INDIAN TRADITIONS, CULTURAL AND SOCIETY

(KNC-602)

Module 3- Indian Religion, Philosophy, and Practices

Syllabus:

 Pre-Vedic and Vedic Religion, Buddhism, Jainism, Six System Indian

Philosophy, Shankaracharya, Various Philosophical Doctrines , Other Heterodox
Sects, Bhakti Movement, Sufi movement, Socio religious reform movement of
19th century, Modern religious practices.

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Pre-Vedic and Vedic Religion:

Pre-Vedic Religion:

 Pre-Vedic religion refers to the religious beliefs and practices that existed in the Indian
subcontinent prior to the composition of the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism.
 While archaeological and anthropological evidence sheds some light on these early
religious practices, much of our understanding comes from the Vedas themselves, which
occasionally reference pre-Vedic deities and rituals.
 Pre-Vedic religion was characterized by animism and nature worship, where natural
phenomena such as the sun, moon, rivers, trees, and animals were revered as divine
entities.
 This animistic worldview is evident in the hymns of the Rigveda, the oldest Vedic text,
which contain references to various deities (दे वता) associated with nature and celestial
bodies.

Some of the prominent deities of pre-Vedic religion include:

1. Indra: Often depicted as the king of gods and the god of thunder and rain, Indra was
revered for his ability to wield the thunderbolt (vajra) and control the forces of nature.

2. Agni: As the god of fire, Agni played a central role in Vedic rituals, serving as the
intermediary between humans and the gods. Fire sacrifices (yajnas) were performed to
appease Agni and ensure prosperity and protection.
 3. Varuna: Varuna was the guardian of cosmic order (rita) and the overseer of moral law
(dharma). He was invoked for forgiveness and mercy, as well as for protection against
evil forces and dishonesty.

4. Surya: The solar deity, Surya, symbolized light, warmth, and vitality. Prayers were
offered to Surya for health, prosperity, and enlightenment.

These deities were often associated with specific natural phenomena and invoked through rituals
and hymns to ensure fertility, abundance, and well-being in the community.

Vedic Religion:

 The transition from pre-Vedic to Vedic religion coincided with the composition of the
Vedas, which are divided into four main texts: Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and
Atharvaveda.
 These texts contain hymns, rituals, prayers, and philosophical insights that form the
foundation of Hinduism.
 Vedic religion was characterized by the performance of elaborate rituals and sacrifices
(yajnas) conducted by priests known as Brahmins.
 These rituals were seen as a means of establishing communication with the gods, seeking
their blessings, and maintaining cosmic order (rita).
 Central to Vedic religion was the concept of dharma, which encompassed moral duty,
righteousness, and cosmic law.
 Dharma guided individual conduct and social order, emphasizing virtues such as honesty,
generosity, and respect for authority.

The pantheon of Vedic gods expanded to include new deities alongside those of pre-Vedic
origin. Some of the major gods and goddesses of the Vedas include:

1. Agni: The continued importance of Agni as the god of fire and sacrifice persisted into the
Vedic period, with rituals dedicated to him forming the core of Vedic worship.

2. Indra: While still revered as a powerful deity, Indra's prominence declined over time as
other gods rose to prominence.

3. Varuna: Varuna retained his role as the upholder of cosmic order and moral law, although
his significance diminished in later Hinduism.

4. Vishnu: Vishnu emerged as a prominent deity in the later Vedic texts, associated with
preservation, protection, and cosmic harmony.

5. Rudra: Rudra, originally a minor deity associated with storms and destruction, gained
importance as a fierce and benevolent god with healing powers.
  The Vedic texts also introduced the concept of karma, the law of cause and effect
governing the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara).
 Through righteous actions and devotion to the gods, individuals sought to accumulate
good karma and progress spiritually towards liberation (moksha).
 In summary, pre-Vedic and Vedic religion laid the foundation for Hinduism, shaping its
rituals, beliefs, and philosophical outlook.
 While pre-Vedic religion emphasized nature worship and animistic traditions, Vedic
religion introduced complex rituals, ethical principles, and a pantheon of gods that
continue to influence Hindu practices and spirituality to this day.

