Unit 1: Technology and Revolutions:

Industrial Revolution (Britain):

- The Industrial Revolution was a period of rapid industrialization and Technological

advancement in Great Britain and the US wherein the both countries transitioned from
agrarian economies to Industrial economies, which prioritized manufacturing goods over
agriculture

- One more reason that contributed to people leaving the countryside was the enclosure act.
This essentially privatized farming and displaced many rural farmers as these new,
“enclosed” farms required lesser workers. As a result, farmers migrated to the city to
work in factories

- The invention of new farming techniques such as crop rotation and selective breeding
furthermore helped to maximize the crop yield from farms, which contributed to Britain’s
population boom as their population spiked at this time

- The rapid migration from the rural countryside to factory towns like Manchester and
Birmingham resulted in overcrowding and the emergence of slums. The urbanization
contributed to the growth of the middle class and specialized labor markets

- “Cottage Industry'' was a term used to describe textile industries that operated out of
cottages. People produced textiles out of their cottages. However, this would give way to
the factory system as Richard Arkwright’s spinning frame (which could spin 128 threads at
once) required high amounts of power and a large scale to produce. As a result he built it
to be hydro powered and built factories in the cities, which attracted the now displaced
farmers

- Another impact of Industrialization in Britain was the improved systems of transport and
communication. The telegraph was invented, as well as (later on) railway systems which
greatly increased the speed of transportation of natural resources

- Notable Inventions of the Industrial Revolution:

- Watt steam engine
- Eli Whitney’s Cotton gin
- Modular Guns
- Robert Fulton’s steamship
- Richard Arkwright’s spinning frame
- Spinning Jenny

- Britain was at the forefront of the Industrial Revolution for a multitude of reasons. Among
others, they had access to a surplus of natural resources like Coal and Iron from their
colonies and from their own environment. Furthermore, the political and economic stability
was favorable for development, largely due to the East India Company and Britain’s trade
with America

- The Industrialization in Britain relative to Japan was far more privatized due to the fact
that sole inventors were making huge amounts of money whereas in Japan the government
was providing and facilitating the modern infrastructure needed to properly industrialize

- Since a lot of these inventions had to be mass-produced, a lot of inventors built large
factories in Urban areas which led to the blue-collar working class migrating from the
countryside in search of work.

- To a large extent, the inventors whose inventions were being mass-produced in factories
were profiteering massively on the backs of their exploited workers

- The working conditions were unsanitary and highly unsafe and very unethical as workers had
to work long hours for often little to no pay. Furthermore, child labor was also involved.
Factory owners could get away with this as they often had zero oversight from the
government

- During the 19th Century, there were labor movements such as worker’s unions that emerged
to advocate for shorter hours and better pay. There were numerous factory acts passed
during the 19th century that regulated work hours and set labor restrictions.

- The Sadler Committee report of 1832 was a public investigation about working conditions in
factories. When the truth came to light, it sparked outrage amongst citizens and led to
calls of reform
 - One notable factory act was known as the factory reform act of 1833, wherein children
under the age of 9 were restricted from working in factories

- The People’s charter of 1838 was passed to address the disenfranchisement of the working
class. It gave all men (not women) the right to vote if they were over the age of 25 and
owned land.

Japan:
- The Meiji restoration was a period from 1868 to 1912. The Shogun (a militaristic
dictatorship that had ruled Japan for centuries) was overthrown by a group of Samurai and
the emperor was put back on the throne

- Emperor Meiji realized Japan needed to catch up with the rest of the Western World. So
he sent scientists abroad to study western technology in the hopes of Japan replicating it

- Their desire to rapidly industrialize and advance was fuelled by Commodore Matthew
Perry arriving on Japanese shores with gunships that intimidated Japan and they were soon
coerced into signing an unfair trade deal with the US

- The Japanese Feudal System was abolished and the Samurai class lost their privileged
status. Western knowledge was taught along with Japanese beliefs in schools

- Japan furthermore significantly advanced their army to fight off what they believed to be
western imperialism. They introduced a conscription-based army and navy

- This helped them defeat China in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95 and 10 years later
the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-05

Lewis and Clark:

- Pioneers discover things, inventors invent things, and innovators make inventions better.
Inventors build on the work of pioneers and innovators build on the work of inventors.
People can be all of these at the same time.
- In the early 19th Century, President Thomas Jefferson bought the territory of Louisiana
from Napoleon. This deal doubled America’s landmass at the time. Napoleon sold Louisiana
to the Americans because he needed funds for the Napoleonic wars.

- Nobody knew what existed in those lands so Thomas Jefferson sent 2 Captains in the
American army named Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to embark upon what is known
today as the Lewis and Clark expedition

- They were tasked with exploring the land and surveying it for water bodies for potential
trade routes and a link to the pacific ocean. Cartography was much more inaccurate back
then as there would be multiple maps of the same area with each one being different and
often times people would go to war over false territory

- Another reason they were sent on this expedition was to “manifest their destiny”.
“Manifest Destiny” was a belief in the 19th Century that it was a god-given right to the
Americans that they should expand across all of North America. This also contributed to
the purge of the native americans. Nazi Germany had a belief similar to this during World
War II known as “Lebensraum”.

- On their expedition, they met a native american woman named Sacagawea. She acted as a
guide for them and has since been immortalized in American history due to the vital role
she played in the expedition. She also helped the explorers communicate better with the
tribes they came across

Thomas Edison:
- Thomas Edison was an American inventor who lived from 1847 to 1931. Although he himself
did not invent the first electrically powered light bulb, he invented the first commercially
practical electrical light bulb

- Thomas Edison did not really invent a lot of things and as a result people tend to view him
in a bad light due to him taking credit for things that were not his.

- He had what was known as the “war of the currents”, which involved Nikola Tesla as both
men claimed that their form of current was superior to the other. Tesla used Alternating
 current wherein the flow of the current constantly alternates whereas Edison used Direct
current wherein the current flows in one direction

Josephine Cochran:
- Josephine Cochran was an American socialite who was credited with inventing the first
dishwasher.

- At that time (1883), to keep your house to a basic degree of cleanliness was very difficult.
Vacuum Cleaners were not invented until 1908, and washing machines were very primitive.
You could say that at this point, household tasks were not as automated as they are today.

- The story goes that Josephine’s maids kept scratching and chipping pieces off her fine china
and that made her wonder if there was a better way to wash dishes. At that same time
her husband died and left her in debt, so her dishwasher design became a necessity to clear
her debts as her only source of income

- The now-widowed Josephine designed a washing machine that worked by having a rack that
housed the dishes and instead of scrubbers, you could have water pressure acting as a way
to clean the dishes, with this whole device being hand-cranked

- Back then, a lot of inventions were considered luxury items and while they were
breakthroughs, they were not mainstream until they became affordable to the populace.
Cochran displayed her machine at the Chicago 1893 World’s Fair

Unit 2: Imperialism:
Imperialism:
- Essentially, Imperialism is when a larger and stronger nation dominates a smaller and
weaker nation. It involves the exertion of power by the stronger nation to exploit a weaker
nation for economic gain
 - Perspective is very important when discussing imperialism as what may be viewed as
development can also be viewed as gross exploitation in the pursuit of development in
advancing the infrastructure of one’s army and trade

- Most Western Scholars were biased as they were part of empires and tended to view
imperialism as development as they reaped the benefits while the eastern scholars who were
on the receiving end of imperialism tended to view imperialism as exploitation

Reasons/Motivations for Imperialism:

- Finding Metal: From the 14th to 18th Century, the main cause of Imperialism was to find
precious metals such as Silver and Gold, which were very economically valuable. Another
reason Empires conquered was to find direct sources of Asian Spices that had become too
expensive due to Muslim control of trade routes

- Industrial Revolution: The Industrial Revolution brought about the Mechanization of the
Workforce and the rise of Capitalism, which motivated Industrialized Nations to
consolidate their profit, wealth, and power in the new Capitalist system. In order to do
this, they primarily required two things: Raw Material and Reliable Markets.

- Raw Material refers to the basic material required to produce goods such as Coal, Oil,
Cotton, Iron, or other Metals. Without these Raw Materials, Factories in Europe cannot
produce goods and turn a profit. Since many of these materials were not available in
Europe, Industrialized Nations began looking to other regions such as Africa and Asia to
accommodate for the same

- Markets are areas where goods are bought and sold. The influx of raw material from
Imperialism resulted in Factory producers making more goods than there were people with a
demand sufficient enough to buy said goods. This led to oversaturated markets and the
slowing of consumer demand, which in turn resulted in an Economic Depression for the
West, which is why European Powers sought out other markets to buy their excess supply of
goods

- Nationalism: Nationalism refers to a strong feeling of pride in one’s Nation and that said
Nation is the best in the world. From the perspective of the European Powers, having a
 large and vast Empire which enabled the production of advanced infrastructure was seen as
a symbol of prestige and power due to the economic success and political might. This made
each Country want to be the strongest, most powerful, and most glorious. Nationalism was
used to unify the populace behind a common goal. Imperialistic ventures were avenues to
spread the Nation's culture and values, creating a sense of national pride and purpose.

- This shows how European Powers had a Superiority Complex due to Nationalism which
manifested in the form of a sense of entitlement used to justify the colonization of what
they viewed to be inherently “weaker” Nations

- An example of this is “the sun never sets on the British empire.”

- Social Darwinism: Social Darwinism is a misinterpretation of Charles Darwin's theory. It

promoted the idea of "survival of the fittest", with Imperialists arguing that their Nations
were superior, which gave them the right to dominate less evolved and weaker cultures. The
domination of non-white people by white men was seen as a natural consequence of the
superiority of white people. The Europeans justified Imperialism by stating that they were
saving primitives from themselves since their civilization is inherently better.

- Christianity: Catholic Missionaries believed that it was their moral duty to spread
Christianity all over the world and to convert people whom they viewed as “Heathens”
(people who practiced other religions) to Christianity. This was usually done by force, with
the justification for the same being that it was necessary to save these people from going to
hell and suffering in a life of damnation

The Opium Wars:

- China was ruled by the Qing Dynasty (1644-1912) and China viewed themselves as the
“Middle Kingdom”, the center of the civilized world.

- China had a highly government-controlled economy and placed strict restrictions on foreign
trade which made it difficult for foreign merchants to gain access to chinese markets
through trade since they viewed foreign traders as a destabilizing influence

- Britain had just come out of a war that depleted their national treasury and lost one of its
most lucrative overseas colonies (American Revolution)
- At the time, China primarily traded black tea and other goods with Britain and demanded
silver in exchange, which created a trade deficit as silver was flowing out of Britain’s
coffers. To make matters worse, costly foreign wars such as the East India Company’s
conquest of India incurred a large debt

- Britain sent a diplomat to negotiate with the Chinese Emperor in Beijing. This mission
fuelled tensions between the 2 nations as the diplomat refused to bow down to the
Emperor and instead insisted that the Chinese bow down to King George III. Both nations
had high hubris as they considered themselves to be the most powerful, divine, and civilized
nations in the world.

- Britain needed to create the demand for a good to be traded to the Chinese to offset
their demand for tea and other goods. They found their answer in Opium, which could be
cultivated in India and then traded to China.

