum signals over narrowband signals is that:

spread spectrum uses a range of frequencies.
(a) Spread spectrum has more power.
(b) Spread spectrum signals use a range of frequencies.
(c) Narrowband signals use a range of frequencies.
(d) Spread spectrum uses a single frequency.
4. Which of the following technologies are used for WLAN? Infrared and radio
frequencies.
(a) Infrared
(b) Radio frequency
(c) (a) & (b)
(d) Digital signal
6. IEEE 802.11g offers data rates of 54 Mbps.
(a) 2 Mbps
(b) 1, 2, and 11 Mbps
(c) 54 Mbps
(d) 11 and 45 Mbps
8. IEEE 802.11g operates in the ISM band.
(a) U-NII
(b) ISM
(c) B
(d) C

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394 Chapter 12: Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

10. IEEE 802.11g uses DSSS and OFDM for transmitting information.
(a) DSSS and FHS
(b) DSSS and OFDM
(c) DSSS and CCK
(d) FHS and OFDM
12. DSSS uses 11 chip bits.
(a) 11
(b) 12
(c) 15
(d) 20

Selected Answers: Short Answer

2. What are the components of a WLAN?

A WLAN consists of a WLAN NIC, an Access Point, and a Network
Operating System.
4. What is a cell?
A cell is the area covered by an Access Point.
6. Explain narrowband signals and spread spectrum signals.
Narrowband signals only cover a narrow range of frequencies, while
spread spectrum signals cover a large range of frequencies.
8. What are the advantages of a spread spectrum signal over a narrowband signal?
A spread spectrum signal is more difficult to jam and intercept, and noise
is less disruptive in spread spectrum signals.
10. What does OFDM stand for?
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing.
12. What does DSSS stand for?
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum.
14. What are the data rates for IEEE 802.11b?
5.5 and 11 Mbps.
16. What is the maximum data rate for IEEE 802.11a?
54 Mbps.
18. What are the types of access methods for WLANs?
The access methods are Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Avoidance and Point Coordination Function.
20. What is the function of the association request frame?
An association request frame is used by a client to request access to a BSS
network.
22. What is the Service Set identifier?
A service set identifier
Chapter 12: Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) 395

24. What is the function of Wi-Fi?

Wi-Fi is used for wireless connection to a WLAN.
26. Explain multi-path fading.
Multi-path fading happens when transmitted media takes multiple paths
to reach the destination, ultimately reaching the destination with different
delays and amplitudes.
28. Explain access methods for WLAN.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance will listen to the
medium to become clear to avoid collisions. Point Coordination Function
will have the transmitter send a beacon frame and poll clients directly for
transmissions.
30. What is the maximum number of transmitters and receivers for IEEE 802.11n?
For IEEE 802.11n, there are a maximum of 4 transmitters and 4 receivers.
32. What are the channel frequencies in which IEEE 802.11n can operate?
IEEE 802.11n can operate in the 2.4 and 5 Ghz bands.
34. What is the advantage of frame aggregation?
Frame aggregation results in less overhead, as multiple frames are com-
bined under the same header.
36. What type of frame aggregation is used for single destination and multiple
applications?
A-MPDU is used for a single destination and different applications.
38. What is the guard interval?
The guard interval is a time required between the transmission of differ-
ent frames.
40. What is the Maximum data rate of IEEE802.11n?
600 Mbps.
 hapter 13: Low Power Wireless Technologies
C
for Internet of Things (IoT)

Selected Answers: Short Answer

2. List the name of the Low Power Wide Area Network Technology that covers
more than 100 m.
ZigBee.
4. What is the maximum number of nodes that can be used in a ZigBee Network?
ZigBee can support up to 65,000 nodes in a single network.
6. List the ZigBee topologies.
ZigBee uses star, tree, and mesh topologies.
8. List ZigBee device types and explain the function of each device.
Coordinator – the coordinator starts and oversees the network, allocating
addresses, and permitting devices to join and leave.
Router – this device expands network coverage, sharing responsibilities
with the coordinator except for being able to start a new network.
Trust Center – the trust center provides authentication and security key
distribution.
End Node – the end nodes are the end devices that make up the clients in
the ZigBee network.
10. What is IEEE 802.15.4?
IEEE 802.15.4 is the standard for the MAC and physical layers of a low
power personal area network, such as is in use with ZigBee.
12. List the functions of the ZigBee physical layer.
The ZigBee physical layer receives frames and converts them to RF signals,
as well as takes in RF signals for conversion to frames.

