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Unit 5: Magnetism and Superconductivity

Syllabus
Magnetism
- Origin of magnetism
- Classification of magnetism on the basis of permeability (qualitative)
- Applications of magnetic devices: transformer cores, magnetic storage, magneto-optical
recording
Superconductivity
- Introduction to superconductivity; Properties of superconductors: zero electrical
- resistance, critical magnetic field, persistent current, Meissner effect
- Type I and Type II superconductors
- Low and high temperature superconductors (introduction and qualitative)
- AC/DC Josephson effect; SQUID: basic construction and principle of working; Applications of
SQUID
- Applications of superconductors

Introduction
- Magnetic materials play a prominent role in modern technology. They are widely used in
industry, electronics and storage technologies.
- Magnetic materials can broadly be classified into soft and hard materials. Soft magnetic
materials are easily magnetized and demagnetized and. They are used in AC applications.
Hard magnetic materials retain magnetism on a permanent basis.
- Further, depending on their response to the external magnetic field, magnetic materials can
be broadly classified into three groups: diamagnetic, paramagnetic and ferromagnetic
materials.

5.1.1 Magnetism: basic terms and definitions

1. Magnetic dipole
- Magnetic dipole is generally a tiny magnet of microscopic to subatomic
dimensions generated due to current loop.
- Electrons circulating around atomic nuclei, electrons spinning around their
axes, and rotating positively charged atomic nuclei all are magnetic dipoles.
- Magnetic dipole is referred to smallest magnetic unit having two poles
(north and south) that produces magnetic field and are inseparable from
each other.
- A single monopole has never been observed.

2. Magnetic dipole moment

- The strength of a magnetic dipole is represented by magnetic dipole
moment. It is a measure of a dipole’s ability to align itself according to
direction of external magnetic field.
- The magnetic moment can be considered to be a vector quantity with direction
perpendicular to the current loop in the right-hand-rule direction.
- Magnetic dipole moment is defined as the maximum amount of torque caused by magnetic
force on a dipole that arises per unit value of surrounding magnetic field in vacuum. This
torque is given by
𝜏 = 𝜇 ×𝐵

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3. Magnetic field strength (H)

- The strength (or intensity) of magnetic field at any point in magnetic field is force
experienced by a unit north pole placed at that point. It is denoted by H.
- The unit of H is ampere-turns per meter (A/m) in SI system.

4. Magnetization (M)
- Magnetization (or intensity of magnetization) is the measure of magnetism of magnetic
materials. It is defined as magnetic moment per unit volume and denoted by M.
- The unit of magnetization in SI system is amperes per meter (A/m).
- As magnetization is induced by magnetic field, M is proportional to H.
Thus, M  H or M = H
Where,  is called as magnetic susceptibility.

5. Magnetic Susceptibility ()

- The magnetic susceptibility of a material is a measure of the ease with which the material
can be magnetized. It is defined as magnetization (M) produced in the material per unit
applied magnetic field (H).
- Hence, = M/H
- Materials having high susceptibility are easily magnetized.

6. Magnetic flux ()

- Magnetic flux is a measurement of the total magnetic field which passes through a given
area. The lines of induction are collectively called as flux.
- The SI unit of magnetic flux is the Weber (Wb).

7. Magnetic Induction or magnetic flux density (B)

- A magnetic field is schematically represented by lines of magnetic induction or magnetic flux
density).
- The magnetic flux per unit area is defined as magnetic flux density.
- Magnetic induction is the number of lines of force through a unit area of cross section
perpendicularly.
- Thus, B = /A.
- The SI unit of B is Weber per square meter (Wb/m2) and CGS unit is Tesla (T)
- 1 Gauss = 10-4 Tesla

8. Relation between B and H

When a material is kept in a magnetic field, two types of induction arise – one due to magnetizing
field H and other due to magnetization M of the material itself. The magnetic induction B produced
inside the material is given by
𝐵 = 𝜇0(𝐻 + 𝑀)
Where, 0 is known as permeability of the free space. It is equal to 4x10-7 henry per meter (H/m)
𝐵 = 𝜇 01 + 𝑀 𝐻
𝐻
Or 𝐵 = 𝜇0 1 +  𝐻
Or 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻

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Where  is called as absolute permeability of the medium.

In free space, M=0, and 𝐵 = 𝜇0𝐻

9. Absolute permeability ()

- When a magnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, the magnetic field lines are
redistributed and tend to pass through the material. The absolute permeability of the
material is a measure of the degree of which the field lines penetrate (or permeate) the
material.
- It is defined as the ratio of magnetic induction B in the medium to the magnetizing field H.
𝐵
- Thus, 𝜇 = 𝐻. The unit of absolute permeability is henry per meter (H/m).

