LAB REPORT PRACTICAL NO:2

EXPERIMENT TITLE:INTROUCTION TO STATISTIC

NAME: THARAGA M

STUDENT NO:201737487

MODULE CODE:SPHB 031

YEAR :2022
ABSTRACT
In this experiment, we are going to examine our experimental results and predict the
expected theoretical value of data using various techniques of statistics. The graphs
Are drawn at the end of each result with the theoretical graphs as they will help us
In interpreting whether the results correspond with the theoretical results.
INTRODUCTION

Statistics is the scientific study of numerical data based on natural phenomena.

Statistics draw conclusions about very large groups of individuals (animate or
inanimate), when we can only study small groups of them. This means that the
sample of individuals being studied must be representative, in sufficient quantities,
and we must also state how confident we are that the representative studied group is
like the whole group. We are limited to studying a small number of individuals from a
large group (population) because of time, resources and practicality.

The usefulness of statistics is in the planning and execution i.e. experimental design.
By the time you are inputting your data into the computer, you have already made
most of the mistakes you are likely to make because chances are that a computer
will do all your calculations for you. We can count on the integrity and strong sense
of conscience of most scientists. This same attitude is needed to carry out an
appropriate statistical analysis.

The statistical technique used to analyse data must be valid and checks are made
on the data to discover whether a particular method can be applied validly. You
should familiarize yourself with what a test is actually testing and then check
‘limitations and assumptions’ associated with the usage of the statistical method,
before usage.

The type of statistical method that will be used to analyse data will depend on the
experimental design, therefore the specific questions that the experiment is intended
to answer must be clearly identified before carrying out the experiment. An attempt
should also be made to identify known or expected sources of variability in the
experimental units because one of the main aims of a designed experiment is to
reduce the effect of these sources of variability on the answers to questions of
interest.

Also statistics is the mathematical science that is concerned with the organisation,
collection, interpretation, analysis and presentation of data. Statistics can be applied
to the scientific, industrial or social problem which is thus conventional to start with a
statistical population or statistical model to be studied[1].
Population may be objects or group of people such as “all people living in a country”
or “every atom that is composed of crystals”. Statistics focuses on every aspect of
information that include the planning of data collection in terms of experiments and
survey designs[2].
Statistics collects data by implementing specific experiments designs and survey
samples, this is applied when census data cannot be collected. Representative
sampling ensures that conclusions and inferences can reasonably be extended from
the sample to the population as a whole. An experimental study includes
manipulation of the system under study and taking additional measurements using
the same procedure to determine if the manipulation has modified the values of the
measurements. An observation study does not involve experimental manipulation[4].
There are two main statistical methods that are used in data analysis which are
descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics summarizes data
from the sample of indexes such as the mean or standard deviation while inferential
statistics draw conclusion from data that are subjected to random variation[3].
The standard statistical procedure involves the collection of data leading to test of
relationship between two statistical data sets, or a data set and synthetic data drawn
from an idealized model. A hypothesis is proposed for the statistical relationship
between the two data sets, and this is compared as an alternative to an idealized null
hypothesis of no relationship between data sets. Rejecting or disproving the null

hypothesis is done using statistical tests that quantify the sense in which the null can
be proven false, given the data that are used in the test[5]

THEORY
The Gaussian or normal distribution is given by the following function:
DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION FORM MEAN STANDARD
DEVIATION
Gaussian f g (x )= A σ
2
1 −(n−a)
e
√2 σ 2 2 σ 2

If the number of events is very large, then the Gaussian distribution function may be
used to describe physical events. The Gaussian distribution is a continuous function
which approximates the exact binomial distribution of events.
The Gaussian distribution shown is normalized so that the sum over all values of x
gives a probability of 1. The nature of the Gaussian gives a probability of 0.683 of
being within one standard deviation of the mean. The mean value is a = np where n
is the number of events and p the probability of any integer value of x (this
expression carries over from the binomial distribution). The standard deviation
expression used is also that of the binomial distribution.
The Gaussian distribution is also commonly called the "normal distribution" and is
often described as a "bell-shaped curve".