- This led to the tables turning, as China now had silver outflowing from their coffers to pay
for Britain’s Opium due to their population getting addicted to it. In retaliation to
witnessing the adverse effects on their people, The Qing Dynasty banned Opium. This had
little effect as Opium was still being smuggled.

- In 1839, the Chinese confiscated and destroyed 21,000 Chests of Opium. This was a
catalyst for the first Opium War (1839 - 1842) wherein Chinese Ships were severely
outmatched by the might of Britain’s navy

- The war ended with the treaty of Nanking. The Treaty stipulated the following:
- Britain would get Hong Kong
- 5 Chinese Ports would be opened up for British Trade
- There would be fixed tariffs on British Goods
- British nationals in China would be granted extraterritoriality

- These unequal treaties and multiple concessions made from China to the west resulted in
widespread discontent from chinese civilians due to the Qing Dynasty’s impotent negotiating
skills and the humiliation faced by the Chinese as a whole due to their loss

- Another misunderstanding that contributed to the second Opium War was the Arrow
incident. Chinese Police boarded a ship known as the Arrow, believing the ship to have
 pirates on board. The ship actually belonged to a Hong Kong Chinese citizen. The Chinese
police allegedly took down a British Flag, which contributed to identity politics and gave
the British a reason to start another war with China, which they would have done anyway

Taiping Rebellion:
- The Taiping Rebellion was an uprising that took place from 1850 to 1864. It was
perpetuated by Hong Xiuquan, the self-proclaimed son of god and brother of Jesus.

- Hong Xiuquan attracted a large gathering of followers because of his revolutionary and
socialist ideas. At the time, most peasants and farmers were facing economic hardship due
to famine and this led to a poor reputation of the Qing dynasty among the people.

- The first conflict broke out in the village of Guangxi when Qing soldiers marched through
the village threatening to kill any converts who had joined Hong’s cause. Hong retaliated by
forming the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of which he was the holy emperor

- The army then proceeded to march through various cities and attracting more soldiers and
began to build an army upwards of a million soldiers and in 1853, the army had successfully
laid siege to and captured Nanking, which was proclaimed the capital of the heavenly
kingdom

- Over the next decade, due to internal struggles within the Taiping and poor leadership
decisions, they began to lose more and more control over the territories of China they had
annexed. All in all, the Taiping Rebellion led to the deaths of 20 to 30 million people and
the destruction of countless cities

Boxer Rebellion:
- The Boxer rebellion was an uprising against the Qing Dynasty and western powers that
lasted from 1899 to 1901, started by the society of the righteous and harmonious fists.
They were called Boxers by the west because they fought without any weapons whatsoever
and only fought with simple hand-to-hand martial arts combat.

- By the time of the Boxer rebellion, the Qing Dynasty's power was diminishing, and the
once-great Middle Kingdom was now annexed by various western powers looking to expand
their spheres of influence. The Dynasty was considered weak by many, as they had little to
 no say in the major decisions made, and were but a puppet in the eyes of the western
powers, who could use and exploit them for their economic gain. The Boxer rebellion
contributed to the eventual downfall of the Qing Dynasty in 1912.

- The Boxers were a group of people fuelled by anti-foreign and anti-christian sentiments.
They looked to drive out the inferior race and inferior religion using hand-to-hand combat
and try to restore China to its former glory.

- They were expressing these sentiments due to the treaty of Nanking half a century prior,
which gave missionaries the right to travel to China and convert Chinese citizens to
Christianity, with the right to use force. This forced Christianization acted as a catalyst
for the Boxer rebellion, thereby also granting the boxers anti-foreign sentiments by
association

- The foreign powers viewed the Boxer rebellion as a mere annoyance. Their military might
swiftly put down the rebellion as the Boxers stood no chance against guns with just martial
arts. Furthermore, by stopping the rebellion, the foreign powers were granted more power
to expand their spheres of influence to annex more parts of China.

- The Boxer rebellion laid the groundwork for Chinese nationalism, which would become more
prevalent over time, culminating in events such as Mao Zedong establishing a dictatorship,
and the current political situation in China with Xi Jinping's government. The inherent
cultural bias formed as a result of nationalism is why it is generally looked down upon in
the modern and liberal world.

- On the global stage, the Boxer rebellion led Japan looking to expand their spheres of
influence over a weakened China, which contributed to them gaining power over time in the
early 1900s which set the stage for the pacific theater of World War II.

White Man’s Burden and Marxist Theory

- ‘White Man’s Burden’ was a poem written by Rudyard Kipling in the late 19th Century.
The poem encourages white people to “take up the white man’s burden”, referring to the
inherent burden associated with the “civilizing” of what were believed to be culturally
inferior peoples.
 - In this context, civilizing refers to the indoctrination of aforementioned culturally inferior
peoples through means of Christianization, Westernization, and forced cultural assimilation,
all of which have irreparable impacts on the widespread culture and society of these
peoples.

- An example of this can be seen in the British economic exploitation of India. Under the
pretext of “civilizing” India, the British proceeded to plunder our resources and justified
their control as a means of bringing economic development and infrastructure to India, all
the while exploiting us for their gain.

- This mindset stemmed from cultural bigotry in that the inability to recognize and
appreciate different cultures can lead to the committing of atrocious acts of inhumane
cultural destruction to reach the goal of civilization.

- It is also extremely delusional as in the eyes of America and Great Britain, they were
doing the morally right thing, educating the uncivilized and carrying them to the
enlightenment that was civilization

- Marxist theory (Marxism) is a social, political, and economic framework used to critique the
capitalist system. It was created by Karl Marx and Fredrick Engels in the 19th Century.
It analyzes the relationship between the ruling class (bourgeoise) and the working class
(proletariat)

British Colonization of India:

- British Colonialism in India (indirectly) began in the year 1600, when the British East
India Company (EIC) were granted access to Indian Markets, in which they would be
granted the freedom to trade with the Mughal Empire. Over time, their grip on the
country strengthened, with them setting up factories (trading posts) in Surat. Specifically,
the EIC began to accumulate their forces in Bengal, transforming 3 villages into what is
now modern-day Kolkata.

- In the mid-1700s, the EIC began to collect taxes from Bengal. The current nawab of
Bengal at the time, Siraj-ud-daula took offense to that as the people were only meant to
be paying taxes to him and not to the foreigners. This culminated in the Battle of Plassey
in 1757, wherein Robert Clive's forces defeated Siraj-ud-daula and marked the beginning of
190 years of British rule in India. After this, the British placed Mir Jafar as a puppet
nawab whom they could control.
 - Mir Jafar tried to rebel against the British and allied with Mughal Emperor Shah Alam
II and subsequently lost to the EIC at the battle of Buxar in 1764. This granted the EIC
the role of the unofficial tax collectors, which enabled them to accumulate their wealth and
resources.

- It was around the same time that the EIC began to hire "sepoys", who were local
mercenaries that they utilized due to their knowledge of the land. In 1857, the sepoy
mutiny took place. It was a large-scale revolt against the British but was successfully
quelled and put down.

- The establishment of the British led to the recognition of Queen Victoria as sovereign ruler
and the complete stripping of political identity that an Indian had. The British forced
India to buy their own goods at an expensive price, which led to boycotts and multiple
movements, as seen in the Gandhian Era

Slave Trade:
Economic Impact Political Impact Social Impact

Africa The Slave Trade led to the Europe exploited Africa and left The Slave Trade caused the
economic exploitation of Africans as them with long-lasting consequences disruption of communities and
they were sold by their own people that can be felt today. The map of societies. Families were torn apart
to the Europeans and were forced modern-day Africa has many sections and never saw each other again. The
to endure harsh labor on which the that are straight lines. This is because quality of life drastically reduced,
economic growth of Europe occurred of European colonization as the from the tedious voyage and many
at the expense of Africa. The slave European powers drew arbitrary Africans dying onboard during the
trade led to the deterioration of borders on the continent as they middle passage, to the brutal and
the African Economy since it exploited it for its resources. deplorable labor conditions, to the
disrupted traditional trade routes constant abuse they were subjected
and economic networks to by their owners. Slaves lost their
cultural identity and heritage

Asia Groups of African Slaves were The Slave Trade was used by Due to them being viewed as cheap
brought to work in Asian colonies European Powers as an excuse to labor, African Slaves were often at
such as the Dutch East Indies and colonize Asia as they argued they the bottom of Asian social
the British Raj. The profits from were bringing civilization to what they hierarchies. Asians were introduced
the industries built on the backs of viewed to be an uncivilized region. The to African cultures and traditions.
African Slaves fueled the growth of widespread discontent of Asians and The anti-colonial movement in India
Asian economies Africans led to the emergence of was inspired by the anti-slavery
 nationalist and anti-colonial ideologies movement in Europe

Europe Europeans saw Africans as cheap The wealth generated from the slave The Slave Trade led to the rise of
labor for producing goods in their trade led to the rise of European new communities and cultures as
colonies in the Americas, which they colonial powers and the spread of African Culture and tradition was
then sold at a profit. This led to European culture and influence. introduced to Europe which
the strengthening of European Europe exploited Africa and left them subsequently led to the rise of
colonial powers due to the constant with long-lasting consequences that anti-slavery movements by social
supply of expendable labor can be felt today. activists

Silk Road:
- The silk road was not so much as one singular road, as it was multiple interconnected
networks of paths of trade routes that spanned across Eurasia. Silk was a valued
commodity and was viewed as a status symbol in the west, so this trade route served to
facilitate the exchange of silk from the east in return of precious silver from the west.

- Aside from the silk that was being traded, the silk road helped to facilitate the spread of
religion. Westerners were introduced to Islam and Buddhism, whereas Easterners were
introduced to Christianity. These ideas helped shape and define cultures. This can be seen
in modern-day Africa and select regions of Eastern Europe, wherein Islam is a predominant
religion.

- The silk road helped to standardize the supply chain of valuable commodities that were
vital in the creation of numerous jobs and benefitted many nations in that it strengthened
their economy and contributed to the rise of the working class of merchants, traders, and
seafarers.

Spice Trade:
Economic Impact Political Impact Social Impact

Africa Africa played a critical role in the Spice Trade, Africa found themselves being The Spice Trade helped
even though the Spice Trade was primarily manipulated by European Influence facilitate cultural exchange.
focused on Asia, Africa helped by providing the as Neighboring African Tribes An example of this can be the
required supply chain infrastructure to found themselves in conflict with introduction of Islam to
transport spices which resulted in many each other over control over their African societies, which
 merchants becoming wealthy, as well as the part of the trade. The wealth became a major religion
creation of new jobs for laborers, which as a generated from the trade was
whole benefited the African economy used to improve the military
infrastructure of these African
Tribes which enabled them to
expand their territory

Asia Asia’s spices were viewed as commodities in the Western powers used the Spice The aforementioned eventual
eyes of the west. These spices could be used trade as a means to expand their colonization led to the
for culinary and recreational purposes. To cater control and eventually colonize imposition of western
to this demand, Asia focused on the cultivation parts of Asia. Numerous wars were cultures, beliefs, and values
and exporting of Spices to the West. This fought over the course of decades on Asian societies, which led
helped create new jobs, which positively with regard to control of the spice to the rapid decline of Asian
impacted the economy. However, the west was trade and in return, control of societies and cultures. The
also prone to exploiting farmers by putting a Asia as a whole. export tax led to poverty
high export tax, which put most farmers under among farmers, which was a
the poverty line negative socioeconomic impact
of the spice trade on the
working class of Asia.