10. Relative Permeability (r)

- The relative permeability of a material is defined as the ratio of absolute permeability of the
material to the permeability of free space.
𝜇
- Thus, 𝜇𝑟 = 𝜇 .
0
- r is only a number and has no units.
- Its value for air or vacuum is one.

11. Relation between r and 

The magnetic induction 𝐵 = 𝜇0 1 +  𝐻
Or 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻
Thus, 𝜇 = 𝜇0 1 + 
𝜇
As 𝜇𝑟 = 𝜇 𝜇𝑟 = 1 + 
0

12. Bohr Magneton (B)

- Bohr magneton is the elementary electron magnetic moment and no electron can have a
magnetic moment below it.
- It is the natural unit for the measurement of atomic magnetic moments.
- It has value
𝑒ℎ
𝐵 = = 9.28 × 10−24 𝐴. 𝑚2
4𝜋𝑚

5.1.2 Origin of magnetization

- Magnetic properties of solids arise due to electrons undergoing different motions in atom.
These motions give rise to magnetic dipole moments.
- In general, the magnetic dipole moment of the atom arises because of three sources:

(a) Orbital motion of electrons

- Inside an atom, electrons move around a nucleus in specific orbits. Each electron orbit is
equivalent to a tiny current loop. It behaves as an elementary magnet having a magnetic
dipole moment. The sum of orbital magnetic moments of individual electrons generates the
total orbital magnetic moment of an atom.
- It can be shown that elementary electron magnetic moment is given by Bohr Magneton
𝑒ℎ
𝐵 = = 9.28 × 10−24 𝐴. 𝑚2
4𝜋𝑚𝑒

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(b) The electron spin

Each electron is spinning about itself and this gives rise to a magnetic dipole moment.
It can be shown that spin magnetic moment is given by
𝑒
𝑠 = 𝑔 𝑆 = 𝛾𝑆
2𝑚
Where
𝛾 = 𝑔 𝑒 is called gyromagnetic ratio (g-factor) [For electron g=-2.0023]
2𝑚
𝑆 = 𝑚𝑠ℏ is angular momentum 𝑚𝑠 = 𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑛 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = ± 1
2
(c) The nuclear spin
- The nucleus spins around itself and it also contributes to magnetic moment of atoms
due to magnetic field produced by protons.
- It can be shown that elementary nuclear magnetic moment is given by
𝑒ℎ
𝑁 = = 5.05 × 10−27 𝐴. 𝑚2
4𝜋𝑚𝑝
- The magnetic moment of the nucleus is about 1/1837 of the magnetic moment of the
electron. Therefore, in studying magnetic properties of solids, the magnetic moment
due to nuclear spin is neglected.

Magnetization of atom and materials

(i) For a solid, the resultant magnetic moment of an atom is sum of the orbital and spin
magnetic moments of its electrons.
(ii) The major contribution to atomic magnetic moment comes from the spin of unpaired
valence electrons. Number of such magnetic moments aligns in different directions to and
it results into a net non-zero magnetic moment.
(iii) When material is placed in a magnetic field, the atomic dipoles respond to the external
magnetic field.
(iv) In diamagnetic materials, atomic moments are weakly aligned along opposite direction of
external magnetic field.
(v) In paramagnetic materials, atomic moments are weakly aligned along same direction of
external magnetic field.
(vi) In ferromagnetic materials, atomic moments are strongly aligned along same direction of
external magnetic field.

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5.1.3 Classification of magnetism on the basis of permeability

In accordance with the value of relative permeability the materials are classified as:

1. Diamagnetic Materials:
- Diamagnetic materials are substances which when placed in an
external magnetic field develop a weak magnetism in opposite
direction of the external magnetic field.
- The atoms have very small magnetic moment
- They slightly repel the magnetic lines of forces.
- The examples are bismuth, silver, copper and hydrogen.
- The relative permeability of these materials is slightly less than one i.e. r < 1
- For example the relative permeability of bismuth is 0.00083, copper is 0.000005 and wood is
0.9999995
- The diamagnetic susceptibility is very small and negative i.e. <0. It is due to the repulsion
experienced by diamagnetic materials when placed in a magnetic field.

2. Paramagnetic Materials:
- Paramagnetic materials are substances which when placed in a
magnetic field acquire a feeble (small) magnetism in the
direction of the magnetic field.
- The atoms are slightly oriented along the direction of the
external magnetic field.
- They attract the lines of force slightly.
- The examples are aluminum, tin magnesium etc.
- The relative permeability of these materials is slightly above than one i.e. r > 1
- For example the relative permeability of aluminum is: 1.00000065
- The paragmagnetic susceptibility is less than one but positive i.e. <1. It is due to the slight
attraction of magnetic field when placed in a magnetic field.