Gaussian Distribution Function

In probability theory and statistics, the binomial distribution is the discrete probability
distribution of the number of successes in a sequence of n independent yes/no
experiments, each of which yields success with probability p. Such a success/failure
experiment is also called a Bernoulli experiment or Bernoulli trial; when n = 1, the
binomial distribution is a Bernoulli distribution. The binomial distribution is the basis
for the popular binomial test of statistical significance. The binomial distribution is
frequently used to model the number of successes in a sample of size n drawn with
replacement from a population of size N. If the sampling is carried out without
replacement, the draws are not independent and so the resulting distribution is a
hypergeometric distribution, not a binomial one. However, for N much larger than n,
the binomial distribution is a good approximation, and widely used.
If these conditions are met, then X has a binomial distribution with parameters n and
p, abbreviated B(n,p).
In probability theory and statistics, the Poisson distribution is a discrete probability
distribution that expresses the probability of a given number of events occurring in a
fixed interval of time and/or space if these events occur with a known average rate
and independently of the time since is the last event. The Poisson distribution can
also be used for the number of events in other specified intervals such as distance,
area or volume.
For instance, suppose someone typically gets 4 pieces of mail per day on average.
There will be, however, a certain spread, sometimes a little more, sometimes a little
less, once in a while nothing at all. Given only the average rate, for a certain period
of observation (pieces of mail per day, phone calls per hour, etc.), and assuming that
the process, or mix of processes, that produces the event flow is essentially random,
the Poisson distribution specifies how likely it is that the count will be 3, or 5, or 10,
or any other number, during one period of observation. That is, it predicts the degree
of spread around a known average rate of occurrence. The Derivation of the Poisson
distribution section shows the relation with a formal definition.
The Poisson Distribution is a discrete distribution which takes on the values X = 0, 1,
2, , ... . It is often used as a model for the number of events (such as the number of
telephone calls at a business or the number of accidents at an intersection) in a
specific time period. It is also useful in ecological studies, e.g., to model the number
of prairie dogs found in a square mile of prairie.
 k −λ
λ e
F(K, λ )=Pr(x=k)= ,
k!

APPARATUS

 20 COINS
 400 3-Digit number table


METHOD

20 coins were tossed and the number of the ones with heads and tails were
recorded. The coins were tossed for 15 times , each time number of heads and tails
were recorded . A table of 400 random 3-digit numbers was supplied. On each
number, the number with no seven were counted and recorded. Followed was the
numbers with one 7, then two 7 and three 7 and all summed up and recorded. The
number of sevens in each row of the 400 random 3-digit numbers table were
counted and recorded as experimental frequency.

RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS

Calculating the theoretical frequency

2
−(n−μ)
1 2σ
2

P N= e
√ 2 πσ 2
N=20 , P=q=0.5

N! n N−n 20 ! 6 20−6
P N ( n )= p q = P N ( 6 )= 0.5 0.5 ×15=¿0.55
n ! ( N−n ) ! 6 ! ( 20−6 ) !
20 ! 7 20−7
P(7)= ×0.5 0.5 ×15=¿
7 ! ( 20−7 ) !
#heads in 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 1 1 2 total
20 throw 8 9 0

frequenc 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 3 1 2 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15
y
Theoretic 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.5 1.1 1.8 2. 2. 2. 1. 11. 0.5 0.2 0.0 0.0 0 0 0 22.0
al 2 7 2 5 0 0 4 7 4 8 1 5 2 7 2 5
frequenc
y
# of heads versus experimental frequency graph:
 Table B.1
How many No “7” One “7” Two “7” Three “7” Sum
numbers
contain:
Experimental 295 94 11 0 400
frequency
Binomial 291.6 97.0 10.8 0.40 399.8
frequency

B1 GRAPH
B.2 CALCULATIONS OF PREDICTIONS.

GAUSSIAN PREDICTION
2
− ( n−μ )

P(n)=
1 2σ
2

e × 40
√2 σ 2

 P (0) =

 P (1) =

 P (2) =

 P (3) =

 P (4) =

 P (5) =

 P (6) =

 P (7) =

 P (8) =

 P (9) =

Poisson Distribution

N=30; p=0.1; q=0.9; λ =Np=3

k k
λ e
P(n)= × 40
k!
  P (0) = 1.99

 P (1) =

 P (2) =

 P (3) =

 P (4) =

 P (5) =

 P (6) =

 P (7) =

 P (8) =

 P (9) =

BINOMIAL PREDICTION

N! n N−n
P N= p q × 40
n ! ( N−n ) !

 P20(0) = x (0.1)0(0.9)30-0 x 40 = 1.69

 P20(1) = x (0.1)1(0.9)30-1 x 40 = 5.65

 P20(2) = x (0.1)2(0.9)30-2 x 40 =9.11

 P20(3) = x (0.1)3(0.9)30-3 x 40 = 9.44

 P20(4) = x (0.1)4(0.9)30-4 x 40 = 7.08

 P20(5) = x (0.1)5(0.9)30-5 x 40 = 4.09

 P20(6) = x (0.1)6(0.9)30-6 x 40 =1.89

 P20(7) = x (0.1)7(0.9)30-7 x 40 =0.72

 P20(8) = x (0.1)8(0.9)30-8 x 40 = 0.23

  P20(9) = x (0.1)9(0.9)30-9 x 40 = 0.06

CALCULATION OF ꭕ2 FOR EACH OF THE 3 DISTRIBUTIONS

THE CHI SQUARE ꭕ2 FOR THE EXPERIMENTAL FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

2 2
(observed−theorical frequency) (40−40)
1. χ 2=∑ = =0
theoretical frequency 40
2. For gaussian prediction
2
2(39.51−40)
χ= =0.00060
40
3. For Poisson prediction

( 39.94−40 )2
χ 2= =0.00009
40
4.Binomial prediction
2
2 (39.96−40)
χ= =0.0004
40