Buddhism

Founder and Origins:

 Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama, who later became known as the
Buddha, which means "the awakened one" or "the enlightened one."
 Siddhartha Gautama was born into a royal family in present-day Nepal around the 6th
century BCE. At the age of 29, he renounced his princely lifestyle and set out on a
spiritual quest to seek the truth about existence, human suffering, and the nature of
reality.

Core Teachings:

The fundamental teachings of Buddhism revolve around the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold
Path:

a. Four Noble Truths:

i. The truth of suffering (Dukkha): Life is characterized by suffering, dissatisfaction, and

impermanence.

ii. The truth of the cause of suffering (Samudaya): The root cause of suffering is craving (tanha)
and attachment to worldly desires.

iii. The truth of the cessation of suffering (Nirodha): Liberation from suffering is attainable by
eliminating craving and attachment.

iv. The truth of the path to the cessation of suffering (Magga): The Eightfold Path leads to the
cessation of suffering and the attainment of Nirvana.

b. Eightfold Path:

i. Right understanding
ii. Right intention

iii. Right speech

iv. Right action

v. Right livelihood

vi. Right effort

vii. Right mindfulness

viii. Right concentration

The Eightfold Path provides a comprehensive framework for ethical conduct, mental discipline,
and spiritual development, leading to the cessation of suffering and the realization of
enlightenment.

Key Concepts:

a. Impermanence (Anicca): Buddhism teaches that all phenomena, including life itself, are
impermanent and subject to change. Understanding and accepting impermanence is essential for
overcoming suffering.

b. Karma: The law of karma states that our actions have consequences, shaping our present
circumstances and future experiences. Positive actions lead to positive outcomes, while negative
actions result in suffering and negative consequences.

c. Samsara: Samsara refers to the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, governed by karma.
Buddhists seek to break free from the cycle of samsara by attaining enlightenment and achieving
liberation (Nirvana).

Branches of Buddhism:

Buddhism has evolved into various schools and traditions, the three major branches being:

a. Theravada: Also known as the "Teaching of the Elders," Theravada emphasizes the original
teachings of the Buddha preserved in the Pali Canon. It is prevalent in Sri Lanka, Thailand,
Myanmar, Laos, and Cambodia.

b. Mahayana: Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes compassion and the pursuit of enlightenment not
only for oneself but also for the benefit of all sentient beings. It includes schools like Zen, Pure
Land, and Tibetan Buddhism.
c. Vajrayana: Vajrayana, also known as Tantric or Esoteric Buddhism, emphasizes the use of
rituals, visualization, and meditation techniques to attain enlightenment quickly. It is prevalent in
Tibet, Bhutan, and parts of Nepal and India.

Each branch of Buddhism has its own unique philosophical interpretations, meditation practices,
and cultural expressions, catering to the diverse needs and aspirations of Buddhist practitioners.

Jainism:

 Founder and Origins: Jainism was founded by Mahavira in the 6th century BCE.
He is also known as the Jain Tirthankara.

 Mahavira spent his life in austerity, meditation, and self-study, inspiring people to
attain a life of purity.

Key Principles:

 Non-violence (Ahimsa): Jainism considers non-violence as a fundamental

principle, signifying the absence of harm towards any living being.

 Truthfulness (Satya): In Jain doctrine, truthfulness is another essential principle

that encourages seekers to realize factual truths through self-experience and
knowledge.

 Non-possession (Aparigraha): This Jain principle advocates for maintaining

restraint and contentment regarding one's material necessities, leading to self-
control and inner peace.

Three Jewels (Triratna):

 Right Faith: Attaining right faith is considered crucial in Jainism, which involves
belief in God, Dharma (the teachings), and the Guru (spiritual guide).

 Right Knowledge: Jainism inspires every seeker to strive for right knowledge,
motivating them to learn about factual truths.

 Right Conduct: According to right conduct, Jain practitioners should strive for
adherence to non-violence, truthfulness, and non-possession.
Branches:

 Digambara: This branch is identified by the Digambara's distinctive attire and

practice of nudity. Followers of this branch embrace nudity and natural simplicity.

 Svetambara: This branch is recognized by the wearing of white garments and

engaging with a broader range of scriptures. They study specific Sanskrit texts.