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398 Chapter 13: Low Power Wireless Technologies for Internet of Things (IoT)

14. Show the ZigBee physical layer frame format.

From MAC layer

4 Bytes 1 Bytes 7 Bits 1 bit 0-127 Bytes

Physical Service Data Unit
Preamble SFD Frame Length Reserved
(PSDU)

SHR PHR

16. How many bits are addressed to a ZigBee end device?

A ZigBee end device gets a 16-bit address.
18. What is the difference between a full function device and a reduced func-
tion device?
A full function device operates in the full IEEE 802.15.4 layer, while a
reduced function device operates with a more limited functionality.
20. What method does ZigBee use for encryption?
ZigBee uses Counter Mode with 128-bit AES for the encryption of general
network messages.
22. List the ZigBee security modes.
ZigBee has a standard mode for security, which uses network keys pro-
vided by the trust center for encryption and decryption, but it also has a
high security mode, in which entities must authenticate with each other
and specific permissions tables can be established.
24. What is the application of 6LoWPAN?
6LoWPAN is used to support IPv6 packets for Low Power Wireless Devices
in support of the Internet of Things.
26. What is the function of the Adaptation Layer in 6LoWPAN?
The Adaptation Layer is used to support compression and fragmentation
of IPv6 packets.
28. List four applications for LoRa WAN.
LoRa WAN can be applied to improve irrigation control, street lighting,
wearable medical devices, and electric meters.
30. What frequency band does LoRa operate?
LoRa operates in the ISM band.
32. What is the data rate of LoRa WAN?
LoRa WAN has a data rate of 5 kbps in the 125 kHz band and 10 kbps in
the 250 kHz band.
Chapter 13: Low Power Wireless Technologies for Internet of Things (IoT) 399

34. Show the LoRa WAN Protocol Architecture.

Chapter 14: Introduction to Cryptography

Selected Answers: Multiple Choice Questions

2. Plaintext encrypted is called a/an ciphertext.

(a) Cipher
(b) Encryption
(c) Ciphertext
(d) Hash value
4. The science of encryption and decryption is called cryptography.
(a) Authentication
(b) Cipher
(c) Cryptography
(d) Hash value
6. Stream ciphers encrypt information one bit at a time.
(a) One bit at a time
(b) One byte at a time
(c) One block at time
(d) All at the same time
8. Computer A uses Computer B’s public key for encrypting its information and
sends it to Computer B. What does Computer B use for decryption? Computer
B uses its private key for decryption.
(a) Computer B uses its public key for decryption.
(b) Computer B uses its private key for decryption.
(c) Computer B uses Computer A’s public key for decryption.
(d) Computer B randomly chooses a key for decryption.

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402 Chapter 14: Introduction to Cryptography

10. A hash function is used for digital signature.

(a) Digital signature
(b) Digital certificates
(c) Encryption
(d) Authentication

Selected Answers: Short Answer

2. List the elements of network security and explain the function of each.
Confidentiality – information sent through a network must remain confi-
dential to those who are not authorized. This is accomplished through
encryption.
Authentication – The identity of users in a network must be authenticated
to ensure that the identity is who they say they are.
Integrity – Data should be protected against tampering to ensure that mes-
sages and information sent arrive at a destination in-tact and it its origi-
nal state.
Non-repudiation – A recipient should be provided with proof of origin.
4. What is the definition of cryptography?
Cryptography is a technique used to establish secure communications
through the use of encryption.
6. What is a cipher?
A cipher is an encryption or decryption algorithm.
8. Explain symmetric cryptography.
In symmetric cryptography, both sides encrypt and decrypt using the same
key, which is kept private from everybody else besides the two
communicating.
10. Distinguish between stream ciphers and block ciphers
Stream ciphers encrypt one byte at a time, while block ciphers encrypt
multiple bits in groups at a time called blocks.
12. List three encryption algorithms that use block ciphers.
DES, 3DES, and AES are all block ciphers.
14. What does AES stand for?
AES stands for Advanced Encryption Standard.
16. Name an algorithm which generates asymmetric keys.
RSA generates asymmetric keys.
18. What are the characteristics of a hash value?
A hash value should be collision resistant (difficult to find two messages
that produce the same hash), respond to changes of any bit of the source
with a complete change of the resulting hash value, and be impossible to
reverse.
Chapter 14: Introduction to Cryptography 403