Europe The high demand for spices in Europe The spice trade was a catalyst for Spices were seen as a status
contributed to the wealth of traders and European colonialism as European symbol in Europe and its
empires, including the Portuguese, Dutch, and powers sought to control the spice various uses brought about a
British colonial powers. It became a very trade in Africa and Asia. Many bettered quality of life for
profitable business and incentivized traders conflicts arose between European Europeans. The Spice trade
representing colonial powers to constantly powers which resulted in wars such also led to the growth of a
innovate by finding new trade routes and as the Anglo-Portuguese War social class of merchants and
better ways to preserve spices (1580-1640) and the Seven Years traders
War (1756-1763)

Belgian Congo:
- Context: “The Scramble for Africa” was a period from the late 19th to early 20th
Century, wherein European Powers rapidly colonized and divided up the African continent.
They did this to increase control over the influx of natural resources that Africa generated,
which they could then use to further advance their infrastructure and economy. By the
early 20th Century, almost all of the African Continent had been colonized by European
Powers

- All of the European Powers (France, Germany, Britain, etc.) wanted the Congo as their
own land and could not decide who it belonged to. Interestingly enough, these powers were
 okay with giving the Congo to King Leopold II of Belgium. Not to the Nation of Belgium
but rather to King Leopold himself. He was granted “ownership” of the Congo under the
primary condition that trade of its valuable natural resources such as Rubber would be open
to trading with other European Countries who had set up colonies in Africa. He dubbed this
new state “The Congo Free State”, which was ironic since the Congolese had no freedom
whatsoever.

- He claimed he would protect free trade in the Congo, christianize the Congolese, while also
striving to improve the quality of life for the Congolese, only to do the exact opposite as he
would go on to authorize horrific atrocities against the Congolese that tore families apart
with absolutely zero remorse for the lives taken and the damage done.

- In 1887, John Boyd Dunlop invented a better system for Pneumatic Tyre. This created the
demand for the Rubber as it was necessary in order to mass-produce these Tyres. As a
result, the Europeans turned to Congo since it had one of the world’s largest Rubber
supplies at the time.

- Leopold set an impossible quota for the Congolese to meet as he forced them to partake in
unpaid and grueling labor. If these laborers would not meet their quota, they would have
to watch in despair and horror as Soldiers came to their house and cut off their children’s
fingers. Multiple crimes such as violence, murder, rape, slavery, robbery and arson were
committed during Leopold’s ownership of the Congo Free State

- The unearthing of these crimes prompted Leopold to relinquish ownership of the Congo Free
State to the Government in 1908. The Government then proceeded to formally annex the
Congo and stop the trading of Rubber with other African colonies.

- For the next 52 years until its independence in 1960, the Congo remained a colony of
Belgium. The first Prime Minister of Independent Congo (Patrice Lumumba) was unseated
in a coup backed by the US and Belgium. He was then assassinated in 1961. The coup
launched the country into a decades-long dictatorship which resulted in multiple wars. All
in all, it is estimated that around 10 million people died from the atrocities committed in
the Congo

Neo-Colonialism:
- Imperialism was all about gaining resources
 - In Neo-Imperialism, the country that is imperializing doesn’t need to control the other
imperialized country and instead, uses their influence to control them (soft power)
- A monopoly is something that controls so much of a business that no other country/business
would want to sell the product
- Neo-colonialism refers to the continued economic, political, and cultural influence exerted by
former colonial powers or other developed countries over former colonies or developing nations,
often through indirect means.
- Neo-colonialism manifests through economic exploitation, where powerful nations maintain
control over key resources and markets in developing countries. This can include unequal trade
relationships, debt dependency, and the extraction of natural resources at low costs.
- Former colonial powers and other influential countries often exert political influence in
developing nations to protect their interests. This may involve supporting or overthrowing
governments, manipulating elections, or imposing conditions on aid and loans to advance their
own agendas.
- Neo-colonialism perpetuates cultural domination by promoting Western values, languages, and
norms as superior, leading to the marginalization and erasure of indigenous cultures and
identities. This can occur through media, education, and cultural exchange programs.
- Neo-colonialism is reinforced through the structure and policies of international institutions such
as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, and World Trade Organization
(WTO), which are often accused of serving the interests of wealthy nations at the expense of
poorer ones.
- Many developing countries and grassroots movements resist neo-colonialism through advocacy
for self-determination, regional cooperation, and economic policies that prioritize local
development and empowerment. Alternatives include fair trade practices, South-South
cooperation, and strengthening regional integration.

Françafrique:
- “Francafrique” refers to the Neo-colonialism of Africa by the French. Neo-colonialism is the
modern form of colonialism, often likened to globalization. Shortly after World War II,
the french, who had previously colonized large parts of Africa, began to assimilate into
African society

- It is the complex web of political, economic, military, and cultural ties that have
historically existed between France and its former colonies in Africa. This relationship is
 characterized by French influence and control over the political and economic affairs of
these African countries.

- In the 1960s, France and other European Powers began granting independence and
sovereignty to its former colonies in Africa. Despite this, France continued to consolidate
their control by means of economic agreements, military interventions and supporting the
formation of authoritarian regimes that favored French interests

- Economic Exploitation: France has historically maintained control over the Economies of
their colonies through currency arrangements, trade agreements and investments in key
sectors such as Mining and Agriculture. An example of this is how the CFA franc is still
used by most West African Countries is tied to the Euro and controlled by the French
Treasury, which benefits France at the expense of Africa since the French experience the
advantages of reduced currency fluctuations while the Africans experience the disadvantages
of Banks not being able to set their own interest rates due to being tied to the Euro, which
makes it harder to combat inflation and recession.

- Military Involvement: Through military cooperation agreements and interventions, France

has sought to maintain stability in the region and protect its strategic interests. This has
often involved supporting authoritarian regimes or intervening in conflicts to safeguard
French interests. An example of this is the French intervention in Mali in 2013 to combat
Islamist militants threatening to disrupt stability in the region

- Political Intervention: The political aspect of Francafrique involves French interference in

the internal affairs of African countries. France has been known to prop up dictators who
are friendly to French interests, manipulate elections, and undermine democratic processes
in order to maintain its influence in the region. An example of this is how the French
provided support to leaders like Omar Bongo in Gabon and Paul Biya in Cameroon despite
multiple allegations of Corruption and Human Rights abuses.

- Cultural Influence: The cultural aspect of Francafrique refers to the enduring influence of
French language, culture, and institutions in Africa. The colonial legacy is still evident in
many aspects of society, including education, media, and governance. An example of this is
how the French Language is still the predominant language in these Countries
Vaccine Imperialism:

Overview(using Covid-19 vaccine as example):

- Vaccine imperialism refers to the unequal distribution of COVID-19 vaccines globally, with
wealthy countries having access to a disproportionate share of vaccine doses compared to poorer
nations.
- Wealthy countries, particularly those in North America and Europe, have been accused of
hoarding vaccine doses by purchasing more than they need to inoculate their populations, leading
to shortages in other parts of the world.
- Pharmaceutical companies in developed countries hold patents on COVID-19 vaccines, limiting
production capacity and hindering the ability of poorer nations to manufacture their own doses
or obtain affordable licenses for production.
- Some countries prioritize vaccinating their own citizens first, leading to delays in distributing
surplus doses to other nations in need. This approach exacerbates global inequities and prolongs
the pandemic by allowing the virus to continue spreading unchecked in regions with limited
vaccine access.
- Vaccine distribution has become a tool for geopolitical influence, with wealthy nations using
vaccine donations and aid packages to strengthen diplomatic ties and advance their strategic
interests, further marginalizing poorer nations in the process.

Specific Example of a Country(France):

- France, along with other European Union (EU) countries, negotiated advance purchase
agreements with vaccine manufacturers, securing large quantities of doses for its population.
This has contributed to global vaccine scarcity, particularly for lower-income countries that lack
the purchasing power to compete in the global market.
- While France has pledged to donate vaccine doses to poorer nations through initiatives like
COVAX, its donations have been relatively small compared to its domestic supply. Additionally,
the pace of donations has been criticized as slow, with delays in fulfilling commitments.
- France, as a member of the EU, has supported the protection of intellectual property rights for
COVID-19 vaccines, including patents held by pharmaceutical companies. This stance has
hindered efforts to increase global vaccine production by preventing the sharing of vaccine
formulas and technologies with manufacturers in developing countries.
- France has engaged in vaccine diplomacy by prioritizing vaccine distribution to its overseas
territories and former colonies, as well as countries with strategic importance. While this
 approach may strengthen diplomatic ties, it also perpetuates global inequalities by diverting
doses from countries with greater need but less political significance.
- The French government has faced criticism for its lack of transparency regarding vaccine
procurement and distribution. Critics argue that greater transparency is needed to ensure
accountability and fairness in vaccine allocation, particularly as concerns about global equity
intensify.

Vaccine:

Underdeveloped Nation Developing Nation Developed Nation

- Lack of Access - Difficult to Access - Easy to Access

- Lack of Funding - Enough Funding for some - Abundant Supplies
vaccines

The American Civil War (1861-1865):

- The American Civil War was a War fought in the US. The reason the war began was because
of the issue of Slavery. When Abraham Lincoln was elected President, many Southern
states seceded from America to form a new country known as the Confederate states of
America. This was because they feared that Lincoln would outlaw Slavery . This was a
Major Problem for Southerners because they heavily depended and exploited Slaves for
industrialization and profit

- South Carolina was the first State to secede in December of 1860 and was soon followed
by Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, Alabama, and Virginia to form the Confederate States of
America

- The Seceding States proceeded to seize federal Forts and Arsenals. One of these Forts
was Fort Sumter, located in South Carolina. The unwarranted attack on this Fort and its
subsequent surrender to the Confederacy prompted Lincoln to issue the call for 75,000
volunteers who would fight the Confederacy for what was originally going to be 90 days but
ended up being much longer

- For Political Reasons, Lincoln initially stated that the War was to “preserve the union”.
He said this to avoid foreign intervention since Britain and France had strong ties to the
 Confederacy due to their use of Cotton. He did not want to give them a reason to intervene
by tying the conflict to Slavery

- Union Advantages in the Civil War:

- Population Difference: The North had a population of 22 million while the South only had 9
million of which 3.5 million were Slaves who would never be sympathetic towards their own
oppression

- Industry: The North produced 90% of all goods in the US at the time. Its factories
produced 17 times more textiles than the South, 30 times the Shoes and Boots, 13 times
the Iron, and 32 times the firearms

- Infrastructure: The North had approximately 20,000 miles of railroad while the South
only had 10,000 miles of railroad. This made it easier for the Union to move its Army and
Resources in the duration of the War

- Turning Points in the Civil War:

- Capture of Vicksburg (1863): After a 47 day siege, General Ulysses Grant was able to
Capture Vicksburg. This gave the Union control over the lower half of the Mississippi River
and allowed them to effectively sever the Confederacy from the Eastern to Western
Confederate States. This made it more difficult for the South to move Troops and Supplies
from East to West. This Capture also proved to be a great morale booster and
strengthened the Union resolve while putting the Confederates on the defensive

- Battle of Gettysburg (1863): This was Confederate General Robert Lee’s last major
offensive and was the furthest he had gotten into the North. Had he defeated General
Grant, it would be likely that New York and Philadelphia would fall soon after. The
Battle resulted in around 51,000 combined casualties and since the Confederates had a
smaller population and fewer resources, they could not afford such losses. Afterwards,
Lincoln delivered the iconic Gettysburg Address which galvanized Union resolve by
redefining the War as the struggle for America’s democracy and ideals.