 Jainism's unique focus on non-violence, truthfulness, and non-possession

contributes to the individual's spiritual growth and ethical living, fostering a
harmonious society.

Six Systems of Indian Philosophy (Shad-Darshanas):

1. Nyaya: Nyaya, which means "logic" or "reasoning," is a system that focuses on logic,
epistemology, and the analysis of knowledge. It seeks to establish valid means of
acquiring knowledge (pramana) and examines different types of inference (anumana) to
understand reality.

2. Vaisheshika: Vaisheshika is a system that delves into metaphysics and atomism. It

classifies all existence into six categories (padarthas) and asserts that the universe is
composed of atoms (paramanu) and their combinations. Vaisheshika also discusses the
nature of reality and the concept of causality.

3. Samkhya: Samkhya is a dualistic system that analyzes the fundamental elements of

existence. It posits the existence of two eternal principles: purusha (consciousness) and
prakriti (matter). Samkhya philosophy aims to achieve liberation by discerning the
difference between purusha and prakriti through self-realization.

4. Yoga: Yoga is a practical and spiritual system that focuses on physical and mental
disciplines to attain spiritual enlightenment. It encompasses various practices such as
meditation, breath control (pranayama), ethical principles (yamas and niyamas), and
physical postures (asanas) to achieve union with the divine.

5. Mimamsa: Mimamsa, also known as Purva Mimamsa, is a system that examines the
nature of dharma (duty) and ritualistic practices prescribed in the Vedas. It emphasizes
the importance of rituals and proper interpretation of Vedic texts to uphold social order
and fulfill individual duties.

6. Vedanta: Vedanta, which means "end of the Vedas," is a philosophical system based on
the Upanishads, the concluding part of the Vedas. It explores the nature of ultimate
reality (Brahman) and the individual self (Atman), asserting their essential unity
 (Advaita) or distinction (Dvaita). Vedanta also discusses the paths to spiritual realization,
including knowledge (Jnana), devotion (Bhakti), and selfless action (Karma).

Each of these systems offers unique perspectives on the nature of existence, consciousness, and
liberation, contributing to the rich tapestry of Indian philosophical thought.

Shankaracharya
  Adi Shankaracharya, also known as Shankara or Shankaracharya, was a highly influential
figure in Indian philosophy and spirituality during the 8th century CE.
 He is widely regarded as one of the greatest philosophers and theologians in Hinduism.
 Shankaracharya is particularly renowned for his role in revitalizing and systematizing
Advaita Vedanta, a school of thought within Hindu philosophy that emphasizes the non-
dual nature of reality.
 According to Advaita Vedanta, Brahman (the ultimate reality) is the only true existence,
and the world is an illusory manifestation of Brahman.
 One of Shankaracharya's most significant contributions was his commentary on the
ancient scriptures, including the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and Brahma Sutras.
 These commentaries are profound expositions of Advaita Vedanta, providing detailed
interpretations and insights into the nature of reality, consciousness, and the path to
spiritual liberation.
 Shankaracharya's teachings emphasized the importance of self-realization (Atmajnana)
and the recognition of one's true identity as the eternal, unchanging essence (Atman)
identical with Brahman. He traveled extensively across India, engaging in philosophical
debates and establishing monastic centers (Mathas) to propagate his teachings.
 His profound insights into Vedanta philosophy, coupled with his spiritual depth and
intellectual prowess, continue to inspire seekers on the path of self-discovery and
spiritual enlightenment.

Various Philosophical Doctrines in Indian Philosophy:

Indian philosophy is characterized by its rich diversity, with numerous schools of thought
offering different perspectives on fundamental questions about existence, consciousness, and the
purpose of life. Here are some of the key philosophical doctrines found within Indian
philosophical traditions:

1. Dualism (Dvaita): Dualistic philosophies posit the existence of two distinct and separate
entities, often contrasting concepts such as the material and spiritual realms, the
individual self (jiva) and the supreme reality (Brahman), or the creator (Ishvara) and the
created universe. In these systems, there is a clear distinction between the individual and
the divine, emphasizing devotion and surrender to a transcendent deity.