20. What is the equation for elliptic curve?

The elliptic curve equation is y2 = x3 + ax + b.
22. What are the advantages of ECC?
ECC has a shorter key length than RSA, has faster key and signature gen-
eration, as well as faster encryption and decryption.
24. Explain digital signatures.
A digital signature is a use of public key cryptography, where a private key
may be used to sign a document or hash to establish understanding or
acceptance of contents of a digital document.
26. Find the public key, the private key, and n using the RSA (assume the two prime
numbers p = 7 and q = 11)

N  p q
N  711  77

Z   p  1   q  1
Z   7 – 1    11 – 1   60

Kp  13
13 is less than N  77  and shares no common factors with Z  60 

 
Ks  1  n Z / Kp
When n  8, Ks   1  8 60  / 13  37


Ks   1  n 60  / 13


Therefore, the public key is 13, the private key is 37, and N is 77
28. What are the applications of MAC?
MAC is used for message integrity and authentication of the sender, to
determine if a message was tampered while in transit
Chapter 15: Network Security

Selected Answers: Multiple Choice Questions

2. The Secure Socket Layer is located between the TCP and HTTPS protocols.
(a) TCP and IP protocols
(b) TCP and HTTP protocols
(c) TCP and HTTPS protocols
(d) TCP and DNS protocols
4. Which of the following is not an SSL/TLS handshake packet? Server Certificate
(a) Client Hello
(b) Server Hello
(c) Client Key Exchange
(d) Server Certificate
6. VPNs use the Internet to connect networks.
(a) Leased lines
(b) Modems
(c) The Internet
(d) Public Networks
8. Which of the following servers are usually in the DMZ? DNS Server
(a) DNS Server
(b) Database Server
(c) Accounting Server
(d) Print Server

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406 Chapter 15: Network Security

10. IPsec is used for VPNs.

(a) Ethernets
(b) The Internet
(c) VPNs
(d) VLANs
12. The X.509 is the standard for certificates.
(a) HTTPs
(b) Telnet
(c) EAP
(d) Certificates
14. SSH is used to secure Telnet and FTP
(a) Telnet
(b) FTP
(c) VLAN
(d) (a) & (b)
16. Which of the following firewalls perform NAT? Application Proxy
(a) Packet filtering
(b) Stateful
(c) Application Proxy
(d) None of the above
18. What methods does WPA2-Enterprise use for authentication? RADIUS
(a) Pre-shared Keys
(b) IEEE 802.1X with EAP
(c) RADIUS Server
(d) None of the above

Selected Answers: Short Answer

2. List the SSL/TLS protocols.

The SSL/TLS protocols are divided between the Handshake protocols and
the Record protocol.
4. List the information in the SSL/TLS Client Hello.
The SSL/TLS Client Hello contains:
• The SSL/TLS version
• A random number
• The Session ID
• A list of usable Cipher Suites
• The compression method (optional)
Chapter 15: Network Security 407

6. What is an application of VPNs?

VPNs are used to transmit information through secure tunnels over the
public Internet without the need for privately leased lines, such as to con-
nect remote clients to an on-premises network.
8. List the IPsec modes of operation.
IPSec consists of Application Header (AH) and Encapsulating Payload (ESP)
10. What are the applications of SSH?
SSH is a replacement for Telnet and FTP, which allows for secure
remote login.
12. What is 802.1x?
IEEE 802.1x is used for port-based access control and authentication.
14. List three EAP protocols.
Some EAP protocols include EAP-TLS, LEAP, and PEAP.
16. What is the name of the algorithm used for encryption by WPA2?
WPA2 uses AES as an encryption algorithm.
18. Show the block diagram for Counter Mode (CTR).

