Direct Current Circuits

Chapter-2: Basic Laws for Electrical Circuit Analysis

Md Mohi Uddin Khan

Lecturer, Dept. of EEE
Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology
Website: https://sites.google.com/view/mohi-uddin-khan

Reference Book: Fundamentals of Electric Circuits - 5th edition by Charles K. Alexander and Matthew n. o. Sadiku

Basic Electrical Technology (EEE 1131) – Dept. of Civil Engg. 1

Embrace understanding over memorization:

Accreditation Board of Engineering & Technology (ABET) EC 2000 criteria (3.b), “an ability to design
and conduct experiments, as well as to analyze and interpret data.”

 Engineers must be able to design and conduct experiments, as well as analyze and interpret data.

 If you are looking at a plot of ‘voltage versus resistance’ or ‘current versus resistance’ or ‘power versus
resistance’, what do you actually see?
 Does the curve make sense?
 Does it agree with what the theory tells you?
 Does it differ from expectation, and, if so, why?
 Clearly, practice with analyzing and interpreting data will enhance this skill.

Basic Electrical Technology (EEE 1131) – Dept. of Civil Engg. 2

Ohm’s Law:
• The current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage (i.e. potential difference or electromotive
force) applied across the two terminals of that conductor, provided all physical conditions and temperature remain
constant.
𝐼𝐼 𝛼𝛼 𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉
⇒ 𝐼𝐼 = 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 ⇒ 𝐼𝐼 = ⇒ 𝑉𝑉 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 [looks like, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚, i.e. equation of a straight line passing through the origin]
𝑅𝑅

Slope or gradient,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑚𝑚 = = = 𝑅𝑅
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
dy = dV

dx = dI

• Watch the video:

Current, Interpretation of Ohm’s law, Fuse, Circuit Breaker and more – https://youtu.be/kcL2_D33k3o?feature=shared
Basic Electrical Technology (EEE 1131) – Dept. of Civil Engg. 3
Ohm’s Law: (contd.)
• Resistance at different temperature:

> T1

Basic Electrical Technology (EEE 1131) – Dept. of Civil Engg. 4

Limitations of Ohm’s Law:
• Ohm’s law (linear relationship) doesn’t hold true at variable temperature:

If the temperature of a metal conductor increases, the ions of the metal vibrate more vigorously. This increases the number of
collisions between the free electrons and the ions. Hence, for a metal, resistance increases with increasing temperature.
Often the increase in temperature is caused by an increase in current. An example is a filament lamp. As current increases, the
filament gets hotter and the resistance of the bulb increases.
• Ohm’s law is not applicable for non-linear devices such as diode, BJT, Op-Amp, non-linear resistors, etc.

Basic Electrical Technology (EEE 1131) – Dept. of Civil Engg. 5

Short Circuit and Open Circuit:
Since the value of Resistance can range from zero to infinity, it is important that we consider the two extreme possible values of R.

Short Circuit: A short circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching zero.
Therefore, 𝑉𝑉 = 𝐼𝐼 × 𝑅𝑅 = 𝐼𝐼 × 0 = 0 [i.e. no potential drop between two points, since R = 0]

Open Circuit: An open circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching infinity.
𝑉𝑉 V
Therefore, 𝐼𝐼 = = = 0 [i.e. no current flow, since R = ∞]
𝑅𝑅 ∞

• Mathematical Examples: 2.2, 2.3 (from Reference book)

Basic Electrical Technology (EEE 1131) – Dept. of Civil Engg. 6

Branches, Nodes, Loops, and Mesh:
• A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor.
• A node is the point of connection between two or more branches.
 A node is usually indicated by a dot in a circuit. If a short circuit (a connecting wire) connects two nodes, the two nodes
constitute a single node.
• A loop is any closed path in a circuit.
• A mesh is a loop which does not contain any other loops within it.

• The circuit in Fig. 2.10 has five branches, three nodes, six loops, and three mesh.

Basic Electrical Technology (EEE 1131) – Dept. of Civil Engg. 7

Kirchhoff’s Laws:
• Ohm’s law by itself is not sufficient to analyze circuits. However, when it is coupled with Kirchhoff’s two laws, we
have a sufficient, powerful set of tools for analyzing a large variety of electric circuits.