3. Ferromagnetic Materials:
- Ferromagnetic materials are metallic crystals which when
placed in external magnetic field becomes strongly magnetized
in the direction of the field. These materials are strongly
attracted by a magnetic field.
- These materials are strongly oriented along the direction of the
external magnetic field.
- They attract the lines of force strongly.
- The examples are iron, steel, nickel, cobalt etc.
- The relative permeabilities of these materials are much greater than one and dependent on
the field strengths i.e. r > 1
- For example, the purified iron and many magnetic alloys have relative permeabilities of iron
and many magnetic alloys is 100,000 or more.
- The ferromagnetic susceptibility is greater than one and positive i.e. >>1. It is due to the
large attraction of magnetic field when placed in a magnetic field.
- Above the Curie temperature (Tc), ferro-magnetic materials behave as para-magnetic
materials and their susceptibility is given by the Curie-Weiss law, defined as
𝐶
-  = 𝑇−𝑇 , where C is material constant, T and Tc are Temperature and Curie temperatures
𝐶

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Sr. Property Diamagnetics Paramagnetics Ferromagnetics

1 Behavior in external Develop a weak Develop a weak Develop a strong
magnetic field magnetism in opposite magnetism in the same magnetism in the same
direction direction direction
2 Alignment of Opposite and weak Same direction and Same direction and
magnetic dipoles in weak strong
external magnetic
field

3 Response to external Slightly repelled by Slightly attracted by Strongly attracted by

magnetic field external magnetic field external magnetic field external magnetic field
4 Relative permeability r < 1 r > 1 r >> 1
(r) (Bi: 0.00083) (Al: 1.00000065) (Fe: 1,00,000 or more)
5 Susceptibility () Very small and negative Less than one but Very high >>1
i.e. <0 positive i.e. <1
6 Effect of temperature  is independent of Obeys Curie law  ∝ 1 Susceptibility  decrease
𝑇
on susceptibility temperature with temperature in
complex way
7 Curie Point (above No Curie point No Curie point Have definite Curie point
which become
paramagnetic)
8 Hysterisis (Lag in Not exhibited Not exhibited Exhibited
change on
magnetization)
9 Rententivity Not exhibited Not exhibited Exhibited
(Residual magnetism)
10 Examples Bismuth, silver, copper, Aluminum, tin Iron, steel, nickel, cobalt
hydrogen, etc magnesium etc etc

4. Antiferromagnetism [for reference]

- Antiferromagnetic materials are crystalline materials.
- In the presence of the strong magnetic field,
antiferromagnetic materials are weakly magnetized in
the direction the field. This property of the materials is
called antiferromagnetism.
- The magnetic moments of atoms are aligned in opposite
directions and are equal in magnitude. Thus, when
unmagnetized, their net magnetisation is zero.
- Examples of antiferromagnetic substances: MnO, FeO,
CoO, NiO, Cr, Mn
- This is the case below a particular temperature, called as Néel temperature (TN) above which
the material behaves as a paramagnet.
- Antiferromagnetic materials exhibit a small positive susceptibility  of order of 10-3 and 10-5
from 0 K to TN and show antiferromagnetic behavior. Above TN, the susceptibility show
paramagnetic behavior.

5. Ferrits and Ferrimagnetism [for reference]

- Some ceramic materials exhibit net magnetization.
- For example: Fe3O4, NiFe2O4,
- In a magnetic field, the dipoles of some cation may line up with the
field, while dipoles of other cation may not. These ceramics are
called ferrites, and the effect is known as ferri-magnetism.

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- Ferri-magnetism is similar to anti-ferro-magnetism in that the spins of different atoms or

ions line up anti-parallel. However, the spins do not cancel each other out, and a net spin
moment exists.
- Below the Neel temperature (TN), ferrimagnetic materials behave very much like
ferromagnetic materials and are paramagnetic above the Neel temperature.
- These materials exhibit a large but field dependent magnetic susceptibility similar to ferro-
magnets.
- They also show Curie-Weiss behavior. As these ceramics are good insulators, electrical losses
are minimal, and hence ferrites have lot of applications in devices such as high frequency
transformers.

5.1.4 Applications of magnetic materials

Soft magnetic materials: Magnetic materials, which are easily magnetized and demagnetized are
known as soft magnetic materials. They have high initial permeability due to which they reach
saturation magnetization with a relatively low applied magnetic field. They are particularly used in
alternating current applications. Susceptibility and permeability are high.