2. Monism (Advaita): Monistic philosophies advocate the ultimate unity and non-dual
nature of reality. According to these doctrines, there is only one ultimate reality, often
referred to as Brahman or the Absolute, and everything in the universe is an expression or
manifestation of this singular reality. Monism emphasizes the identity of the individual
self (Atman) with Brahman, asserting that liberation (moksha) is attained through self-
realization and the dissolution of dualistic distinctions.
 3. Pluralism (Anekantavada): Pluralistic philosophies acknowledge the multiplicity and
diversity of perspectives and truths. They emphasize the idea that reality is multifaceted
and cannot be fully grasped from any single viewpoint. Pluralism promotes tolerance,
open-mindedness, and the acceptance of diverse beliefs and interpretations.

4. Atheism (Nastika): Atheistic philosophies reject the existence of a supreme deity or

creator and instead focus on empirical observation, rational inquiry, and materialistic
explanations of the universe. These schools of thought often prioritize ethical conduct,
social justice, and humanistic values, without the need for belief in divine beings or
supernatural forces.

Each of these philosophical doctrines offers a distinct framework for understanding reality, the
self, and the ultimate goal of human life. While they may differ in their metaphysical
assumptions and epistemological methods, they collectively contribute to the rich tapestry of
Indian philosophical thought, reflecting the diversity and complexity of human experience and
inquiry.

Other Heterodox Sects:

In addition to Buddhism and Jainism, there existed several other heterodox sects and movements
in ancient India. These sects were termed as "heterodox" because they diverged from the
orthodox Vedic traditions prevalent during that time. Let's delve deeper into these:

1. Ajivikas: The Ajivikas were followers of the teachings of Makkhali Gosala, a

contemporary of Mahavira (the founder of Jainism). The Ajivikas believed in the concept
of determinism, asserting that everything in life is predestined and cannot be altered by
human will. They also practiced severe asceticism and believed in the transmigration of
souls.

2. Charvaka: Also known as Lokayata, Charvaka was a materialistic school of thought that
rejected the existence of the soul, afterlife, and karma. Charvakas believed only in the
material world and advocated hedonistic principles, emphasizing the pursuit of pleasure
as the sole purpose of life.

3. Ajñana: Ajñana was a skeptical school of thought that denied the validity of all
philosophical systems, including its own. Followers of Ajñana believed that ultimate
truth is unknowable and that all assertions about reality are mere conjecture. They
advocated skepticism and agnosticism.
 4. Atheistic Schools: Various atheistic schools emerged in ancient India, challenging the
concept of a supreme deity. These schools rejected the authority of the Vedas and
focused on empirical observation and rational inquiry to understand the nature of reality.
Some notable atheistic philosophers include Brihaspati and Jayarasi Bhatta.

These heterodox sects and movements offered alternative perspectives on spirituality, ethics, and
the nature of reality, enriching the intellectual landscape of ancient India. While some of these
schools have faded into obscurity over time, their ideas and contributions continue to inspire
philosophical inquiry and debate.

The Bhakti Movement:

The Bhakti movement, which flourished during medieval India, was a significant spiritual and
social phenomenon that arose in response to the rigidities of orthodox Hinduism and the socio-
religious climate influenced by Islam.

1. Historical Context: During the medieval period, India witnessed various socio-political
changes, including the establishment of Islamic rule in parts of the Indian subcontinent.
This led to a cultural exchange between Hinduism and Islam, contributing to the
emergence of the Bhakti movement.

2. Core Principles: Bhakti, meaning devotion or love, became the central theme of this
movement. Bhakti poets and saints emphasized the importance of establishing a personal
and loving relationship with the divine. They believed that through sincere devotion and
surrender to God (or one's chosen deity), individuals could attain spiritual liberation or
moksha.

3. Inclusivity: One of the remarkable aspects of the Bhakti movement was its inclusivity. It
cut across social barriers of caste, creed, and gender, attracting followers from all walks
of life. Bhakti saints and poets welcomed everyone, regardless of their social status, into
the fold of devotion, fostering a sense of equality and unity among the masses.