• Two laws: 1. Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) [law of conservation of charge]

2. Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) [law of conservation of energy]

1. KCL: 'The algebraic sum of currents entering a node (or a closed boundary) is zero.’
...in another way we can say...
'The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents
leaving the node.’

If there are N number of branches connected to a node,

Applying KCL at the node of Fig-2.16:

Basic Electrical Technology (EEE 1131) – Dept. of Civil Engg. 8
Kirchhoff’s Laws: (contd.)
2. KVL: 'The algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed path (or loop) is zero.’
...in another way we can say...
‘In a loop: Sum of the voltage drops = Sum of the voltage rises’

If there are M number of voltage sources / voltage drops in a loop,

Applying KVL at the node of Fig-2.19:

• Mathematical Examples: 2.8 (from Reference book)

Basic Electrical Technology (EEE 1131) – Dept. of Civil Engg. 9
Series, Parallel, Star (or Y, or T), Delta (or Pie) Connection:
• Two or more elements are in series if they exclusively share a single node and consequently carry the same current.
• Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same two nodes and consequently have the same
voltage across them.
• Elements may be connected in a way that they are neither in series nor in parallel. Such as, Delta (or Pie), Star (or Y,
or T) connection.

Basic Electrical Technology (EEE 1131) – Dept. of Civil Engg. 10

Series Resistors, Equivalent Resistance and Voltage Division:

• In the case of a series combination of circuit elements, the same current flows through each of the elements
connected in series. However, since the resistance of each element may not be the same, the voltage drop (Vi=IRi)
across all the elements is not uniform.
• Therefore, according to Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL), we can assert that the total EMF supplied by the active
elements (such as Voltage Source, Current Source, etc.) is distributed in a specific ratio among the passive elements
connected in series, following the relationship 'sum(Voltage Supplied) = sum(Voltage Drop)'. This phenomenon is
known as Voltage Division, and the circuit is referred to as a Voltage Divider Circuit.
• Equivalent Resistance of Series Combination:
applying KVL and Ohm′s law, 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣1 + 𝑣𝑣2 = 𝑖𝑖𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑖𝑖𝑅𝑅2 = 𝑖𝑖 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 = 𝑖𝑖𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠
𝑛𝑛

∴ 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 = 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 = � 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖

𝑖𝑖=1
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Series Resistors, Equivalent Resistance and Voltage Division: (contd.)
• Voltage Division Rule:
[Don’t memorize formula or statement, rather understand how to derive the pattern from simple two resistor circuit shown below and understand the
pattern. In case of large circuit, apply that pattern.]

applying KVL and Ohm′s law, 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣1 + 𝑣𝑣2 = 𝑖𝑖𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑖𝑖𝑅𝑅2 = 𝑖𝑖 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2
𝑣𝑣
∴ 𝑖𝑖 =
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2

𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅1 𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅2
Now, voltage drop across R1 and R2 : 𝑣𝑣1 = 𝑖𝑖𝑅𝑅1 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣2 = 𝑖𝑖𝑅𝑅2 =
𝑅𝑅1 +𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅1 +𝑅𝑅2

𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖
Therefore, 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 = ∑𝑛𝑛
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖

Basic Electrical Technology (EEE 1131) – Dept. of Civil Engg. 12

Series Resistors, Equivalent Resistance and Voltage Division: (contd.)
• Voltage Division Rule [Practice]: Find v4 using Voltage Division Rule from the following circuit.
[Don’t memorize formula or statement, rather understand how to derive the pattern from simple two resistor circuit shown in previous slide and understand
the pattern. In case of large circuit, apply that pattern.]