- Capture of Atlanta (1864): Union General William T Sherman was able to capture Atlanta,
which proved to be vital for 2 main reasons. Firstly, it was a railroad hub and
manufacturing center whose capture crippled the Confederate Infrastructure and Supply
 Chain. Secondly, this came close to Abraham Lincoln’s reelection in 1864 and with a major
victory such as this, he was more likely to be reelected due to progress in the War effort.

- Emancipation Proclamation: The Emancipation Proclamation was issued by President Lincoln

in January of 1863. It declared that “all persons held as slaves are, and henceforward
shall be free”. This was a turning point in the War since it altered what was originally the
main purpose of the conflict. It marked a significant step towards ending Slavery and
solidified the Union’s moral high ground in being fair and just by freeing the Slaves

- The 13th Amendment: The 13th Amendment was passed in January of 1865 and fully
abolished Slavery. This helped strengthen and unify America by resolving the main
overarching conflict that brought about the Secession of the South and the Civil War. While
not explicitly guaranteeing racial equality, it still put into motion the series of events that
would lead up to the Civil Rights Movement and Black Power Movement. This ensured that
Slavery could never be legalized again since the Constitution was considered to be the
supreme law of the land.

Reconstruction Era:
- The Reconstruction Era was the period after the Civil War ended where the Americans
sought out to rebuild the Nation’s infrastructure from the fallout of the War, as well as
implement measures to integrate Black People into society since they were now
emancipated.

- Aspects of Reconstruction:

- Political Reconstruction: The Federal Government implemented various measures to bring

the Southern states back into the Union. This included the passage of the Reconstruction
Acts of 1867, which divided the South into military districts under Union control until
they ratified new state constitutions guaranteeing African American men the right to vote.

- Economic Reconstruction: The abolition of slavery left a significant economic void in the
South. Reconstruction efforts aimed to rebuild Southern infrastructure, promote
industrialization, and provide assistance to newly freed slaves through programs like the
Freedmen’s Bureau.
 - Social Reconstruction: The end of slavery raised questions about how African Americans
would be integrated into society. The passage of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments
aimed to grant equal rights and protections under the law to African Americans.

- The 13th Amendment abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for
a crime. The 14th Amendment addresses citizenship rights and equal protection under the
law. The 15th Amendment prohibits the federal government and states from denying a
citizen the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

- Backlash: Despite these efforts, Reconstruction faced significant resistance from White
Southerners who sought to maintain white supremacy through organizations like the Ku Klux
Klan. This led to violence and intimidation against Black People and their allies.

- Modern-day Consequences:

- Legacy of Segregation: The failure of Reconstruction to fully address racial inequality laid
the groundwork for decades of segregation and discrimination in America. This legacy
continues to impact race relations and social justice movements today.

- Voting Rights: The struggle for voting rights during Reconstruction set a precedent for
ongoing battles over voting access and suppression in modern times. Efforts to restrict
voting rights disproportionately affect minority communities.

- Educational Disparities: The unequal access to education that persisted after

Reconstruction has contributed to ongoing educational disparities between white and
minority students in America today. Efforts to address these gaps remain a key challenge
in achieving educational equity.

- Historical Memory: Debates over how Reconstruction is remembered continue to shape

contemporary discussions about race, politics, and national identity in America. Different
interpretations of this period influence current attitudes towards issues like affirmative
action and reparations

Plessy vs. Ferguson:

- Plessy V Ferguson was a court case(1896) in which the supreme court went over the 14th
amendment(1868). In this court case, the supreme court declared the doctrine “separate
but equal.”
 - It was a 7-1 decision by the judges and was the first major court case relating to the 14th
amendment
- Due to the court case, states were allowed to racially segregate people as long as the
facilities for the segregated peoples were equal. In this case, they were wholly unequal,
leading to inequalities.
- Some examples of this included:
- Black people having to sit at the back of the bus/needing to leave
- Having separate schools
- Separate public facilities
- Being banned from many restaurants
- While these were eventually ended near the end of the civil rights era, the effects of these
can still be seen in modern america
- Redlining is one of the most infamous examples. Redlining was when US politicians drew
borders specifically based on segregation so those areas would not receive proper funding.
How schools work is that the better the test scores, the more money received. Because
these schools did not have money in the past, it was a bad learning environment, meaning
lower grades, meaning less money, meaning a worse learning environment and the cycle
repeats. This leaves these previously black neighborhoods much worse off compared to
previously white ones.

Jim Crow Laws:

- Jim Crow Laws were a series of racist laws that legalized segregation and were fuelled by
White Supremacy during the Reconstruction Era that changed the course of American
History

- Jim Crow Laws stipulated the following:

- Segregation in Public Facilities to reinforce racial hierarchy and inferiority among Blacks
- Disenfranchisement of Black Voters by means of Grandfather clauses, Literacy tests, etc.
- Prohibition of interracial relationships
- Unequal Education for Whites and Blacks which propagated institutionalized racism
- Occupational Segregation which meant that certain jobs were race-specific
- Segregation in Public Spaces

- These laws provided a legal framework for racism and aimed to justify white supremacy and
enforced discriminatory policies that stripped Black people of any semblance of freedom and
rights, trapping them in a purgatory of discrimination and suffering
- Modern-day Consequences of Jim Crow Laws:

- Mass Incarceration: The disproportionate incarceration of Black people in the United States
is seen as a modern manifestation of systemic racism stemming from Jim Crow Laws. Black
individuals are more likely to be arrested, convicted, and sentenced harshly compared to
their white counterparts.

- Health Disparities: Black people continue to experience disparities in healthcare access,

quality of care, and health outcomes compared to White people. These disparities can be
traced back to historical injustices propagated by Jim Crow laws.

- Wealth Disparities: The economic repercussions of Jim Crow laws are evident in the
persistent wealth gap between white families and black families. Discriminatory practices
such as redlining have hindered black wealth accumulation over generations.

- Police Brutality: Incidents of police brutality against African Americans highlight ongoing
racial biases within law enforcement agencies. The distrust between minority communities
and law enforcement can be linked back to historical injustices under Jim Crow segregation.

Unit 3: Intellectual and Ideological

Movements
Anarchism:
- Anarchism is a political ideology in which there should be no government at all. It is a
society based purely on community effort and voluntary participation. These are expressed
in 2 ways
 - Anti-statism: This is the main anarchism which people say when they mean this. It is a
rejection of all hierarchy, being based purely on individuals doing work for their
communities. There were 2 main advocates for this, Proudhon and Godwin.

- The argument for Anti-statism is that humans are a product of their environment, meaning
that they are influenced by governments, making sure that they cannot act altruistically.

- Anti-clericalism: Anti clericalism is the opposition of religious authorities. This is a subset

of anarchy and is because religion can have a similar role to government. It was originally
based on catholic authority but has broadened to include all religions.

- The reason why it is similar to the government is because it is seen as a coercive force. The
rich use it to force rules onto the poor folk, damming them to heaven/hell if they do not
follow the rules. Keeping the poor/working disillusioned with the belief that all their work
today will result in a future in heaven. Hence, why anarchists want rid of it.

Liberty
- Liberty is the final hope of all anarchists. Liberty is the idea of being completely free,
without any forces. Government forces laws and other things onto people, meaning they
cannot have true liberty. This idea of liberty falls into 2 categories, Collectivist and
anarchist

Collectivist:
Collectivist anarchism is essentially the belief that all humans are pure. Some points of belief in
this system are:
- Social issues must be solved as a collective, cannot be individually solved.
- Private property is theft.
- Capitalism is evil as it perpetuates coercive hierarchies of the state.
- Revolution is a necessity to make this come true.
- The main examples you may hear of this are Anarcho-communism, Anarcho Syndicalism and
even revolutionary anarchism.

Individualist anarchism.
Individualist anarchism is based on individualism and egoism. This form of anarchism stems from
a fear of a lack of freedom by collectivist anarchism. The belief is that this anarchism must
 be done slowly over time as organizations begin to take over the state. There are 3 main
types of this
1. Anarcho capitalism
2. Radical capitalism
3. Egoism
Egoism is the belief that humans only care about themselves, clashing directly with collectivist
anarchism.

Proudhon:
- Proudhon is a French philosopher and many people have called him the father of anarchism.
His main philosophy of anarchism is the phrase “property is theft.” This phrase essentially
means that owning property is a mistake. He has questioned whether it is a right equal to
the likes of equality and liberty.

- If other people work on your property and make products, it is not fair that you own those
products. The people who create the products should own the property, not the land owner.
Proudhon believed that society should own the land, like the air we breathe, it must be
owned by all.

- This is a leftist ideology which believes in equal distribution

Godwin:
Godwin is an English philosopher and novelist who wrote many books and discussed his beliefs on
anarchism.

Some things he believed an anarchist society should have is:

1. No governance: Individuals can organize themselves without a government
2. Rational inquiry:Through education and critical thinking, humans can solve problems
3. Equality and justice:Equal access to resource distribution, justice, fairness and wealth and
power.
4. Voluntary cooperation:Individuals will act rationally and collaborate with each other for a
better society.
5. Through education and resource distribution, there would be an elimination of inequality.
Based on this, we can see that Godwin was an incredibly idealistic thinker of human nature,
believing all humans are pure of heart.

Some limitations of this ideal are as follows:

1. A society without government will struggle with coordination and decision making
2. While Godwin believed human nature is pure, how do we know if humans will act rationally
and with morals without the noose of government.
3. Economic organization: Organizing economics without a central authority would be much
harder than a system based on voluntary cooperation.

Emma Goldman:
https://www.canva.com/design/DAF75r-e-Pw/NQAK4Mg9y6p5TLxZS4abUw/edit?utm_content=DAF75r-e-Pw&utm_campaign=designshare

&utm_medium=link2&utm_source=sharebutton

Liberalism:
- Liberalism is a political philosophy based on ideas of liberty and equality. The freedom of
speech, religion, markets, civil rights and gender equality are all ideas that liberalism
stands for.

- Civil Rights are legal protections that provide everyone with the same basic rights and
freedoms regardless of their race, gender, or religion. Discrimination occurs when Civil
Rights are denied and/or infringed upon due to the person/people belonging to a particular
social group or class

- Liberalism opposes conservatism, which is an ideology centered around the preservation of

traditional customs, institutions, and values. Liberalism also sought out to replace
absolutism, which is an ideology based on unlimited centralized authority and absolute
sovereignty. Liberalism would do this by means of representative democracy and rule of law,
instead of rule of Man

- Liberalism became popular during the Age of Enlightenment (1685-1815). It became a

distinct political movement among philosophers and economists in the west. Liberalism
rejects Hereditary Privilege (nepotism), State Religion, Absolute Monarchy, and the Divine
Right

- “Each Man has a natural right to life, liberty, and property” - John Locke
- Liberals believe that government is necessary to protect individuals, but it can also pose a
threat to liberty. They want to devise a system that gives the government the power to
protect individuals, but also prevents it from abusing that power.