4. Literary and Artistic Contributions: The Bhakti movement had a profound impact on
Indian literature, music, and art. Bhakti poets composed devotional songs, hymns, and
verses in vernacular languages, making spiritual teachings accessible to the common
people. This led to the enrichment of regional languages and the development of vibrant
literary traditions.
 5. Impact: The Bhakti movement played a crucial role in democratizing spirituality and
empowering the masses. It challenged the hierarchical structure of traditional Hindu
society and provided a platform for marginalized groups to express their faith and
devotion openly. Additionally, it contributed to the syncretic culture of India, fostering
mutual respect and understanding between different religious communities.

Overall, the Bhakti movement was not merely a religious phenomenon but also a social and
cultural revolution that left an indelible mark on Indian society, shaping its ethos and values for
centuries to come.

The Sufi Movement:

 The Sufi Movement was a spiritual and religious movement that emerged in medieval
India, inspired by the personal and emotional experiences of Islamic followers.
 Sufi saints and spiritual masters embraced love and devotion towards God as the central
tenet, believing that through divine love, individuals could attain spiritual liberation and
self-realization.
 The Sufi Movement challenged social and religious conventions, broke down social
barriers, and promoted unity and harmony among people by emphasizing the
fundamental values of humanity.
 Sufi saints fostered understanding and collaboration between various religions, promoting
mutual respect, support, and interfaith dialogue.
 The primary objective of the Sufi Movement was to propagate and disseminate the
practice of devotion to attain God, enhance social and spiritual capabilities, and liberate
individuals from social and religious constraints.

Bhakti’ is a Sanskrit word that means ‘devotion.’ It was a movement that stressed a devotee’s
profound, strong connection and love for a specific deity and God’s love again for the believer.

Bhakti movement started in South India during the 7th to 10th centuries CE, primarily via the
poetry of Alvars and Nayanars. However, Bhakti quickly expanded to North India, with the
Bhagavata-Purana, a Sanskrit work from the tenth century, being the most famous example.
From the 15th century onwards, it raced across northeast India, peaking between some of the
15th through 17th centuries CE.
 What Is the Bhakti Movement?
According to some researchers, the Bhakti movement arose due to feudal tyranny and Rajput-
Brahmin dominance. However, another set of academics believes that the formation of this
movement was prompted by socio-economic shifts in the early Middle Ages.

These social classes supported the Bhakti movement because they were dissatisfied with the
lower social status bestowed upon them in the Hindu Brahmanical society. Therefore they
resorted to Bhakti since it emphasised equality.

Although there is no consensus on the origins of the Bhakti, there is agreement on the notion that
it was founded on justice and devotional submission to an individually imagined ultimate God.
The reasons for the Bhakti movement’s emergence.

1. Vaishnavism’s Impact
2. Hinduism’s abhorrent behaviours
3. Concerns about the expansion of Islam
4. Sufi sects’ impact
5. The rise of great reformers

Bhakti Movement Activists

The founder of the Bhakti movement, Ramananda, is thought to have flourished during the first
part of the fifteenth century.

 From the 16th century, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu had been an austere Hindu monastic and a social
activist.
 Guru Nanak would be the creator of Sikhism, the first Sikh Guru, and a Nirguna Bhakti Monk &
revolutionary activist. He was hostile to caste injustice, religious rituals, and rivalry.
 During the 12th and 14th centuries, Kabir Das was a member of the Bhakti movement. He
pushed on devoted chanting of hymns to the burden, which they composed themselves.

Characteristics of the Bhakti Movement

The Bhakti movement was launched on monotheistic ideas and opposed idol worship.

 The Bhakti revolutionaries proclaimed that redemption can only be obtained through utmost
dedication and belief in God and that they believed in breaking free from the process of decay.
 They emphasised the significance of self-surrender in gaining God’s happiness and compassion
and the role of Gurus as mentors and mentors.
 They promoted universal fraternity as a concept.
 Rituals, holy places, and rest periods were frowned upon. They were adamant in their opposition
to the lower castes, segregating individuals based on their ancestry.
 They also emphasised the importance of praising God with profound passion, and instead
of thinking of any language sacrosanct, they created lyrics in ordinary people’s chosen
languages.
 Ramanuja, Ramananda, Nimbarka, Kabir, Vallabhacharya, Nanak, and Sri Chaitanya
have been among the most prominent followers of this sect. They advocated the notion of
 love and admiration to come to terms with God. As a result, the movement became
recognised as the Bhakti Movement.