Table b.2
Number of 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 χ
2
∑¿
“7”s (n)
Experimental 1 7 9 5 14 2 2 0 0 0 40
frequency
Gaussian 1.84 4.65 8.06 9.74 8.09 4.66 1.84 0.51 0.11 0.01 0.0060 39.51
prediction
Poisson 1.99 5.97 6.72 8.96 6.72 4.03 2.02 0.86 0.32 0.11 0.000 39.94
prediction
Binomial 1.69 5.65 9.11 9.44 7.08 4.09 1.89 0.72 0.23 0.06 0.0004 39.96
prediction
Calculating p and q

Mean = Np

6.87 = 20×p

p= 0.34

q=1–p

= 1 – 0.34

= 0.66

Formula for calculating is given as PN(n) = pnqN-nx15

 P20(0) = x (0.34)0(0.66)20-0 x15= 0.00

 P20(1) = x (0.34)1(0.66)20-1 x15= 0.04

 P20(2) = x (0.34)2(0.66)20-2 x15= 0.19

 P20(3) = x (0.34)3(0.66)20-3 x15= 0.58

 P20(4) = x (0.34)4(0.66)20-4 x15= 1.26

 P20(5) = x (0.34)5(0.66)20-5 x15= 2.08

 P20(6) = x (0.34)6(0.66)20-6 x15= 2.67

 P20(7) = x (0.34)7(0.66)20-7 x15= 2.75

 P20(8) = x (0.34)8(0.66)20-8 x15= 2.31

 P20(9) = x (0.34)9(0.66)20-9 x15= 1.58

 P20(10) = x (0.34)10(0.66)20-10 x15= 0.89

 P20(11) = x (0.34)11(0.66)20-11 x15= 0.42

 P20(12) = x (0.34)12(0.66)20-12 x15= 0.16

 P20(13) = x (0.34)13(0.66)20-13 x15= 0.05

 P20(14) = x (0.34)14(0.66)20-14 x15= 0.01

 P20(15) = x (0.34)15(0.66)20-15 x15= 0.00

 P20(16) = x (0.34)16(0.66)20-16 x15= 0.00

 P20(17) = x (0.34)17(0.66)20-17 x15= 0.00

 P20(18) = x (0.34)18(0.66)20-18 x15= 0.00

 P20(19) = x (0.34)19(0.66)20-19 x15= 0.00

 P20(20) = x (0.34)20(0.66)20-20 x15= 0.00

 1. If N= 300, q=0.9 and p=0.1 μ=Np µ= (300) × (0.1) µ=30 2.
2. GROUP 1(0-10) = 29

GROUP 2(11-20) = 36

GROUP 3(21-30) = 34

GROUP 4(31-40) = 33 3.

3. σ=√ N pq =√ 300 ×0.1 ×0.9

σ=5.20
4. THE MEAN ( μ )
29+36+ 34+33
μ= =33
4

5.∑ ¿¿

σ=
√ 1 (147)=6.06
4

1 −¿¿ ¿
6. Pn= ×e
√ 2 πNpq

1 0
Pn= ×e
√20 π (0.1)(0.9)(300)

=0.07

7 The binomial distribution for large values of n becomes inconvenient to use

because of the factorials.

DISCUSSION:
In this practical experiment we were able to predict the possible expected values
using various techniques of statistics. We were able to compare the techniques on
how much each technique is accurate on our experimental results. For the coin toss
we used 20 coins and tossed them to see how many coins will turn out to be heads
and we then recorded them. We were able to find the experimental frequency which
is shown on the table. We were able to determine the theoretical frequency using
binomial distribution technique, then we compared them using percentage
difference. The percentage difference that we obtained in this experiment was
slightly greater than 10 which indicates that my results are slightly accurate. The
graphs were drawn for both experimental results as well as the theoretical. Part B1
which is the Random number, we were able to complete the table using the random
numbers that was provided. The graph for the results was also drawn. Table B2 we
used different techniques to predict the possible outcomes. We used Gaussian
prediction, Poisson prediction and binomial prediction. We compared each technique
with our results and we found out that Poisson prediction is the technique that mostly
agreed with our results because it yielded smallest X2 , Which agrees with our
results since it is closer to zero. We were able to answer questions on part B3 using
statistics techniques and the imaginary table.

Conclusion
In this experiment we were able to use our present experiment and compare them
with the three distribution curves. We were able to come out with accurate results
that matches with the distribution curves.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to my physics practical
instructor for their guidance and demonstration in completing my lab report. And I
would like to extend my gratitude to my colleague for helping me complete my report

References
1. Romjin, Jan Willem(2014). “Philosophy of statistics”. Stanford Encyclopaedia of
philosophy.
2. Dodge, Y. (2016) The oxford Dictionary of Statistical Terms, oxford university
press.
3. Lund Research Ltd. “Descriptive and inferential statistics”.
Statistics.laerd.com.retrieved 2014-03-23
4. Moses, Lincoln E. (1986) Think and Explain with statistics, Addison-Wesley.