- Although liberal ideas were not noticeable in European politics until the early 16th century,
they had a considerable "prehistory" reaching back to the Middle Ages and even earlier. In
the 16th century, monarchical absolutism was viewed as the only remedy to civil dissension.

- In the English Civil Wars (1642-1651), the absolutist king Charles I was defeated by
Parliament and executed. The Glorious Revolution established a complex form of balanced
government. The English philosophers Thomas Hobbes and John Locke argued that the
absolute power of the sovereign was ultimately justified by the consent of the governed, but
Locke maintained that the parties to the contract could not reasonably place themselves
under the absolute power of a ruler.

- The early liberals worked to free individuals from religious conformity and aristocratic
privilege, and to hold the Government accountable to the governed. They advocated a
system of government based on majority rule.

- The liberal solution to limiting the powers of a democratic majority employed various
devices, including the separation of powers, a system of checks and balances, and the
Federalist papers. The US Constitution also contains elements of a mixed constitution.

- The second part of the solution lies in using staggered periodic elections to make the
decisions of any given majority subject to the concurrence of other majorities distributed
over time. In the United States, for example, the president is elected every four years.

- Liberalism's third part of the solution relied on the freedom and integrity of the
individual, which the limitation of power is meant to preserve. Individuals also have rights
that secure their personal safety and hence their protection from arbitrary arrest and
punishment. In a liberal democracy, people have the right to practice religion, create art,
and raise their children without concern for the state. These rights are exhibited in the
British Bill of Rights, the U.S. Declaration of Independence, and other documents.

- Liberal Movements in France and US in 18th Century:

- The French and American Revolutions were pivotal events in the 18th century that
significantly contributed to the spread of liberalism. From a liberal perspective, both
revolutions aimed to challenge the existing political and social structures, advocating for
principles such as individual rights, democracy, and limited government intervention. These
revolutions played a crucial role in advancing liberal ideas and values across Europe and the
Americas during the Enlightenment period.

- The American Revolution (1765-1783) was driven by a desire for independence from British
colonial rule and a commitment to principles of liberty and self-governance. Liberal thinkers
such as Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and James Madison played key roles in shaping the
revolutionary ideology based on Enlightenment ideals of natural rights (fundamental rights
inherent to all people simply by virtue of existence).

- The Declaration of Independence, with its assertion that “all men are created equal” and
endowed with “unalienable rights,” encapsulated these liberal principles and inspired
movements for freedom and self-determination worldwide.

- The French Revolution (1789-1799) was fueled by demands for equality, fraternity, and
liberty among the French populace. Influenced by Enlightenment philosophers like Voltaire,
Rousseau, and Montesquieu, revolutionaries sought to dismantle the feudal system, abolish
absolute monarchy, and establish a republic based on democratic principles.

- The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen proclaimed universal rights for all
citizens, including freedom of speech, religion, and equality before the law.

- Both revolutions had a profound impact on spreading liberalism in the 18th century by
challenging traditional hierarchies, promoting individual freedoms, and advocating for
representative government. The ideas of popular sovereignty, constitutionalism, and
separation of powers championed during these revolutions became foundational concepts in
modern liberal democracies.

- The American Revolution influenced other independence movements in Latin America against
Spanish colonial rule. Simon Bolivar in South America and Jose de San Martin in Argentina
drew inspiration from American revolutionary ideals to fight for liberation from European
imperialism.
- In Europe, the French Revolution inspired nationalist uprisings against monarchical rule in
countries like Italy, Germany, and Greece. The demand for constitutional reforms, civil
liberties, and political participation gained momentum as liberal ideas took root across the
continent.

Feminism:
- Feminism is a sociopolitical ideology that advocates for equality of the sexes, recognition of
women’s rights, and female empowerment. It aims to create a world where anyone can live
freely regardless of gender. Feminism has 4 distinct “Waves”, which each brought about
distinct changes that transformed the social fabric of humanity.

- The Waves of Feminism:

- First Wave: The First Wave of feminism was started in 1848 during the Women's rights
convention in Seneca Falls, New York. The main goal was women's suffrage (The
Enfranchisement of Women). Later on, reproductive rights also became a central issue.
After this, the NACW(National association of Colored Women) was formed by Mary Terrel
to mainly fight for issues of black feminism and suffrage. This included combatting racist
and sexist stereotypes and falsehoods.

- Thanks to lobbying, the 19th amendment was published August 26th, 1920, allowing all
women the right to vote. Later, the UK created the Equal Franchise Act of 1928 in which
all women above the age of 21 could vote. Some more transformative effects of this were
the rights given to women. In both the United States and the UK, Women were now able
to have property

- Second Wave: The Second Wave of feminism emerged in the 1960s due to influence from the
civil rights movement. The Second wave of feminism sparked extensive theoretical discussion
about the origins of women’s oppression, the nature of gender, and the role of the family.

- During this wave, women came together in social movements and organizations to challenge
societal norms that enforced gender discrimination and inequality. The central focal point to
this movement was the demand for reproductive rights, including access to contraception
and abortion. This wave fought for women's autonomy over their bodies, challenging
restrictive laws that existed to control women's bodies and reproductive choices. Key
 events during this period included the publication of Betty Friedan’s “The Feminine
Mystique” and the founding of organizations like the National Organization for Women
(NOW).

- Third Wave: The Third Wave of Feminism emerged in the mid 1990s and was centered
around a more diverse approach to feminist ideology. it advocated addressing issues of race,
class, gender, and sexuality. Intersectionality was a key aspect of this wave since
third-wave feminists sought to give light to the fact that different forms of oppression
exist and intersect, affecting individuals differently based on their identities and
backgrounds.

- This shift led to a more inclusive feminist movement that actively worked to address the
experiences of women of color, LGBTQ+ individuals, disabled women, and other marginalized
groups. Third-wave feminism challenged traditional ideas of gender and sexuality,
advocating for greater acceptance and representation of diverse identities and experiences.
This made its way into mainstream media with a famous example of this being the Riot
Grrrl Movement, which combined feminism, punk music, and politics to spread the message
of third-wave feminism and galvanize support for the same.

- Fourth Wave (Present): The Fourth Wave of feminism was fuelled by the creation of Social
Media, which was used as a medium to propagate its messages. The fourth wave sought out
women's empowerment, intersectional experiences and LGBTQ+ rights. New aspects of
feminism arose with the fourth wave, these being body positivity and trans-inclusivity.

- A Notable event in the fourth wave of feminism was the #MeToo movement. It acted as a
way to raise awareness about sexual abuse against women. It helped victims of sexual abuse
to let other victims know that they were not alone. Fourth-wave feminism is diverse and
decentralized, with individuals from various backgrounds coming together to challenge
systemic oppression and work towards a more equitable society. It emphasizes the
importance of solidarity among different marginalized groups and recognizes that feminism
must be intersectional to address the complex ways in which gender intersects with race,
class, sexuality, disability, and other identities.
Anarcho-Feminism:
- Feminism is uplifting women in an unequal society to strike a balance
- Anarcho-Feminism is a socio-political movement that combines anarchism and feminism which
aims to remove all hierarchy and liberate equality of all genders
- Emma Goldman was a renowned feminist who was an anarchist thinkers who connected
patriarchy to capitalism and state
- Autonomy, equality, solidarity, anti-authoritarianism are principles of anarcho-feminism
- Direct actions and Intersectionality are encouraged by anarcho-feminism
- Anarcho-feminism challenges oppression and aims to create a world where people can live
without fear of discrimination

Marxism:
- Marxism is a social, political, and economic theory originated by Karl Marx and Friedrich
Engels, advocating for the abolition of private property, a classless society, and the means
of production being owned and controlled by the working class. Marx equated all of history
to a class struggle between the ruling class (Bourgeoisie) and the working class
(Proletariat) since he believed that the Bourgeoisie exploited the Proletariat for their own
profit and gain without consideration for the adverse effect it would have on them

- According to Marx, the Bourgeoisie came to power during the Industrial Revolution and Age
of Exploration with the sudden emergence of rich capital putting the Bourgeoisie in a
position to make decisions that increasingly benefitted them and served to increase the
disparity between them and the Proletariat so that they could consolidate their wealth
and resources in a capitalist society.

- Theory of alienation: The theory of alienation was a theory created by Karl Marx where he
explained how workers are alienated from their species being, meaning work is alienating.
1. Workers are alienated from each other under capitalism. This is due to the competition
2. Workers are alienated from the products of their labor. After creating products, the
products workers make are removed from them
3. Workers are alienated from the act of labor. Workers do not have choices in what they
make, how they make and what the final product is.

Socialism.
- Socialism is a political and economic ideology which was created during the 19th century
- There are many different types of socialism. Democratic socialism wishes for the democratic
control over the means of production. In the real world, this is applied in scandinavia. In
these locations, the state plays active roles in welfare policies and protecting individual
rights. Marxism-Leninism socialism is where the state owns and controls all means of
production, the final goal being the collapse of this state for creating a stateless and
classless society. Marxism-Leninism however is much more open to totalitarian leaders.
Market socialism combines elements of socialism and capitalism. The means of production are
owned by the workers/state but the market is used to distribute goods and services

Principles:
- Equal distribution of wealth:Equal distribution of resources and money among the members
of society
- Common ownership: Common ownership of the means of production, whether state,
cooperation or worker-owned
- Planned economy: The state/community decides what, where, how and for whom everything
is made.
- Cooperation over competition: Promoting cooperation between individuals and entities for the
benefit of society’
- ‘

Advantages:
- Promotes equality: Because wealth is redistributed for all, it means that everyone will be
more equal.
- Social welfare: Due to the planned economy and equal distribution of wealth, it means that
these people are able to create better social services as everyone is equal.
- No more capitalist exploitation: Because the workers control the means of production, it
means capitalists can't rise.

Disadvantages:
- There is a high chance of authoritarianism state forming because there is a high amount of
power centralized into one location
- There is a limited incentive for innovation as there is no reason to improve as there are no
extra things to gain from doing so.
- Economic inefficiency: Because the state controls everything, they can make a lot of
mistakes compared to separate companies all doing things.
 Communism:
- Communism is a political system similar to socialism. It is much more advanced compared to
it. It is a doctrine that seeks to replace capitalism with communal control of the means of
production and natural resources.
- He believed it was inevitable that communism would come around, and detailed a plan on
how he assumed it would happen.
- First is that the government and the economy would be controlled by the people. During
this time, there would still be capitalism, people would still be paid for how much they
contribute to society
- In the second phase, full communism would be realized. The perfect society where everyone
would work to their own ability and everyone would be equal. This is a highly idealized
system which is why socialism is much more acceptable.

Principles:
- Classless society, everyone is equal
- No private property
- Goods and services are given based on need

Advantages:
- Theoretically creates perfect equality.
- The people would own the means of production, allowing for more people to get access to
items.
- The “state” would be able to provide free healthcare and education to all its citizens.