Hard magnetic materials: Hard magnetic materials retain their magnetism and are difficult to
demagnetize. They have high permeability and a high resistance to demagnetization. They retain
their magnetism even after the removal of the applied magnetic field. Susceptibility and
permeability are low.

(a) Transformer core

- A magnetic core is a piece of magnetic material usually
made up of ferro-magnetic materials which have high
permeability.
- The magnetic core confines and increases the magnetic
field of a coil by a factor of several thousands.

Following are some of the types of materials used for producing

magnetic cores for the transformers.

Sr. Material Manufacturing Advantages Applications

1 Solid Iron Core A block of solid iron Retain high magnetic Not recommended for
fields without iron transformers operating at
saturation. AC applications because
Large eddy currents large eddy currents are
produced by magnetic produced by the magnetic
fields. field. These eddy currents
produce heat at high
frequencies.
2 Carbonyl iron Highly pure powder Provide stability across They are efficient at high
cores comprises of wide range of magnetic temperature and reduce
micrometer-sized flux level and effects of eddy currents.
iron spheres coated temperatures These ceramic materials
with a thin serve as efficient
insulating layer insulators, and help
decrease eddy currents
3 Amorphous Steel Made of many Reduce flow of eddy Can be operated at high
layers of paper-thin currents and have fewer temperatures. Used in
metallic tapes losses high efficiency

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transformers operated at
medium frequencies
4 Silicon steel Silicon steel cores High electrical resistivity Mostly in low frequency
and offers high saturation transformers to flow
flux density. It also has through narrow loops
high permeability and low between every lamination
losses. layer
5 Amorphous Amorphous or They have low High-efficiency and high-
metals vitreous metals are conductivity to reduce performance
glassy and non- eddy losses. Highly transformers efficient
crystalline responsive to magnetic insulators to prevent eddy
fields. currents.
6 Ferrite ceramics Made from iron Ceramic materials are These cores are used in
oxide and one or produced in different high frequency
multiple metallic specifications to meet applications
elements diverse electrical
requirements
7 Laminated Made of stacks of Prevent eddy currents and General domestic
magnetic cores thin iron sheets confine them to narrow applications
coated with an loops within each single
insulated layer lamination layer

(b) Magnetic storage

Magnetic storage is one of the most widely used digital data storage using a magnetized medium.
Several types of magnetized media are used to store data such as magnetic tape, floppy disks and
hard disk drives. The basic approach to magnetic data storage is almost similar for the different
types of media.

Storage medium
The medium used in magnetic storage devices is coated with iron oxide, which is a ferromagnetic
material. The storage media contains magnetic surface and it is divided into very small regions of
mostly uniform magnetization.

Basic Principle
There are two types of magnetic polarities i.e. N-S and S-N each one used to represent either zero or
one. Computer systems need to store data in digital format consists of binary information i.e. data in
the form of zero and ones. The region where data is to be stored is magnetizied (read as 1). The
unmagnetized region is read as 0.

Read and write heads

The drive uses a motor to rotate the media at a high
speed. The data is written and read using a small
device called heads. Each head has a tiny
electromagnetic, which consists of an iron core
wrapped with wire. A read-write head moves very
close (few nanometer) to the magnetic surface.

Writing the data:

Data signal is sent through the coil of wire which
generates a magnetic flux. At the gap, the magnetic
flux forms a fringe pattern. This flux magnetizes small region of the oxide on the media and

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SKNSITS, Lonavala // Engineering Physics [2019-20] // Unit 5 – Magnetism and Superconductivity

magnetization of that area change. The information is stored on the disk in the form of zero’s
(unmagnetized region) and ones (magnetized regions).

Reading the data: The read head is moved along the surface of the storage media. The information
stored on the magnetic devices i.e. the regions of magnetization and demagnetizations are detected
by the read head by detecting a varying magnetic field across the gap.

(c) Magneto-optical recording

Basic arrangement

 Magneto-optical recording is a method of

storing and retrieving data using a laser and a
magnet.
 A thin film of magnetic material (e.g.
amorphous Terbium iron cobalt, TbFeCo)
magnetic film is coated on the substrate over
which the data is written.

Recording the data

 The disk is coated with film that initially is uniformly magnetized. The magnetic layer side faces
towards the laser beam.
 A laser beam is used to demagnetize a small spot on the film by heating it above a critical
temperature (the Curie point) by disordering the magnetic domains. A local magnetic field
determines the direction in which the spot is magnetized when it cools.
 A relatively weak magnetic field is applied to this region to modify its magnetization. The tiny
region that is magnetized is treated as 1 while the un-magnetized region is treated as 0.