20. What are the different types of firewalls?

Types of firewall include Packet Filtering Firewalls, NAT Firewalls, and
Stateful Firewalls.
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References by Topic

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LoRa Wireless

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6LowPAN

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WirelessHart

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Sigfox

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Index

A Authentication Header Protocol (AH), 168,

Access point (AP), 244, 246, 247, 253, 256, 329, 330, 346, 407
260, 261, 267, 334, 335, 340, 344 Authenticator, 320, 334, 335
Active scan, 280, 290 Automatic repeat request (ARQ), 94, 96,
Adaptive data-rate (ADR), 285, 287, 288, 290 100, 369
Add/drop multiplexer (ADM), 63, 64, 68, 363
Address mask, 174, 190, 205
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), 122, 160, B
165–168, 175–177, 188–194, 214, 215, Bandwidth, 34, 35, 44, 49, 50, 52, 55, 59–63,
225, 377, 383–385, 387 67, 70, 72, 73, 77, 78, 87, 88, 104, 109,
Ad-Hoc, 247, 268, 269, 271, 281 111–113, 115, 126, 135, 147, 238–239
Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA), Baseband mode, 34, 44
155, 156, 190 100BaseFx, 119, 126–128, 133, 134, 136,
Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI), 35–36, 139, 377
276, 277 100BaseT4, 119, 126, 133–135, 139, 373, 377
American Standard Code for Information 100BaseTx, 119, 126, 128, 133–135, 139,
Interchange (ASCII), 12, 15, 16, 29, 30, 373, 377
38, 43, 203, 295, 314, 357 Basic service set (BSS), 245, 246, 259–261,
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK), 104, 105, 107, 268, 269, 394
115, 279, 371 Baud rate, 104, 115, 355, 372
Analog signal, 23–25, 35, 51, 82, 83, 103, Beacon frame, 258, 260, 261, 269, 271, 279,
104, 115, 232, 239, 240, 356, 359, 365, 280, 288, 395
366, 372 Binary, 26–30, 35, 36, 41, 43, 61, 83, 97, 105,
Anonymous FTP, 161, 190 107, 108, 127, 128, 168, 181, 187, 251,
Application link key, 282, 290 296, 356, 357
ARPANET, 156, 190 Binding, 220, 221, 224, 389
Asymmetric switch, 141, 151, 153, 154 Bipolar encoding, 35, 36, 44
Asynchronous transmission, 31, 32, 38, 43, Bit, 14, 27, 59, 78, 93, 104, 121, 148, 163,
44, 355, 357 201, 231, 244, 278, 296, 329
Attenuation, 38, 44, 52–54, 56–58, 67, 81, 357 Bit oriented synchronization, 97, 98, 100
Audio codec, 232, 239–241 Bit time, 124, 134
Authentication, 282, 294, 304, 315, 318–320, Block Check Character (BCC), 38–40, 44,
324, 328, 329, 332, 333, 346 357, 358