Disadvantages:
- It is a very collectivist society, meaning people cannot have individual freedoms.
- Government has TOTAL control over every person and everything.
- Incredibly repressive because there can be no criticism.

Historical Examples:

Soviet Union:

Rise and Fall/Life:

- Russia under the Tsars was characterized by autocracy, feudal land
relations, and vast inequalities. Industrialization was slow and uneven,
leading to widespread discontent among workers and peasants.
- Inspired by Karl Marx's and Friedrich Engels' ideas, socialist groups like
the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) began to form,
advocating for workers' rights and revolution.
- Vladimir Lenin adapted Marxism to the conditions of Russia, arguing for a
vanguard party to lead the revolution and establish a dictatorship of the
proletariat to suppress the bourgeoisie and implement socialist policies.
- The Tsarist regime collapsed due to mass protests and strikes, leading to
the establishment of a provisional government.
- The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, seized power from the provisional
government in a coup. They promised "peace, land, and bread" and
aimed to establish a socialist state.
- The Russian Revolution occurred and the Red Army of the Bolsheviks
defeated the opposition and became the leader of the new United Soviet
Socialist Republics (USSR).
- The Bolsheviks (Reds) fought against anti-Bolshevik forces (Whites),
eventually emerging victorious despite significant internal and external
opposition in a Civil War while there was a provisional government in
place.
- In 1922, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was officially
established, unifying multiple socialist republics under a centralized
communist government.
- During the Civil War, the Bolsheviks implemented war communism,
nationalizing industry and requisitioning grain from peasants.
- In response to economic collapse, Lenin introduced the NEP in 1921,
allowing limited private enterprise and market mechanisms to revive the
economy.
- After Lenin's death, Joseph Stalin consolidated power, transforming the
USSR into a totalitarian state with centralized control over all aspects of
life.
- Stalin implemented a series of Five-Year Plans focused on rapid
industrialization and collectivization of agriculture. This led to significant
economic growth but also widespread famine and repression.
- Stalin's regime conducted massive purges in the 1930s, targeting
perceived enemies within the Communist Party, military, and society,
resulting in millions of deaths.
- The USSR played a crucial role in defeating Nazi Germany, emerging as a
superpower.
 - Post-WWII, the USSR established control over Eastern Europe, beginning
the ideological and geopolitical struggle with the US.
- The USSR competed with the US in nuclear arms and space exploration
and the USSR supported communist movements in various global
conflicts.
- Economic stagnation, bureaucratic inefficiency, and corruption plagued
the USSR, with increased military spending further straining the economy
from 1964-1982.
- Gorbachev introduced economic restructuring (perestroika) and
increased openness (glasnost), which led to greater public dissent and
nationalist movements.
- A failed coup by hardline communists in August 1991 weakened the
central government. On December 25, 1991, Gorbachev resigned, and the
USSR was formally dissolved, leading to the independence of its
constituent republics.

Communist China:

Rise and Falls(Not really tho)/Life:

- The conflict between the Chinese Nationalist Party (Kuomintang or KMT)
and the Communist Party of China (CPC) resumed after WWII, with the
communists ultimately emerging victorious.
- On October 1, 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the establishment of the
People's Republic of China (PRC), marking the end of the civil war.
- Early reforms included land redistribution to peasants and the
collectivization of agriculture, aimed at abolishing feudal structures and
increasing production.
- The Great Leap Forward (1958-1962) was an ambitious campaign to
rapidly industrialize and collectivize agriculture led to a catastrophic
famine, causing millions of deaths (~50-55 million).
- Mao launched the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) to reassert control and
preserve communist ideology, resulting in widespread persecution, social
upheaval, and economic disruption.
- After Mao's death, Deng Xiaoping initiated economic reforms in 1978,
shifting China from a planned economy to a market-oriented economy
under socialist principles.
- Policies included decollectivization of agriculture, the introduction of the
household responsibility system, establishment of Special Economic
Zones (SEZs), and opening up to foreign investment and trade.
- These reforms led to unprecedented economic growth, transforming
China into the world's second-largest economy.
- The Tiananmen Square Massacre (1989) in Beijing was an event where the
government violently suppressed pro-democracy protests, demonstrating
its commitment to maintaining strict political control despite economic
liberalization.
- The Communist Party of China (CPC) aka the Chinese Communist Party
(CCP) has maintained its monopoly on political power, emphasizing
stability, economic development, and national sovereignty.
- Xi Jinping has consolidated power, promoting an anti-corruption
campaign, and emphasizing the "Chinese Dream" of national
rejuvenation.
- Launched in 2013, the BRI (Belt and Road Initiative) aims to expand
China's global influence through infrastructure investments and economic
partnerships across Asia, Africa, and Europe.
- China has made significant strides in technology, including advancements
in AI, 5G, and space exploration.

Social Darwinism:
Origins:
- First originated in late 19th and early 20th by misinterpretations of Charles Darwin’s
Theory of Evolution
- Darwin’s theory, presented in "On the Origin of Species" (1859), posits that species evolve
over time through natural selection, where the fittest individuals are more likely to survive
and reproduce
- Although Darwin focused on biological evolution, his ideas were misapplied to social,
economic, and political contexts
- Thomas Malthus’ ideas on population growth and resource scarcity influenced social
Darwinist thought, emphasizing competition and struggle for survival
- The industrial revolution, with its rapid social and economic changes, created an
environment where such ideas found a receptive audience, particularly among those seeking
to justify the inequalities of the time
 Herbert spencer:
- Herbert Spencer was the creator of the concept “survival of the fittest.
- He believed that there needed to be competition in society so it could progress. The strong
in the society survive, meaning that they can do better things and progress society.
- This line of belief has had an influence on social darwinism and capitalism

Gaiton:
- He is the cousin of darwin
- Founder of eugenics(selective breeding of hummus)
- Is bad person

Beliefs:
- Social Darwinists believe that competition between individuals, groups, and nations leads to
the survival of the fittest, driving social progress and improvement
- This led to support for eugenics, aimed at improving the genetic quality of the human
population by selective breeding and sterilization of those deemed unfit
- Colonizers claimed they were bringing civilization and progress to “inferior” cultures,
framing their dominance as a moral duty

Uses of Social darwinism:

- Colonizers claimed they were bringing civilization and progress to “inferior” cultures,
framing their dominance as a moral duty similar to White Man’s Burden
- Social Darwinism was used to justify imperialism and colonial policies, suggesting that
stronger nations had a right to dominate weaker ones, perceived as a natural order
- Some examples include:
- White man's burden
- Jim crow laws
- Apartheid
- Holocaust
- British india
- Belgian congo
- Scramble for africa
- Advocates argued against government intervention in the economy, believing that
free-market competition would naturally weed out the weak and reward the strong and
opposed welfare programs as they argued that the money of superior will go to the inferior
 - Many countries, including the United States and Germany, implemented eugenics policies,
such as forced sterilizations and marriage restrictions, to prevent those considered unfit
from reproducing
- Social Darwinism was used to justify racial segregation and discriminatory laws, claiming
they reflected natural social orders
- The belief in the superiority of Western culture led to efforts to eradicate indigenous
cultures and impose Western norms and systems
- The Nazi regime in Germany adopted extreme forms of Social Darwinism, advocating for the
racial purity of the Aryan race and leading to the horrors of the Holocaust
- Hitler’s concept of Lebensraum (living space) was influenced by Social Darwinist ideas,
justifying the expansion of German territory at the expense of other nations

Fascism:
- Facism is a Far-Right ideology theorized by Benito Mussolini and first employed in Italy.
Its aim is to create a unified and strong nation, through methods of discipline such as
violence and control.

- Qualities:
- Desire for extreme nationalism between citizens of the state
- Low focus on human-rights and larger focus on the state
- Control over forms of communication such as news to spread propaganda and
suppress outrage
- Scapegoating was common in fascism where enemies/minorities were blamed.
- Glorification of violence to attain potential political objectives
- Brainwashing through control of education and censorship
- Advantages:
- Fascism promotes unity between its people and creates a strong sense of national
pride between them,
- A strong central fascist government can provide for their preferred people well and shelter
them

Disadvantages:
- Fascist governments actively discriminate against certain people and make it very tough for
them to live
- There is a single-party state that rules over all meaning that there is no competition and a
complete monopoly by the single-party allowing the dictator to do whatever they please
 - Any form of criticism of speak against the dictator/government is suppressed and there is no
freedom of speech, often done using censorship, imprisonment, violence, or attack against
reputation
- Democratic proceedings and institutions are removed
- Human rights are routinely violated and people against the fascist governments likings are
often arrested, tortured, forced into labor/concentration camps, punished, dissentered, or
flat out murdered/killed
- These form of governments are often expansionist and violent resulting in lots of
unnecessary wars being fought and initiated for the purpose of gaining land
- High military spending and strength is prioritized leading to less money being available for
the people and their own benefits
- People are indoctrinated from a young age using propaganda, schooling, and romanticization
of dictators resulting in a closed mind and preventing critical thinking
- The legal system is unfair and skewed to the interests of the fascist government
- Racism and Xenophobia/Discrimination
- Poor psychological impact with fear and paranoia of the minorities/people who are not
aligned with the fascist government along with long-term trauma by the people affected by
the fascist government persist over time

Historical Examples:

Fascist Italy:

Rise and Fall/Life:

- Benito Mussolini's National Fascist Party seized power in October 1922
through the "March on Rome," leading to Mussolini's appointment as
Prime Minister by King Victor Emmanuel III.
- Mussolini established a dictatorship, dismantling democratic
institutions and suppressing political opposition through censorship,
violence, and the establishment of the Fascist Grand Council.
- Mussolini's government passed the Acerbo Law in 1923, which ensured
a large majority of seats in parliament for the party with the most
votes, effectively guaranteeing Fascist dominance.
- Mussolini centralized power, establishing a totalitarian state with
control over all aspects of society, including the economy, media, and
education.
 - Mussolini implemented corporatist policies, organizing society into
syndicates representing various sectors, while maintaining state
control.
- Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935, seeking to expand its colonial empire
and promote fascist nationalism.
- Italy formed an alliance with Nazi Germany through the Rome-Berlin
Axis, laying the groundwork for further aggression and World War II.
- Italy entered World War II in 1940 as a member of the Axis powers,
but suffered significant defeats, particularly in North Africa and
Greece.
- The Allies invaded Italy in 1943, leading to Mussolini's fall from power
and the establishment of a puppet government in Northern Italy under
German control.
- With the fall of Nazi Germany in 1945, fascist rule in Italy collapsed.
Mussolini was captured and executed by Italian partisans, and Italy
declared war on Germany, leading to the end of WWII in Europe.