Reading the data

 To read the information, the disk is scanned by polarized light from a low-power laser. The laser
light is reflected from the surface of the media. Its plane of polarization is rotated slightly
according to the direction of the magnetic field (Kerr effect) of the media.
 When the laser beam is reflected from the regions that are magnetized it has certain
polarization. When it is reflected from the regions that are un-magnetized, its polarization is
reversed due to Kerr effect.
 Thus, the change in direction of magnetization could be associated with numbers 0 or 1. Thus
theses technique useful for storage of binary data.

Erasing the data

To erase the data, magnetic field is applied to the material in the opposite direction. The focused
laser pulse heats the disk above Curie temperature and causes local heating to demagnetize the
surface. The disk is again de-magnetized and data written on in the form of magnetization is erased.

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Questions on Magnetism
1 or 2 marks each
Explain the terms in brief
1. Magnetic dipole moment
2. Magnetic field strength (H)
3. Magnetization (M)
4. Magnetic Susceptibility ()
5. Magnetic Induction (B)
6. Absolute permeability ()
7. Relative Permeability (r)
8. Bohr magneton

6 marks
1. Explain the origin of magnetism.
2. Explain how materials are classified on the basis of permeability.
3. Differentiate between paramagnetism, diamagnetism and ferromagnetism.
4. Explain how the information is recorded and retrieved in magneto-optical recording devices.
5. Explain the process of recording and retrieving the information in magnetic storage devices.

3/4 marks
1. What are the different types of transformer core? Discuss in brief any two of them and state
their applications.
2. Explain in brief what are paramagnetic materials?
3. Explain in brief what are diamagnetic materials?
4. Explain in brief what are ferromagnetic materials?
5. Explain in brief what are anti-ferromagnetic materials?
6. Explain in brief what are ferrimagnetic materials?
7. State the difference between paramagnetism, diamagnetism and ferromagnetism

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5.2 Superconductivity
 Superconductivity is complete disappearance of electrical resistance (zero electrical
resistance) in some materials when they are cooled below a characteristic temperature. This
temperature is called as transition temperature (Tc). The zero resistivity means almost
infinite conductivity.
 A superconductor is a material that exhibits
superconductivity. Above Tc, the superconducting material
behaves as a normal conductor.
 Thus the observed phenomenon is called as
superconductivity.

Different material shows superconductivity below their

characteristic critical temperature. For example: Tin (3.72 K), Lead
(7.2 K), Niobium (9.2 K), Aluminium (1.1 K), etc.

However, copper, silver and gold which are very good conductor at room temperature do not show
superconductivity.

5.2.1 BCS theory of superconductivity [only for reference]

In the year 1957 three American Scientists John Bardeen, Leon Cooper and John Schrieffer jointly
developed the theory to explain superconductivity which is known as BCS theory.
1. Electron-lattice-electron interaction
The BCS theory is based on electron – lattice – electron interaction and pairing of electrons
close to the Fermi Level into cooper pairs through lattice interaction.
2. Lattice distortion
When an electron (say electron 1) approaches an ion in the lattice, there is a coulomb
attraction between the electron and the lattice ion. This produces a distortion in the lattice
and there is increase density of positive ions surrounding to electron 1. Due to the lattice
vibration, the energy is emitted in the form of a quanta i.e. phonon.
3. Formation of Cooper pair
The distorted positive region attracts another electron of “opposite spin” (say electron 2).
Thus, a free electron (electron 1) exerts a small attractive force on another electron
(electron 2) through phonons. A pair of free electrons thus coupled through a phonon is
called a Cooper pair.

4. Zero resistance below critical temperature

At T<Tc: Thermal vibrations of lattice are minimum which leads to the formation of Cooper
pairs. Cooper pairs move almost without any resistance.
At T>Tc: The thermal vibrations of ions increases and provides sufficient energy to break
Cooper pairs.
5. Superconducting current
A large number of Cooper pairs drift cooperatively through the superconductor in an
ordered state forming a highly collective "condensate".

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5.2.2 Properties of superconductors

Zero electrical resistance

The variation of resistance of

superconductor with
temperature can be measured
by four probe method.

The current is passed in

superconductor through current
probes (1 and 4).

Voltage developed is measured with voltage probes (2 and 3).

The resistance of superconductor can be calculated by Ohm’s law.

Normal state (T>Tc): A voltage is developed across voltage probes and Ohm’s law 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 is obeyed.

Superconducting state (T>Tc): The resistance of superconductor vanishes (𝑅 = 0) and hence the
voltage across voltage probes disappear i.e. (𝑉 = 0) while current continues to flow.