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414 Index

Block cipher, 296, 298, 300, 320, 322, 402 Continuous ARQ, 94, 96, 100, 369
Border Router, 283, 290, 291 Coordinator, 275, 279–281, 289–291, 397
Bridge, 9, 142–145, 150, 244, 246, 247 Crosstalk, 37, 44, 357
Broadband mode, 35, 44 Cryptography, 282, 293–319, 324, 344
Broadcast, 33, 112, 113, 122, 143, 145, 147, Cyclic Redundancy check (CRC), 38, 39,
172, 204, 205, 215 41–44, 139, 280, 356, 376
Broadcast address, 119, 122, 133, 139, 144,
172, 183, 190, 192, 204, 384
Bus network, 7, 17, 98 D
Byte, 27, 33, 43, 44, 59, 60, 63, 65, 66, 68, Data Encryption standard (DES), 296,
112, 123, 124, 130, 131, 133, 135, 148, 298–300, 320–322, 349, 402
162, 165–168, 172, 174, 177, 186, 189, Data rate, 32, 49, 59–62, 64, 65, 68, 82–84,
194, 206, 210, 211, 214, 222, 233, 238, 88, 104, 107, 110, 114, 115, 124, 126,
239, 254, 258, 279, 283, 290, 297, 300, 128, 133–136, 138, 139, 151, 212, 232,
302, 316, 317, 321, 357, 360–363, 373, 238, 239, 249, 251–255, 260, 263,
375–377, 385, 392, 401, 402 266–268, 270–272, 274, 279, 285–291,
355, 359–361, 363, 372, 374, 375, 381,
392–395, 398
C Decibel, 53, 56, 62, 113, 245
Carrier Sense Multiple Access With Collision Decryption, 16, 282, 294, 296, 304, 307,
Avoidance (CSMA/CA), 249, 255–257, 312, 313, 319–321, 330, 332,
268, 269, 271, 279, 394, 395 398, 401–403
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Demodulation, 104
Detection (CSMA/CD), 14, 93, 98, Demultiplexer (DMUX), 76, 81
120, 121, 126, 129, 130, 133, 134, Dense wavelength division multiplexing
136–138, 256, 289, 374, 376 (DWDM), 81
Cell, 215, 246, 259, 261, 269, 271, 394 Destination address (DA), 122, 123, 134, 135,
Certificates, 320, 321, 327, 335–337, 346–348, 143, 150, 151, 167, 178, 258, 259, 373,
402, 405, 406 375, 376
Channel capacity, 59–63 Destination Service access Point (DSAP), 99,
Chip, 78–80, 250, 251, 269, 271, 367, 394 100, 123, 134, 376
Ciphertext, 294–296, 298, 300, 302, 304, 306, DHCP relay agent, 204, 223, 224, 388
312, 319–321, 342, 401 Differential Manchester encoding, 32,
Circuit switching, 85, 86, 88, 191, 229, 383 35–38, 44, 357
Class I repeater, 128, 133, 134, 139 Digital signal, 23, 26–27, 31, 32, 34–37, 43,
Class II repeater, 128, 134, 139, 377 44, 49, 61, 62, 67, 77, 82, 83, 88, 103,
Client, 2, 160, 197, 234, 244, 319, 324 104, 115, 128, 139, 231, 239, 240, 270,
Client/server model, 4, 16, 17, 160, 353 355, 356, 365, 366, 392, 393
Coarse wave division multiplexing Digital signature, 307, 317–322, 330, 336,
(CWDM), 81, 132 347, 402, 403
Coaxial amplifier, 109, 110 Direct attacks, 293, 319, 320
Coaxial cable, 5, 14, 49–51, 67, 77, 109, 110, Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS),
135, 137, 361, 375 249–254, 260, 268–271, 279, 394
Codec, 82, 238, 239, 241, 366, 392 Distributed scheme (Cskip), 281, 290
Code division multiplexing (CDM), 77–80, 87 DNS root servers, 198, 203, 223, 224
Commercial Building Automation (CBA), Domain name, 158–161, 189, 190, 197–203
276, 290 Downstream, 110, 111, 114
Complementary Code Keying (CCK), 252, Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
268–271, 394 (DHCP), 179, 183, 185, 187, 203–207,
Computer network, 2, 16, 17 223–225, 227, 387, 388
Conductive media, 50–52, 57 Dynamic router, 149, 151, 154
Constellation diagram, 107, 108, 372 Dynamic routing, 213, 224, 226, 227, 388
Index 415

E I
Encapsulation Security Packet (ESP), 168, IEEE 802 committee, 98, 100, 129
329–331, 346, 407 IEEE 802.11i, 341–346
End device, 273–275, 279, 281, 285–291, IEEE 802.14 standards, 112, 115
397, 398 IEEE 802.1d, 145, 151
Energy detection (ED), 278, 280, 290 IEEE 802.1X extensible authentication
Ethernet frame format, 119, 121, 131, 134, protocol (EAP), 334, 346
139, 148 IEEE 802.3, 36, 120, 121, 123, 129, 133, 134,
Extended Service Set (ESS), 245–247, 136, 138, 139, 206, 373, 376, 377, 381
268, 269 IEEE 802.3u, 125, 134, 135, 373, 377
Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP), Indirect attack, 293, 319, 320
334, 335, 341–343, 345, 346, 348–350, Industrial scientific and medical band
406, 407 (ISMB), 269
Infrared (IR), 56, 57, 67, 243, 247, 248,
268–270, 393
F Injected-laser diode (ILD), 52
Fast Ethernet, 119, 125–129, 131, 133–136, Integrity, 12, 37, 282, 288, 291, 293, 294, 313,
139, 373, 374, 377 315, 316, 319, 320, 324, 328, 329, 332,
Fast Packet Multiplexer (FPM), 77, 78, 365 333, 341–347, 376, 402, 403
Fiber-optic cable, 1, 5, 14, 49, 52–56, 60, 63, Internet, 2, 39, 87, 103, 122, 155, 197, 229,
67, 68, 109, 110, 127, 128, 133, 137, 283, 293, 328
359, 361, 366, 374 Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), 13,
Fiber to the home (FTTH), 103–115, 371–372 16, 158, 178, 179, 191, 198, 207, 218,
File server model, 3, 17 232, 233, 239, 240, 283, 290, 323, 329,
Firewalls, 153, 320, 337–339, 346, 349, 350, 330, 345, 346, 348, 352, 391
406, 407 Internet Protocol (IP), v, 15, 16, 39, 122, 123,
Frequency division multiplexing 155–189, 197–224, 229–239, 283, 328
(FDM), 77, 78 Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPV6), 13,
Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), 178–190, 283, 284, 289
250, 254, 268, 269 IP Security Protocol (IPsec), 168, 179,
Full-duplex mode, 34 329–330, 346, 348, 349, 406, 407