Nazi Germany:

Rise and Fall:

- Adolf Hitler, leader of the National Socialist German Workers' Party
(Nazi Party), was appointed Chancellor of Germany by President Paul
von Hindenburg on January 30, 1933.
- Following the Reichstag fire on February 27, 1933, Hitler used the event
to push through the Reichstag Fire Decree, suspending civil liberties
and enabling the arrest of political opponents.
- The Reichstag passed the Enabling Act in March 1933, granting Hitler
dictatorial powers and effectively dismantling democracy.
- In June 1934, Hitler ordered the purge of potential political rivals
within the Nazi Party and the SA (Sturmabteilung), solidifying his
control over the party and the state.
- Hitler implemented the process of Gleichschaltung, or coordination, to
bring all aspects of German society under Nazi control, including the
economy, media, education, and culture.
- The Nuremberg Laws of 1935 codified racial discrimination against
Jews, stripping them of citizenship and depriving them of civil rights.
- Nazi Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, triggering World
War II.
- Germany swiftly conquered much of Europe using Blitzkrieg (lightning
war) tactics, including the invasion of France, the Low Countries, and
the Balkans.
- The systematic genocide of six million Jews, along with millions of
others deemed undesirable by the Nazis, occurred during the
Holocaust, implemented through concentration camps and
extermination centers.
- Allied forces, including the Soviet Union, United States, Britain, and
others, launched offensives against Nazi Germany from multiple fronts,
leading to the collapse of the regime.
- Berlin fell to Soviet forces in April-May 1945, and Hitler committed
suicide in his bunker on April 30, 1945.
- Germany surrendered unconditionally on May 8, 1945 (V-E Day),
marking the end of World War II in Europe.

Humanism:
- Humanism holds that every individual has inherent dignity and worth, regardless of their
background, beliefs, or status.
- Humanists believe in the use of reason, critical thinking, and empirical evidence to
understand the world and solve problems.
- Humanism promotes living an ethical life based on human values and reason, often
summarized by the maxim "do no harm."
- It supports the idea that individuals should have the freedom to make their own choices
and pursue their own paths in life.
- Humanism advocates for a separation between religion and state, promoting a secular
approach to governance and public policy.
- Humanists place a high value on scientific research and the scientific method as the best
means to understand natural phenomena and advance human knowledge.
- The movement is strongly committed to human rights, equality, and social justice, seeking to
ensure fair treatment for all people.
- Humanism emphasizes the importance of education in developing an individual's potential and
fostering a well-rounded, informed, and compassionate citizenry.
- It stresses the importance of contributing to the welfare of others and working towards
the common good on both local and global scales.
 - Humanism values the arts and culture as expressions of human creativity and as a means to
understand the human condition and enrich our lives.

Applications:
- Humanism flourished during the Renaissance, particularly in Italy, where scholars like
Petrarch, Erasmus, and Pico della Mirandola revived classical learning and emphasized the
potential of human achievement.
- Renaissance humanism influenced art, literature, and education, leading to a focus on
individualism and secularism.
- Humanism flourished during the Renaissance, particularly in Italy, where scholars like
Petrarch, Erasmus, and Pico della Mirandola revived classical learning and emphasized the
potential of human achievement.
- Renaissance humanism influenced art, literature, and education, leading to a focus on
individualism and secularism.
- In Northern Europe, humanists such as Erasmus and Thomas More combined classical
learning with Christian values, advocating for educational and religious reform.
- Enlightenment thinkers like Voltaire, Diderot, and Rousseau were heavily influenced by
humanist principles, promoting reason, scientific inquiry, and individual rights.
- This period saw the development of political humanism, which emphasized democratic
governance and the separation of church and state.
- Humanism's emphasis on reason and empirical evidence contributed to the Scientific
Revolution, with figures like Galileo, Newton, and Kepler advancing scientific understanding.

Individualism:
Individualism is a philosophical and social concept that emphasizes the importance and value of
the individual. Here are a few key points about individualism:

- Individualism advocates for personal independence and the ability of individuals to make
their own choices and govern themselves.
- It highlights the uniqueness and distinctiveness of each person, encouraging the development
of one's own personality, talents, and beliefs.
- Individualism stresses the importance of individuals taking responsibility for their actions
and decisions, rather than relying on external authorities or societal norms.
- It supports the protection of individual freedoms and rights, including freedom of speech,
expression, and association.
 - Individualism celebrates personal achievement and success, often promoting the idea that
individuals can overcome obstacles and reach their goals through hard work and
determination.

Applications:
- Encourages individuals to pursue self-improvement, education, and personal growth,
fostering a sense of self-worth and accomplishment.
- Supports the creation and management of personal businesses, valuing innovation, creativity,
and the ability to take risks independently.
- Influences democratic governance, advocating for individual rights and liberties, such as
freedom of speech, voting rights, and civil liberties.
- Promotes artistic expression and the creation of unique works that reflect personal vision
and individual experiences, contributing to cultural diversity.
- Shapes legal systems that protect individual rights and property, emphasizing personal
accountability and justice based on individual actions and merits.

Existentialism:

Core Beliefs:
- Individual Existence
- Freedom
- Expansion of Living
- Value

“Existence exceeds essence”

-Saarte

Existentialism is a philosophical movement that emphasizes individual freedom, choice, and the
inherent meaninglessness of life, which requires individuals to create their own meaning and purpose.
Originating in the 19th and 20th centuries, prominent existentialist thinkers include Søren
Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Simone de Beauvoir. Existentialists
believe that humans are defined by their actions and decisions, asserting that existence precedes
essence—meaning that one's identity and values are not predetermined but are instead shaped
through lived experience. This philosophy often explores themes of anxiety, absurdity, alienation,
and authenticity as individuals confront the challenges of existence in an indifferent or hostile
universe. Ultimately, existentialism calls for personal responsibility and the courage to live
authentically despite the inherent uncertainties and complexities of life.
Kirekegaard:
- “Life must be understood backward, but must be lived forward.”
- His focus on personal choice and experience
- He believed that this would decide your existence
- Authenticity vs. Anxiety -> Passion
- Identity is cruicial for existence -> Anxiety
- Authenticity is a resolution to anxiety through commitment to their passion
- Christian Theology -> Believed that the Christian identity was the true identity and that
God’s will should be true passion
- Metamorphosis

Saarte:
- Also believes in anxiety
- Without freedom, there is anxiety and lack of authenticity
- Athiest and Secular; everything happens due to your actions
- More systematic

Metamorphosis:
- Franz Kafka

"Metamorphosis" by Franz Kafka tells the story of Gregor Samsa, a traveling salesman who wakes
up one morning to find himself transformed into a giant insect. Struggling to adapt to his new
condition, Gregor becomes isolated from his family, who are horrified by his appearance and
gradually distance themselves from him. As Gregor's ability to communicate and function
diminishes, his family's resentment grows, and they begin to see him as a burden. Eventually, the
family's tolerance wanes, leading to Gregor's demise and subsequent removal from their lives. The
story explores themes of alienation, identity, and the absurdity of human existence.

Isolation:
- Gregor alone in room all day
- People distance themselves away
- Even though society is distancing itself, he is still putting an effort to fit in

Identity:
- Immediately after his transformation, he struggled to kaccept his identity with societal
rejection and his inability to fit in with everyone else
Existentialist Beliefs:
- Find meaning and purpose in life; question of identity

Connections:
- Gregor Samsa's transformation into an insect embodies the existentialist theme of life's
absurdity and unpredictability.
- Gregor's physical and emotional separation from his family and society illustrates the
existentialist idea of alienation.
- The story explores Gregor's struggle with his new identity and the loss of his previous self,
reflecting existential concerns with finding authenticity.
- Gregor's plight highlights the existentialist notion of an indifferent or hostile universe
where individuals must create their own meaning.
- Gregor's experience underscores the existentialist belief in the importance of personal
responsibility and the challenge of living authentically despite adverse conditions.

Human Struggle:
- Apathy

The story is a critic of societal norms and highlights non-acceptance, dehumaniation, etc.

Unit 4: Nationalist Movements

Indian Struggle for Independence:

Non-Cooperation Movement:

Causes:
- The Rowlatt Act (1919) allowed the British government to imprison any person
that they pleased without a fair trial
- This enraged many Indians as it was repressive legislation that suppressed their
voice while empowering the ability to oppress by the British
- Khilafat Movement by Indian Movement protested against the breakup of the
Ottoman Empire
- The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919) also known as the Amritsar Massacre
occurred when General Dyer ordered open fire on peaceful protesters of the
Rowlatt Act in Amritsar resulting in many wounded/dead
- Post-World War I, there was poor economic conditions and widespread poverty
and famine sparking revolution and change

Key Events/Effects:
- British goods were boycotted and “swadeshi” or indigenous goods were
promoted by Gandhi and other freedom fighters
- There was mass participation from all kinds of groups including all religions like
Muslim and Hindu
- Gandhi preached non-violence during this time and attempted to make sure
that there was peaceful resistance rather than violent resistance
- Taxes were not paid in protest and many people left their jobs to reduce the
labor and supply of the British Empire and East India Company
- Thousands, including Gandhi himself, were arrested
- The movement ended on February 12, 1922, with the Chauri Chaura Incident
where police attacking protesters protesting against a meat tax lead to the
protesters burning down the police station, killing and burning alive 22 police
officers
- This lead to Gandhi calling off the movement as the violence had gotten worse

Civil Disobedience Movement:

Causes:
- The Salt Tax was a major reason for the beginning of the Civil Disobedience
Movement in 1930, as basic goods like salt were under British Monopoly and
Indians were not allowed to farm or collect the salt themselves
- Poorna Swaraj (1929) declaration by the Indian National Congress (INC) which
means complete independence also helped kick-start the new movement
- Simon Commission (1927) in the British Parliament refused Indian participation
creating frustration as representation was refused

Key Events/Effects:
- The Dandi Salt March (1930) was the major event that took place as Gandhi and
followers marched 387 kilometers over 24 days to Dandi where they committed
their first form of civil disobedience
- Gandhi picked up salt in Dandi signifying that he was willing to break the
British law against salt in India
- There was mass defiance of British salt laws
- There was continued refusal of paying taxes to the British
- The movement, although more successful than the Non-Cooperation
Movement, largely ended with uncertainty and failure for their desire of
“poorna swaraj” or complete independence
- Gandhi and other freedom fighters were mass arrested as political prisoners by
the British
- There were Round Table Conferences between India and the British Parliament,
although were mostly inconclusive at best
- The Government of India Act (1935) was passed by the Indian National Congress
where India was given provincial freedom, however not independence
- With many of their leaders in jail, and India finally receiving some freedom,
there was renewed political awareness, consciousness, and participation among
the Indian people fighting for Independence and beyond

Quit India Movement:

Causes:
- Failure of Cripps Mission (1942) was the failure of the British to provide the
Dominion state to India which again enraged Indians
- The British participated in and wanted Indian soldiers for World War II without
consulting the Indian government and leaders
- People saw the leaders in jail and started gaining national pride resulting in
demands and impatience for immediate independence and willing to battle

Key Events/Effects:
- Gandhi announced his “Do or Die” call for immediate and uncompromising
struggle for independence
- There were mass protests for independence with widespread strikes,
demonstration, and civil disobedience resulting in thousands of arrests and
suppression
- Underground networks were made to continue fighting for their independence
- Lots of crackdowns and repressions with British creating violence
- Major leaders including Gandhi, Nehru, and Patel were arrested
- People were getting disillusioned with British promises and policies and there
was growing support for increase/total independence
- World War II overseas resulted in a weakened economically and socially Britain
and also increased international pressure to decolonize
- Creation of the United Nations and NATO also increased pressure for Britain to
finally remove its colonizing roots

Partition and Independence (1947):