Persistent Currents

 Once a current is started in a closed

loop of superconducting material, it
will continue to keep flowing, of its
own accord, around the loop as long as
the loop is held below T<Tc.
 Such a steady current, which flows
without diminishing in strength, is
called persistent current.
 The persistent current does not require external power to maintain. In superconducting
state resistance is zero and thus there are no I2R losses. Once the current flow is initiated, it
is estimated it persists for more than 105 years.
 Persistent current is one of the most important properties of superconductor.
Superconductor coils with persistent current flowing through them produce magnetic fields
and can therefore act as magnets.

Critical magnetic field (Hc)

 The critical magnetic field refers to the maximum magnetic
field strength below which a material remains
superconducting.
 It depends on temperature. Superconductivity is
characterized both by temperature and magnetic field.
Changes in either temperature or magnetic field can cause
the phase transition between normal and superconducting
states.
 The highest temperature under which the superconducting
state is seen is known as the critical temperature. At that temperature even the weakest

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external magnetic field will destroy the superconducting state, so the strength of the critical
field is zero. As temperature decreases, the critical field increases generally to a maximum at
absolute zero.
2
 The critical magnetic field at temperature T is given by 𝐻𝑐 𝑇 = 𝐻𝑐 (0) 1 − 𝑇
𝑇𝑐
Where, Hc(0) is the critical magnetic field at 0 K, Tc is critical temperature.
 Critical field at 0K, Hc(0), for few materials Nb: 198 mT, Pb: 80.3 mT, Sn: 30.9 mT

Critical current and critical current density

 An electric current flowing through the superconducting material produces a magnetic field
surrounding to it. As current increases, the associated magnetic field also increases.
 Thus, it is important to have current flowing through the superconductor below a certain
critical value (Ic) which is associated with critical magnetic field (Hc).
 If the current in superconductor is increased beyond Ic, the associated magnetic field will
exceed critical magnetic field Hc and superconductor may destroy its own superconductivity.
 A superconducting ring or radius R ceases to be a superconductor if the critical current
exceeds: 𝐼𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑅𝐻𝑐
 Current density is defined as current per unit area. The current density associated with
critical current (Ic) is called critical current density (Jc). It is the maximum current density at
which the superconductivity disappears.

5.2.3 Meissner Effect and perfect diamagnetism

Meissner effect
When certain superconductors (type-I) are cooled below critical
temperature 𝑇 < 𝑇𝑐 in presence of external magnetic field, magnetic flux is
expelled from the interior of the superconductor and it becomes perfect
diamagnetic. This phenomenon is called Meissner effect.

Reason for magnetic flux expulsion

In presence of magnetic field, induced circulating currents are
generated on the surface of the material. These circulating
currents creates magnetic field opposite to the externally applied
magnetic field in accordance with Lenz’s law. Thus the external
magnetic flux is expelled by the superconductor.

At 𝑻 > 𝑻𝒄: The material is in normal conductor state and not a superconductor. When a magnetic
field is applied to it, the it penetrates through the material.
If, H is external magnetic field and M is magnetization produced within the sample, then magnetic
induction inside the specimen (B) is given by
𝐵 = 𝜇0(𝐻 + 𝑀)
At 𝑻 < 𝑻𝒄: The material turns a superconductor and as magnetic field is expelled out of
superconductor. The magnetic induction inside the material B=0
Thus 0 = 𝜇0(𝐻 + 𝑀)
And 𝑀 = −𝐻
𝑀
Susceptibility of the material,  = 𝐻 = −1

Perfectly diamagnetism: Magnetic susceptibility is the degree of magnetization of a material in

response to an applied magnetic field. If magnetic susceptibility is negative the material is
𝑀
diamagnetic. For superconductors, magnetic susceptibility = 𝐻 = −1. This indicates that
superconductors are characterized by perfect diamagnetism.

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5.2.4 Types of superconductors (Type I and Type II)

In Type I superconductors, the transition from superconducting state to normal state in presence of
magnetic field occurs sharply at critical field Hc. However certain alloys show different behavior. The
transition from superconducting to normal state is gradual. They have two critical magnetic fields. At
lower critical magnetic field (Hc1) external magnetic field enters into superconductor. It does not lose
its superconductivity and exists in mixed/vortex state. It the value of external magnetic field is
increased above upper magnetic field (Hc2), they lose their superconductivity.