G J
Go-Back-N ARQ, 96, 369 Jitter delay, 230, 233, 239

H K
H.323, 232, 239, 240, 391, 392 Kerberos, 318–320, 322
Half-duplex mode, 34
Hash function, 313–315, 317, 320–322, 402
Hash value, 313–315, 317, 318, 320, 322, L
401, 402 LAN interconnection, 141–151, 154, 379–381
Head end, 109, 110, 112, 113, 115 LAN Switch, 147, 151, 153
Hello packet, 324–326, 346 Latency, 59–63, 67, 230, 362
Home automation (HA), 273, 276, 289, 290 Layer 2 (L2) Switch, 144, 151
HTTPS uses port 443, 324, 345, 346 Layer 3 (L3) Switch, 147, 151
Hybrid Fiber Cable (HFC), 110, 372 Learning bridge, 143, 150–152, 379
Hybrid topology, 9, 16, 17, 351 Light-emitting diode (LED), 52, 55, 67, 361
Hypertext transfer protocols (HTTPs), 13, 15, Line overhead, 65, 66
159, 161, 189, 207–210, 324, 338, 345 LLC frame format, 99, 100, 123
416 Index

Local area network (LAN), 7, 10, 12–14, 16, N

35, 36, 50, 119, 120, 126, 128, Narrowband signal, 248, 269, 271, 393, 394
131–134, 141–151, 173, 222, 229, 230, Network address, 139, 172, 174, 178, 180,
240, 255, 260, 268, 274, 334, 339, 342, 190, 337, 338, 346, 376
343, 345 Network control protocol (NCP), 156, 224
Logical link control (LLC), 98–100, 120, 123, Network interface card (NIC), 4, 6, 14, 16, 17,
134, 135, 162, 178, 373, 376 110, 120, 122, 124, 133, 134, 139, 150,
Loopback address, 172, 182, 186, 190, 152, 163, 176, 178, 183, 215, 239, 244,
192, 384 268, 353, 372, 376, 394
LoRaWAN Access Method, 288, 290 Network operation system (NOS), 3, 5, 16, 17,
LoRa Wide Area Network (LoRa 204, 244, 245, 268, 353, 394
WAN), 285–289 Non-return to Zero Encoding (NRZ),
6LoWPAN, 274, 283–285, 289–291, 398 35–37, 44, 135
Low Power Wireless Technologies, NSFNET, 156, 157, 190
273–290, 397–399 Nyquist theorem, 82, 366