1 1 −1
𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝 = +
𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3

𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖 𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅4
Therefore applying, 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 = ∑𝑛𝑛 we get, 𝑣𝑣4 =
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖 𝑅𝑅1 +𝑅𝑅2 +𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝

Basic Electrical Technology (EEE 1131) – Dept. of Civil Engg. 13

Parallel Resistors, Equivalent Resistance and Current Division:

• In the case of a parallel combination of circuit elements, the same voltage drop occurs across each of the elements
connected in parallel. However, since the resistance of each element may not be the same, the current (Ii=V/Ri)
through all the elements is not uniform.
• Therefore, according to Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL), we can assert that the total current supplied by the active
elements (such as Voltage Source, Current Source, etc.) is distributed in a specific ratio among the passive elements
connected in parallel, following the relationship 'sum(Currents Entering a node) = sum(Currents Leaving that node)'.
This phenomenon is known as Current Division, and the circuit is referred to as a Current Divider Circuit.
• Equivalent Resistance of Parallel Combination:
𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣 1 1 𝑣𝑣
applying KCL and Ohm′s law, 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑖𝑖1 + 𝑖𝑖2 = + = 𝑣𝑣 + =
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝
𝑛𝑛
1 1 1 1
∴ = + =�
𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖=1
Basic Electrical Technology (EEE 1131) – Dept. of Civil Engg. 14
Parallel Resistors, Equivalent Resistance and Current Division: (contd.)
• Current Division Rule:
[Don’t memorize formula or statement, rather understand how to derive the pattern from simple two resistor circuit shown below and understand the
pattern. In case of large circuit, apply that pattern.]

𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣 1 1 𝑅𝑅1 +𝑅𝑅2
applying KCL and Ohm′s law, 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑖𝑖1 + 𝑖𝑖2 = + = 𝑣𝑣 + = 𝑣𝑣.
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2
∴ 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑖𝑖.
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2

𝑣𝑣 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 1 𝑖𝑖𝑅𝑅2 𝑣𝑣 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 1 𝑖𝑖𝑅𝑅1

Now, currents through R1 and R2 : 𝑖𝑖1 = = 𝑖𝑖. . = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖2 = = 𝑖𝑖. . =
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅1 +𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅1 +𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅1 +𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅1 +𝑅𝑅2

𝑖𝑖𝑅𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜_𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡_𝑘𝑘
Therefore, 𝑖𝑖𝑘𝑘 = ∑𝑛𝑛
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖

Basic Electrical Technology (EEE 1131) – Dept. of Civil Engg. 15

Parallel Resistors, Equivalent Resistance and Current Division: (contd.)
• Current Division Rule [Practice]: Find i2 (current through R2) using Current Division Rule from the following circuit.
[Don’t memorize formula or statement, rather understand how to derive the pattern from simple two resistor circuit shown in previous slide and understand
the pattern. In case of large circuit, apply that pattern.]

1 1 −1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3
𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝 = + =
𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3 𝑅𝑅2 +𝑅𝑅3
⇒ 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 = 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅4 + 𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝
𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠
⇒ 𝑖𝑖 =
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠
𝑖𝑖𝑅𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜_𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡_𝑘𝑘 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑅
Therefore applying, 𝑖𝑖𝑘𝑘 = ∑𝑛𝑛
we get, 𝑖𝑖2 = . 3
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑅2 +𝑅𝑅3

• Mathematical Examples : 2.10, 2.12, 2.13 (from Reference book)