Sr. Property Type-I Superconductor Type-II Superconductor

1 Meissner effect They exhibit complete Meissner effect. They do not exhibit Meissner effect
completely.
2 Diamagnetic They show perfect diamagnetic behavior They do not show perfect diamagnetic
Behavior behavior
3 Critical They have only one critical magnetic They have two critical magnetic fields. At
magnetic field field Hc. lower critical magnetic field Hc1 flux starts
penetrating the superconductor. At upper
critical magnetic field Hc2 flux enters into
superconductor and it loses
superconductivity.
4 Variation of
magnetic field
with
temperature

5 Variation of
Magnetization
(M) of
superconductor
with applied
Magnetic Field
(H)

6 States of the Material exists in two states for T<Tc Material exists in three states for T<Tc
material H<Hc – superconductor H<Hc1 – superconductor
H>Hc – conductor Hc1 > H < Hc2 – mixed/vortex state
H>Hc2 – conductor
7 Change in The materials loses magnetization The materials loses magnetization
magnetization abruptly gradually
2
8 Critical Highest value for Hc is about 0.01 to 0.2 Highest value for H is about 30 Wb/m
c2
2
magnetic field Wb/m
9 Type They are known as soft superconductors They are known as hard superconductors
10 Applications Not much useful due to low H c Useful due to high Hc2
11 Examples Aluminum, lead, mercury, etc Nb-Sn, Nb-Ti, Nb-Zr, Va-Ga, etc

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5.2.5 Low and high temperature superconductors

Superconductors are classified into low Tc and high Tc superconductors based on their transition
temperatures. Broadly, the superconductors having transition temperature (Tc) below 24 K are low
temperature superconductors. The superconductors having transisition temperature above 27 K are
high temperature superconductors.

Sr. Property Low Temperature High Temperature

Superconductors Superconductors
1 Transition Below 24 K Above 27 K upto 138 K so far
temperature
2 Coolant required Liquid Helium (4 K) Liquid Nitrogen (77 K)
3 Examples They are typically elements They are generally Nb based
alloys, mixed oxide materials
containing lanthanum and
yttrium.
4 Applications They are generally not useful for Useful for commercial
commercial applications. applications such as motors,
generators, cables, transformers,
magnets, MRI, NMR, etc

5.2.6 Josephson Effect

The dc Josephson effect

 When two superconductors are separated by a
thick insulating layer (> 10nm) behaves as two
independent superconductors. When the
insulating layer is thin (~ 1nm), it becomes a
system of coupled conductors.
 The cooper pairs tunnel easily through the
barrier (insulating layer) as a single unit.
 The cooper pairs can be represented by a wave
function, which is the same for all pairs. The
insulating layer introduces a phase difference between the wave function of cooper pairs on
opposite sides. Due to this, a super-current appears across the junction even though the
applied voltage is zero. This effect is known as dc Josephson effect.
 The super-current through the junction is given by
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑐 sin ∅
Where,  is the phase difference between the wave functions describing Cooper pairs, and Ic is
critical current at zero voltage condition.

The ac Josephson effect

 If a dc voltage is applied across Josephson junction, it introduces an additional phase on the
Cooper pairs during tunneling. The dc voltage generates an alternating current I, given by
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑐 sin ∅ + ∆∅
 Because of the dc voltage, the energies of Cooper pairs on both sides of the barrier differ in
energy by 2𝑒𝑉. Using quantum mechanical calculations, it can be shown that
2𝑒𝑉
∆∅ = 2𝜋𝑡
ℎ
Thus, the alternating current across the junction is given by

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2𝑒𝑉
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑐 sin ∅ + 2𝜋𝑡
ℎ 2𝑒𝑉
This current can be represented by an alternating current of frequency  = ℎ . This
frequency only depends on the applied voltage. This effect is known as ac Josephson effect.
 The frequency of alternating currents does not depend on the dimensions of the
superconductors. Also this frequency does not depend on properties of superconductors
such as critical temperature, chemical composition.
 At V=1 V, ac current of frequency 483.6 MHz is produced.

5.2.7 Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices (SQUID)

A SQUID (Superconducting Quantum Interference Device) is a very sensitive magnetometer used to
measure extremely subtle (small) magnetic flux of the order of 10−18 Tesla. Their working is based on
superconducting loops containing Josephson junctions.

Construction of SQUID
There are two main types of SQUID: direct current (DC) and radio frequency (RF). A radio frequency
(RF) SQUID is made up of one Josephson junction, which is mounted on a superconducting ring. A
direct current (DC) SQUID consists of two Josephson junctions in parallel, which is more sensitive.

Construction
SQUIDs are usually fabricated from lead or pure niobium. The tunnel barrier is oxidized onto lead or
niobium surface. The entire device is cooled to within a few degrees of absolute zero with liquid
helium. A schematic of a two-junction dc SQUID is shown in figure. It consists of two Josephson
junctions arranged in parallel.

Working
A constant dc supercurrent is applied to the SQUID. This current is known as bias current which
enters into the SQUID through arm C. It is divided along the paths a and b and again merge into one
and leaves through the arm D. I1 and I2 are currents tunneling through Josephson junctions.