M O
Manchester encoding, 32, 35–38, 44, 126 One’s complement of the sum, 38–40, 44
Maximum Transfer Unit (MTU), 166–168, Open System Interconnection (OSI)
188, 190, 194, 210, 211, 386 model, 13, 16
Media Access Control (MAC), 13–15, 93, 98, Operation administration and maintenance
100, 112, 120, 122, 123, 130–131, 134, (OAM), 63, 66, 112
135, 138, 143–145, 162, 163, 175, 176, Optical Carrier Signal (OC), 65
178, 183, 193, 206, 215, 225, 226, 244, Optical splitter, 113, 372
249, 254, 255, 258–259, 262, 265, 267, Orphan Scan, 280, 290
268, 273, 275, 277, 279–281, 283, 287, Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
289, 291, 315–317, 322, 324, 328, 333, (OFDM), 249–253, 263, 267–271, 394
339, 342, 344, 346, 373, 375, 376, 388, Over-The -Air-Activation (OTAA), 289, 290
397, 403
Mesh, 5, 7, 8, 16, 17, 51, 84, 274–276, 281,
289, 351–353, 397 P
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN), 10, 16, Packet switching, 12, 85–88, 96, 155, 191,
17, 138, 352, 354 383
Microwave, 56, 57, 67, 361 Parallel transmission, 32, 33, 44, 357
Modal bandwidth, 55, 130, 360 Parity check, 38, 39, 44, 66
Modem, 1, 2, 31, 60, 103–115, 191, 193, 293, Passive scan, 280, 290
347, 365, 371–372, 405 Path overhead, 65, 66
Modulation, 103–115, 249–252, 263, 265, Peer-to-peer model, 3, 17
266, 285 Peer-to-peer-network, 3
MT-RJ Connector, 55, 56 Phase Shift Keying (PSK), 104, 105, 107, 110,
Multicast, 112, 122, 145, 218 115, 251, 345, 371, 372
Multicast address, 119, 133, 182, 185–187, Polar encoding, 35, 36
190, 218 Port number, 143–145, 150, 152, 164, 178,
Multimode fiber (MMF), 54, 55, 67, 130, 190, 194, 207, 220–222, 224, 226, 332,
138, 361 338, 388, 389
Multimode graded index fiber, 55 Propagation delay, 59, 60, 124, 134, 230,
Multipath fading, 251, 261, 262, 269, 272 361, 362
Multiple Level Transition-3 (MLT-3), 126, Proxy server, 151, 234, 235, 237, 238, 337,
127, 134 338, 346, 392
Multiplexer (MUX), 63, 64, 75–81, 87 Public key cryptography, 296, 304, 305, 319,
Multi-protocol Label Switching (MPLS), 123, 320, 322, 324, 403
197–224, 226, 387–389 Pulse code modulation (PCM), 82, 83, 88,
Mutual authentication, 320, 334, 335, 346 231, 239, 241, 366, 392
Index 417

Q Smart energy (SE), 276, 277, 289, 290

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM), Socket, 220
104, 107, 110, 115, 263, 266, 267, SONET frame format, 65–66
371, 372 Source address (SA), 122, 123, 134, 148, 178,
258, 259, 375, 376
Source routing bridge, 150–152, 154, 379, 380
R Source Service Access Point (SSAP), 99, 100,
Radio frequency (RF), 56, 57, 109, 110, 123, 134, 376
243–245, 247, 248, 253, 261, 265, Spread spectrum, 248, 268
268–270, 277, 278, 285, 365, 393, 397 SSH protocol, 332, 346, 349
RSA algorithm, 305–306, 319 SSL handshake protocol, 324, 346, 349
Real-Time Control Protocol (RTCP), 233 SSL Protocol, 323–328
Real Time Protocol (RTP), 231–233, 238–240, Standard organization, 12–13, 16, 17
391, 392 Star topology, 5, 6, 17, 120, 124, 276, 285,
Regenerator, 63, 64, 68, 363 290, 351
Remote login, 160, 189–192, 384, 407 Static router, 149, 151, 154, 380
Repeater, 8, 58, 64, 115, 119, 124, 128, 129, Static routing, 213, 214, 224, 226, 227
133, 134, 136, 138, 142, 150 Statistical Packet Multiplexing (SPM),
Ring topology, 6, 17 77, 78, 365
RJ-45 and RJ-11 connectors, 50, 51 Stop-and-Wait, 94
Roaming, 243, 255, 261, 269 Stream cipher, 296, 297, 320–322, 401, 402
Router, 15, 110, 126, 141, 147–151, 155, 161, STS demultiplexer, 63, 64, 68, 363
167, 173, 179, 183, 185–187, 189, 204, STS multiplexer, 64, 68, 363
207, 210–214, 216–219, 224, 230, 275, Switch, 10, 37, 75, 76, 84, 86–88, 104, 124,
281, 283, 289 126, 128, 131, 143–148, 151, 216, 217,
Routing, 10, 14, 17, 86, 87, 147–151, 179, 244, 260, 288, 334, 381
212–214, 281 Symmetric switch, 151, 153, 154, 381
Routing Information Protocol (RIP), 213, Synchronous Optical Network (SONET),
217, 224 63–68, 132, 360, 363
Synchronous Payload Envelope (SPE), 66
Synchronous transmission, 31–32, 38, 44, 357
S Synchronous transport signal (STS), 63, 65, 66
Section overhead, 65, 66 Synchronous transport signal level one
Secure Shell (SSH), 330–333, 346, 348, 349, (STS-1), 63–66, 68, 360, 363
406, 407
Secure Socket layer (SSL), 323–328, 345–347,
349, 405, 406 T
Security suite, 326, 345, 346 TCP/IP model, 14–17, 218, 337, 338, 354
Selective Reject ARQ, 96, 97, 100, 369 Telecom applications (TA), 276, 290
Serial transmission, 32, 33, 44, 132, 357 Telnet, 15, 159, 160, 164, 189–192, 194, 330,
Server, 1, 60, 158, 198, 231, 277, 293, 323 332, 338, 346, 348, 354, 384, 386,
Service Set Identifier (SSID), 246, 268, 269, 406, 407
271, 339, 340, 346, 394 Thermal noise, 38
Session Initiation Protocol (SIP), 232–239 Time division multiplexing (TDM), 77, 78, 83,
Shielded twisted-pair (STP), 50, 67, 135–138, 84, 87, 365, 366
145–146, 359, 374, 375 T1 link, 59, 83, 84, 88, 365–367
Simplex mode, 33, 355 TLS/SSL, 324
Single-mode fiber (SMF), 54, 55, 67, 130, Top level domain, 158, 160, 198, 224
361, 375 Topology, 5–8, 98, 120, 124, 133, 138, 145,
SIP proxy server, 234, 235, 239, 241, 391, 392 213, 217, 274, 276, 277, 281, 285
SIP redirector server, 235, 239, 241, 391 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), 15, 39,
SIP user agent, 234, 239, 241, 391 162–166, 168, 174, 175, 189, 207, 215,
Sliding Window, 96, 97, 100 220, 221, 283
418 Index