The Bhakti Movement Had a Significant Influence on People.

Religious ramifications

1. Hinduism in its purest form

2. Brahmins’ reputation was reduced.
3. Islam’s expansion was stifled;
4. Sikhism arose.
5. A Buddhist setback

Social repercussions

1. A better social relationship between Hindus and Muslims

2. Lower castes have a higher social position.
3. Community services marketing
4. Societal evolution of mixed art
5. Literature enhancement

The Sufi Movement

 Sufism is a mystical form of Islam, a school of practice that focuses on the spiritual
search for God and shuns materialism.
 There is a lot of emphasis on love and devotion towards God.
 There are many schools of Sufism all over the world and in India too.
 Most of them trace their lineage to early Islamic history, from the time of Prophet
Muhammad himself.

The term ‘Sufi’ is probably derived from the Arabic word ‘suf’ which means ‘one who wears
wool’. This is because woollen clothes were generally associated with ascetics. Another possible
origin of the word is ‘safa’ which means purity in Arabic. The other terms for the Sufi are Wali,
Faqir and Darwesh.

 Islam entered India in the 7th century CE in the form of merchants from Saudi Arabia
who traded with the western coastal regions of India.
 After that in the north, the religion entered Multan and Sind when the regions were
captured by Muhammad Bin Qasim in the 8th century CE.
 Sufism, however, gained prominence in the 10th and 11th centuries during the reign of
the Delhi Sultanate.
In India, Sufism adopted many native Indian concepts such as yogic postures, music and dance.
Sufism found adherents among both Muslims and Hindus.
There were two broad Sufi orders:

1. Bashara – Those who obeyed Islamic laws.

2. Beshara – Those who were more liberal.
 The Beshara was also called ‘mast kalandar’. They comprised wandering monks who
were also called Baba. They did not leave any written accounts.

 Sufism was a liberal reform movement within Islam.

 It had its origin in Persia and spread into India in the 11th century.
 Most of the Sufis (mystics) were persons of deep devotion who disliked the display of
wealth and degeneration of morals following the establishment of the Islamic empire.
 They laid great emphasis on love as the bond between God and the individual soul.
 Love of God meant love of humanity and therefore, Sufis believed service to humanity
was tantamount to service to God.
 In Sufism, self-discipline was considered an essential condition to gain knowledge of
God by a sense of perception.
 While the orthodox Muslims emphasise external conduct, the Sufis lay stress on inner
purity. The orthodox Muslims believe in the blind observance of rituals, the Sufis
consider love and devotion as the only means of attaining salvation.
 Sufism also laid stress on meditation, good actions, repentance for sins, prayers,
pilgrimage, fasting, charity and controlling of passion by ascetic practices.
 By the 12th century, the Sufis were organised in 12 orders or Silsilas.
 A Silsila was generally led by a prominent mystic who lived in a Khanqah or
hospice along with his disciples.
 The link between the teacher or pir or murshid and his disciples or murids was a vital part
of the Sufi system.
 Every pir nominated a successor or wali to carry on his work. Gradually, the Khanqahs
emerged as important centres of learning and preaching.
 Many Sufis enjoyed the sama or musical congregation in their Khanqahs. In fact,
qawwali developed during this period.
 The four most popular Silsilas were the Chistis, Suhrawardis, Qadririyas and
Naqshbandis.

Impact of Sufism
The liberal and unorthodox elements of Sufism had a profound impact on medieval Bhakti
saints. In the later period, the Sufi doctrines influenced the religious perspective of the rulers
along with reminding them of their moral obligations. For example, the Mughal Emperor,
Akbar’s religious outlook and religious policies were shaped a lot under Sufism.

1. Sufism influenced both rural and urban regions and had a deep political, cultural and
social influence on the masses. Spiritual bliss became the ultimate aim and the people
 could raise their voice against all forms of orthodoxy, falsehood, religious formalism and
hypocrisy. In a world torn by strife and conflict, the Sufis tried to bring peace and
harmony.
2. The most important contribution of Sufism is that it helped to develop a bond of
solidarity and brotherhood between Hindu and Muslim communities. The Sufi saints are
revered not only by Muslims but also by a huge number of Hindus and their tombs have
become a common place of pilgrimage for both communities.