• Practice Problems : 2.10, 2.12, 2.13 (from Reference book)
Basic Electrical Technology (EEE 1131) – Dept. of Civil Engg. 16
Why electrical appliances are connected in Parallel Combinations?
Electrical appliances are typically connected in parallel combinations rather than in series for several reasons:
1. Independence of Operation: In a parallel circuit, each appliance is connected to the power source independently. This means that the operation of one
appliance is not dependent on the operation of others. If one appliance fails, develops a fault, or is turned off, it does not affect the functioning of the
remaining appliances. In a series circuit, a failure in one appliance can break the entire circuit, affecting all connected appliances.
2. Voltage Stability: Appliances are designed to operate at a specific voltage. In a parallel circuit, each appliance receives the full voltage from the power source,
ensuring that they operate at their intended voltage levels. In a series circuit, the voltage across each appliance would add up, which could lead to variations
in their performance.
Say, my two appliances each having V-rating 220V and I'm supplying 220V. In case of series connection, 220V would drop across the first appliance and the
second appliance will not get enough voltage to operate since all the energy is consumed by the first one. So, parallel connection is the solution.
3. Current Sharing: In a parallel configuration, each appliance receives the same voltage but draws only the current it needs. This allows appliances with
different power requirements to operate simultaneously without affecting each other. In a series circuit, the same current flows through each appliance, and
if one appliance has higher resistance, it can affect the performance of others.
4. Efficiency: Parallel circuits are more efficient because each appliance operates independently and can be optimized for its specific function. In a series circuit,
the cumulative resistance of all appliances may lead to a less efficient use of electrical energy.
Say, I have two appliances with resistances of 10k ohms and 10 ohms, respectively. If I connect them in series, Rs = 10.01k ohms, and Ploss = I²Rs = 10010xI²
watts. However, if I connect them in parallel, Rp = (1/10000 + 1/10)⁻¹ = 9.99 ohms [i.e., the equivalent resistance is less than the minimum resistance of the
circuit], and Ploss = I²Rp = 9.99xI² watts. Clearly, the parallel combination yields a lower equivalent resistance, resulting in minimal power loss.

[Watch the video - https://youtu.be/XevO2yrTHEc?feature=shared]

Basic Electrical Technology (EEE 1131) – Dept. of Civil Engg. 17

Wye-Delta Transformations:
• Situations often arise in circuit analysis when the resistors are neither in parallel nor in series.
• These may be the wye (Y) or tee (T) network shown in Fig. 2.47 and the delta (Δ) or pi (Π) network shown in Fig.
2.48. These networks occur by themselves or as part of a larger network.
• You have to identify them when they occur as part of a network and apply wye-delta transformation in the analysis
of that network in order to simplify the network.

Basic Electrical Technology (EEE 1131) – Dept. of Civil Engg. 18

Wye-Delta Transformations: (contd.)
[Don’t memorize formula or statement or resistor names in the figure; rather understand the pattern and apply that pattern]

Delta to Wye Conversion: Wye to Delta Conversion:

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 2 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 Δ 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑌𝑌 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦 = 𝑅𝑅Δ =
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 Δ 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑌𝑌 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑅𝑅𝛥𝛥

Mathematical Example:
2.15 (from Reference book)

Basic Electrical Technology (EEE 1131) – Dept. of Civil Engg. 19

Exercise Problems:
• From Reference Book (5th Edition): 2.7
2.17
2.18
2.23
2.32
2.38
2.47
2.52
2.53

Basic Electrical Technology (EEE 1131) – Dept. of Civil Engg. 20

Introduction to Electrical Measuring Instruments:
1. Moving coil galvanometer working principle: https://youtu.be/EZ4qUCY0Tg4?feature=shared
2. Moving coil galvanometer: https://youtube.com/shorts/vwsRgvTnHXg?feature=shared
3. Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter: https://youtu.be/XE1Rqh9zG_4?feature=shared
4. Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter: https://youtu.be/sMLN0f5enAA?feature=shared
5. Wattmeter (measures power):
5.1 Theory of connections and Analog Meter: https://youtu.be/mZZWxo8uEBk?feature=shared
5.3 Digital (Lutron DW-6163) Meter: https://youtu.be/gP-B9cUyI-E?feature=shared
6. LCR meter: https://youtu.be/C3AVUHcOIOc?feature=shared
7. How to use Sanwa Digital Multimeter: https://youtu.be/t__v5aJ3eWM?feature=shared
8. Connection of Voltmeter and Ammeter: https://youtu.be/yE3eQ6q39f4?feature=shared
9. Tachometer (measures rotational speed in ‘rotation per minute (RPM)’):
https://youtu.be/kPUrsFO38W0?feature=shared
10. More – Different types of Electrical Measuring Instruments: https://youtu.be/CiJO-01ztLk?feature=shared

Basic Electrical Technology (EEE 1131) – Dept. of Civil Engg. 21

There are too many people praying for mountains of difficulty to
be removed, when what they really need is the courage to climb
them!
---

Basic Electrical Technology (EEE 1131) – Dept. of Civil Engg. 22