Transmission delay, 230, 239, 241, 362, 392 Virtual Private Network (VPN), 215, 328–329,
Transmission medium, 5, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17, 345, 346
44, 49, 50, 56, 63, 67, 68, 87, 98, 124, Voice over IP (VoIP), 113, 229–241, 391–392
129, 131, 137, 139, 243, 269, 353, 359,
363, 375, 377
Transmission time, 59, 60, 193, 361, 384 W
Transparent bridge, 143, 150, 151, 154 Wavelength, 52–54, 80, 81, 114, 130, 132, 133
Transponder, 80, 81, 366 Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM), 77,
Tree topology, 8, 9, 17, 276, 281, 289 80, 81, 87
Trunk cable, 109 White noise, 38, 44, 357
Trust Center Link Key, 282, 290 Wide Area Network (WAN), 10, 13, 16, 35,
Tunneling, 179, 328–331, 346 36, 131–133, 138, 229, 230, 240
Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA), 339,
341–342, 344–346
U Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP), 259, 268,
Unicast, 112, 122, 204, 218 339–341, 344–346
Unicast address, 119, 133, 139, 182–186, 190, Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi), 267–269, 274
204, 376 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN), 11,
Unicode, 12, 15, 29–31 243–272, 333, 339–341, 346, 393–395
Unipolar encoding, 35 Wireless transmission, 56, 67, 359
Unlicensed National Information Word, 3, 25, 27, 29, 40, 43, 161, 163, 165,
Infrastructure Band (U-NII), 253, 167, 193, 197, 235, 287, 295, 296, 314,
268–271, 393 329, 338, 357, 384
Unshielded twisted pair (UTP), 6, 50, 58, 67, WPA2, 339, 341–346, 349, 350, 407
124–126, 130, 133, 135–138, 146, 269, WPA3, 339, 344–346
359, 361, 374, 375, 377
Upstream, 110–112, 114, 371, 372
User Datagram Protocol (UDP), 160–165, X
168, 178, 189–194, 201, 204, 206, 207, 802.1x, 335, 341
215, 219–221, 225, 230–232, 239, 240,
337, 383, 384, 387, 388, 392
Z
ZigBee, 11, 274–282
V ZigBee Health Care (ZHC), 276, 290
Virtual circuit, 87, 88, 191, 383 ZigBee Protocol Architecture, 273, 277–278,
Virtual LAN (VLAN), 147–148, 151, 153, 290, 291
154, 348, 381, 406 ZigBee RF4CE Remote Control, 276, 290