Important Sufi Terms in India

 Sufi, Pir, Murshid – Saint

 Murid – Followers
 Khanqah – Place where Sufis lived, hospices
 Khalifa – Disciples
 Zikr – Recitation of God’s name
 Tauba – Repentance
 Fanaa – Spiritual merging with the Almighty
 Urs – Death
 Sama – Musical gathering

Socio-Religious Reform Movement of the 19th Century:

 During the 19th century, India witnessed several socio-religious reform movements
aimed at addressing various social, cultural, and religious issues prevalent in society.
 These movements emerged in response to the challenges posed by British colonial rule,
as well as internal factors such as caste-based discrimination, social inequalities, and
outdated religious practices.
 Some of the prominent reform movements of this period include:

1. Brahmo Samaj: Founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1828, the Brahmo Samaj
advocated for monotheism, rationality, and social reforms. It opposed idol worship, caste
 discrimination, and the rigid rituals of orthodox Hinduism. The movement played a
significant role in promoting education, women's rights, and social reforms in India.
2. Arya Samaj: Established by Swami Dayananda Saraswati in 1875, the Arya Samaj
aimed to revive Vedic teachings and promote social equality. It rejected idol worship,
caste system, and superstitious beliefs. The Arya Samaj emphasized the importance of
education, women's empowerment, and social service.
3. Prarthana Samaj: Founded in Bombay (Mumbai) in 1867 by Dr. Atmaram Pandurang,
the Prarthana Samaj focused on religious and social reforms within Hindu society. It
advocated for the worship of one God, women's education, and the abolition of child
marriage and untouchability.
4. Aligarh Movement: Led by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, the Aligarh Movement aimed at
modernizing Muslim society through education and social reforms. It established the
Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College (later Aligarh Muslim University) to provide
Western education to Muslims and promote religious tolerance.
5. Satyashodhak Samaj: Founded by Jyotirao Phule in Maharashtra in 1873, the
Satyashodhak Samaj advocated for social equality, caste abolition, and women's rights. It
challenged Brahminical dominance and worked towards the upliftment of marginalized
communities.

These reform movements contributed to the socio-cultural transformation of Indian society by

promoting progressive ideas, social equality, and religious tolerance.

Modern Religious Practices:

Modern religious practices in India encompass a wide range of rituals, ceremonies, and spiritual
activities influenced by traditional beliefs, as well as contemporary trends.

Some common modern religious practices observed in India include:

1. Temple Worship: Hindus visit temples to offer prayers, perform rituals, and seek
blessings from deities. Temples serve as centers of religious and social gatherings,
hosting festivals, and cultural events.
2. Mosque Attendance: Muslims gather in mosques for congregational prayers, especially
during Friday prayers (Jumu'ah). Mosques also serve as centers for religious education,
community events, and charitable activities.
3. Gurudwara Visits: Sikhs visit gurudwaras to participate in congregational prayers
(Satsang) and engage in community service (Seva). Langar, the community kitchen,
provides free meals to all visitors irrespective of their caste, creed, or social status.
4. Church Services: Christians attend church services for prayers, worship, and religious
teachings. Churches also host weddings, baptisms, and other sacraments, as well as
community outreach programs.
5. Yoga and Meditation: Yoga and meditation practices have gained popularity among
people of various religious backgrounds as a means of spiritual growth, stress relief, and
 physical well-being. Yoga centers and meditation retreats offer classes and workshops on
these practices.
6. Festivals and Celebrations: Indians celebrate a multitude of religious festivals and
cultural events throughout the year, including Diwali, Eid, Christmas, Holi, Durga Puja,
and Navratri. These festivals are marked by rituals, feasting, decorations, and social
gatherings, fostering communal harmony and unity.

These modern religious practices reflect the diversity and richness of India's religious heritage,
blending tradition with contemporary influences in the pursuit of spiritual fulfillment and
communal harmony.