Causes:
- British finally agreed to give India full independence
- There were rising tensions between Hindus and Muslims in India and these
were exacerbated by the British policies of Divide and Rule
- The AIML (All India Muslim League) led by Mohammed Ali Jinnah demanded for
an independent state away from India for Muslims, now known as Pakistan
- British was much weaker post WWII and was facing international pressure to
grant independence

Key Events/Effects:
- Mountbatten Plan was created that hastily rushed Louis Mountbatten to the
British Raj to negotiate with the INC and AIML due to internal pressure and
international context
- India wanted a secular democracy while Pakistan seeked an Islamic State
- The British wanted to simply grant India independence and leave as fast as
possible, but upon arriving in India, Mountbatten realized that India could not
be partitioned without multiple different nations due to religion and other
disagreements
- Communal violence for which nation communities were to belong to resulted in
mass violence and loss of life
- One of the largest mass migration movements happened throughout history
with millions crossing into the land that they wanted to reside in post-partition
- The Princely States (Hyderabad, Junagadh, and Jammu & Kashmir), Bengal, and
Punjab were often debated on which country that they belong to
- Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel was somewhat responsible for India gaining the
Princely States
- India and Pakistan were divided among the Radcliffe Line
- Pakistan and India gained independence on August 14 & 15, 1947 respectively

Bonus- Leaders Views on Division:

- Mahatma Gandhi vehemently opposed any kind of partition. He envisioned a
United India where Hindus and Muslims could live in peace. This was derived
from his beliefs that partition leads to violence which contradicted his belief of
Ahimsa. He finally accepted the partition when it happened, but continued to
advocate for communal harmony until his assassination in January 1948
- Jawaharlal Nehru initially believed in a united India similar to Gandhi, but over
time, he realized that the advocacy by the Muslim League made partition
unavoidable. Nehru also played a large part in bringing princely states to India
and political landscape post-independence with being the first prime minister
of India
- Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel also initially was against partition, he quickly realized
that it was necessary in preventing further communal violence. He was also
instrumental in integrating princely states into India with both diplomacy and
force when necessary
- Mohammed Ali Jinnah believed in the “two-state theory” of division. He believed
that Hindus and Muslims should be separated with their own customs, culture,
beliefs, and tradition. His persistent demand for an Islamic State was one of the
 key factors in driving the partition forward. He became the Governor-General
of Pakistan and is known as the “Father of the Nation” for Pakistan
- As the last Viceroy of India, Lord Mountbatten oversaw the Partition and was the
one deciding how to make it work. He moved back and advanced the British
withdrawal to August 1947 instead of January 1948 as he believed it would reduce
the chance of an all-out civil war. He appointed Sir Cyril Radcliffe head of the
Border Commission to draw the borders of the countries. His approach to
dividing India was the approach that would result in the most seamless, least
violent, and easiest exit for Britain. This is why he supported the two dominion
plan of India and Pakistan. Representatives from all of the divided states voiced
their opinions in front of the Boundary Council to help decide how India was
planned to be divided.

Kenyan Freedom Struggle:

Causes:

1. Land Alienation

- The British colonial administration seized large tracts of fertile land from the
native population, redistributing it to European settlers. This left many Kenyans
landless or confined to less fertile areas.
- Loss of land led to economic hardships, as traditional agricultural practices
were disrupted, and many Kenyans were forced into low-wage labor on settler
farms or in urban areas.

2. Economic Exploitation

- The colonial administration implemented forced labor policies, where Africans

were compelled to work on European-owned plantations and infrastructure
projects.
- Heavy taxation and the introduction of cash crops disrupted traditional
economies and further impoverished the African population.

3. Political Oppression
- Africans were largely excluded from meaningful political participation. The
Legislative Council (LegCo) had minimal African representation, leading to
disenfranchisement.
- Laws such as the Kipande system required Africans to carry identification
documents, which controlled their movement and employment.

4. Cultural Suppression

- Christian missionaries often undermined traditional African cultures and

religions, leading to a sense of cultural alienation.
- Limited access to quality education for Africans restricted their social mobility
and reinforced colonial dominance.

5. Rise of Nationalism

- Post-World War II decolonization movements around the world inspired Kenyan

nationalists.
- The formation of organizations like the Kenya African Union (KAU) in 1944
provided a platform for political mobilization and the articulation of nationalist
sentiments.

Key Events:

Mau Mau Rebellion:

1. Formation of the Mau Mau Movement (Early 1950s)

- The Mau Mau was a secret guerrilla movement primarily composed of the
Kikuyu ethnic group, though it included members from other groups.
- The movement used oaths and rituals to bind members to the cause and ensure
loyalty.

2. Mau Mau Uprising (1952-1960)

- The British declared a state of emergency in October 1952 in response to
escalating violence and insurgency activities.
- Mau Mau Mau fighters used guerrilla tactics, attacking colonial installations,
settler farms, and loyalist Africans.

Post Rebellion:
3. British Response

- The British launched extensive military operations to suppress the Mau Mau,
involving both British and African troops.
- Thousands of suspected Mau Mau sympathizers were detained in camps where
they faced harsh conditions and torture.
- A major operation in Nairobi to round up Mau Mau supporters, resulting in
mass arrests.

4. Capture of Mau Mau Leaders

- The capture and execution of key leaders like Dedan Kimathi in 1956 dealt a
significant blow to the movement.

Effects:

1. Human Cost

- The conflict resulted in the deaths of tens of thousands of Kenyans, including

both Mau Mau fighters and civilians. Estimates suggest that around 11,000 Mau
Mau fighters were killed, along with numerous civilians.
- Many people were displaced due to the conflict, with numerous villages
destroyed and people forcibly relocated.

2. Political Impact

- The struggle galvanized nationalist sentiments across Kenya, uniting various

ethnic groups in the quest for independence.
- Organizations such as the Kenya African National Union (KANU), founded in
1960, emerged as leading political forces advocating for independence.

3. Path to Independence

- The British initiated constitutional reforms in the late 1950s, leading to

increased African representation in government.
- Lancaster House Conferences (1960-1962) led to and included negotiations in
London involving Kenyan leaders and British officials laid the groundwork for
independence.
- Kenya gained independence on December 12, 1963, with Jomo Kenyatta, a former
detainee, becoming the first Prime Minister and later the first President of
Kenya.

4. Legacy of Violence and Reconciliation

- The brutal methods used during the conflict left deep scars in Kenyan society,
with lasting impacts on communities and individuals.
- In later years, efforts were made to address historical injustices, including
apologies and compensation from the British government.

The Kenyan freedom struggle, marked by the Mau Mau Uprising, was a significant
chapter in the broader decolonization movement across Africa. It highlighted
the lengths to which colonized people would go to reclaim their land, rights, and
dignity, and it ultimately paved the way for Kenya's independence.

Black Nationalism and Civil Rights Movement:

Black nationalism during the Civil Rights Movement was a movement advocating
for the empowerment, liberation, and self-determination of Black Americans. It
emphasized racial pride, cultural heritage, and autonomy from white-dominated
institutions. Leaders like Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam promoted separatism
and self-defense in response to systemic racism and violence. The Black Power
movement, influenced by black nationalist ideology, emerged as a radical extension
 of the Civil Rights Movement, advocating for political and economic empowerment
through community organizing and solidarity. While diverse in its approaches,
black nationalism played a significant role in challenging white supremacy and
reshaping the discourse on race and identity in America.

People:
Malcom X:

- Malcolm X became a highly influential figure within the Nation of Islam (NOI) in
the 1950s. The NOI blended Islamic principles with Black nationalism,
advocating for a separate Black nation and criticizing white America.
- Malcolm X was known for his powerful and often confrontational speeches. He
condemned white racism and called for Black self-defense. While some found
his message empowering, others found it divisive.
- He emphasized Black cultural pride and self-reliance. He believed Blacks should
build their own economic and social institutions, independent of white control.
- Throughout this, Malcolm X visited many African nations. His reasons for doing
this were:
- Witnessing independent African nations and people of color in positions of
power was a stark contrast to the racism he faced in America. It boosted his
belief in Black self-determination.
- Meeting with African leaders like Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana and Gamal Abdel
Nasser of Egypt exposed him to Pan-Africanism, the idea of continental unity
and solidarity among Africans and their descendants worldwide.
- Being treated as an equal, not based on skin color, challenged his earlier views
of racial separatism. He began emphasizing shared humanity and a broader
coalition for justice.

Martin Luther King Jr.

- Martin Luther King Jr. was a prominent leader in the American Civil Rights
Movement, advocating for racial equality, justice, and nonviolent protest.
 - King emphasized the principles of nonviolent resistance, drawing inspiration
from Mahatma Gandhi's teachings, and led successful campaigns against
segregation and discrimination.
- While recognizing the frustrations of African Americans, King opposed black
nationalism's separatist tendencies, advocating instead for integration and unity
among all races.
- King believed in the power of love, understanding, and integration to overcome
racial divisions, famously stating, "I have a dream that my four little children will
one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin
but by the content of their character."
- Despite his opposition to black nationalism, King's legacy as a unifying figure in
the struggle for civil rights continues to inspire movements for racial equality
and social justice.
- He delivered iconic speeches such as "I Have a Dream" during the March on
Washington in 1963, inspiring millions with his vision of a racially harmonious
society.
- Tragically, King was assassinated in 1968, but his legacy lives on as an enduring
symbol of the fight for civil rights and social justice worldwide.

Movement, Organizations, Minor People:

Black Power Movement:

- The Black Power movement emerged in the mid-1960s as a response to the

ongoing struggles for civil rights and racial equality faced by African Americans.
It sought to address systemic racism, economic inequality, and political
disenfranchisement.
- Stokely Carmichael (Kwame Ture) coined the term "Black Power" in 1966,
advocating for black pride, self-defense, and community control.
- Malcolm X was an influential figure from the Nation of Islam who emphasized
black self-determination and armed self-defense.
- Philip Randolph was a key figure in the Civil Rights Movement, his emphasis on
economic empowerment through labor rights influenced the Black Power
movement's focus on economic self-sufficiency. He pressured president
Franklin Delano Roosvelt to illegalize discrimination and legalize black voting.
- Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) was initially focused on
nonviolent protest, SNCC shifted towards black nationalism and community
organizing under the leadership of figures like Stokely Carmichael.
- Black Panther Party was formed in 1966 by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale, the
Panthers advocated for armed self-defense, community programs, and black
empowerment.
- Congress of Racial Equality (CoRE) was initially a nonviolent civil rights
organization, CoRE shifted towards more militant tactics in the late 1960s,
advocating for black empowerment and economic justice.
- Richard Wright was the author of "Native Son", “Black Power,” and "Black Boy,"
Wright's writings explored the experiences of African Americans and influenced
the intellectual foundations of the Black Power movement.
- Amiri Baraka (LeRoi Jones) was a playwright, poet, and activist, Baraka's works,
such as "Blues People" and "Black Arts," contributed to the cultural and
ideological landscape of the Black Power movement.
- The Black Power movement shifted the focus of the Civil Rights Movement
towards issues of identity, self-determination, and systemic change.
- Despite its relatively short-lived peak in the late 1960s and early 1970s, the Black
Power movement left a lasting legacy, inspiring future generations of activists
and shaping discussions on race, identity, and power in America.