In absence of magnetic field

 In a superconductor, a single wave function describes all the Cooper pairs. The wave
function experiences a phase shift at the Josephson junctions P and Q.
 In absence of magnetic field, Phase difference across P and Q = 0

In presence of magnetic field

 When a magnetic field is applied, it changes the quantum mechanical phase difference
across each of the two junctions. This phase difference between reuniting currents 𝛿0 is
directly proportional to the magnetic flux  through the ring.

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 The voltage across the Josephson junction oscillates with the changes in phase at the two
junctions. This voltage depends upon the change in the magnetic flux. Thus, by noting down
the voltage across the junction, the change in flux and corresponding magnetic field can be
measured.
 Total current through parallel Josephson junctions is 𝐼𝑇 = 2 𝐼0 sin 𝛿0 cos 𝑒∅ℏc
 Thus, a progressive increase or decrease of the magnetic flux causes the current to oscillate
between a maximum and minimum when the magnetic flux increases by one flux quantum.
 One flux quantum ∅0 = ℎ2𝑒  = 2.06 × 10−15 𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠.
Thus, a SQUID can detect extremely small magnetic fields of the order of 10-15 Wb (10-11 T). This
sensitivity can further be increased using a flux transformer.

Applications of SQUID
SQUIDs are sensitive magnetometers that detect very small magnetic fields of the order of 10-14 T.
SQUIDs have many applications. Few are as below:
(i) Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is a technique for mapping brain activities. It can detect
magnetic fields produced naturally in the brain which is of the order of 10-14 T.
The human heart also produces a feeble magnetic field of the order of 10-14 T which can
also be detected by SQUIDs.
(ii) MRI Scan: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), also known as nuclear magnetic resonance
imaging, is a scanning technique for creating detailed images of the human body. The scan
uses a strong magnetic field and radio waves to generate images of parts of the body that
can't be seen with X-rays, CT scans or ultrasound. Water molecules in human body contain
hydrogen nuclei (protons). An MRI scanner applies a very strong magnetic field (about 0.2
to 3 teslas), which aligns the proton "spins". This alignment of spin can be detected by
SQUIDs.
(iii) Non-destructive corrosion testing: The magnetism of the material changes due to the
corrosion, which can be detected using SQUID.
(iv) Oil prospecting: Presence of oil field changes the magnetism of the region, which can be
detected using SQUID.
(v) Earthquake prediction can be done by detecting change in earth’s magnetism
(vi) Mineral exploration by detecting variation in magnetic fields inside earth crust
(vii) Geothermal energy survey, etc.

5.2.8 Applications of Superconductors

Superconducting Transmission Lines and electricity

Conventionally the electricity is transported through copper cables. Generally 10% to 15% of
generated electricity is lost in overcoming resistance of cables. It also requires a huge setup. The use
of superconducting transmission lines would have following advantages:
 Minimum (zero) heat losses
When superconductors will be used as cables, resistive and heat losses are avoided and
electrical power transmission can be done more efficiently. A network of superconducting
power cables could be carrying 1000 times more electric current than copper cables.
 Carrying a large power
Using superconducting transmission lines a large power could be transmitted at a fairly low
voltage. Large infrastructure such as huge transformers banks and multiple high voltage AC
transmission lines on towers could be minimized.
 High current carrying density
Using superconductors such as BSCCO in tape forms and YBCO in thin film forms, current
densities above 10,000 amperes per square centimeter could be transmitted.

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 For storing current in superconducting coils

Superconductors are used in Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) that store
electric energy in the form of electric current in a closed superconducting coil. The current
remains trapped forever in the coil as there is absolutely no energy loss. This current can be
recovered in a very short amount of time.
 Transformers
Superconducting coils in transformers and electrical machines generate much stronger
magnetic fields. It will also eliminate eddy current losses and hysteresis losses. Therefore,
the size of motors and generators will be drastically reduced.

Superconducting magnets
Conventional electromagnets are very much bigger in size. They consume large electrical power to
maintain the magnetic field and also require continuous cooling. The use of superconductors in
designing of magnets would have following advantages:
 Intense magnetic field
Superconducting magnet has ability to support a very high current density with almost no
resistance. Due to this electromagnets can be constructed that generate intense magnetic
fields with little electrical power input. Type-II superconductors such as niobium-titanium
(NbTi) alloys, niobium-tin (Nb3Sn) alloys can produce high magnetic fields of around 9-10
Tesla.
 Compact and more efficient setup
Superconducting magnet systems are quite compact and occupy a small space.
 Can be operated for longer duration
In the persistent mode of operation, the L/R time constant is extremely long and the magnet
can be operated for days or even months at a nearly constant field.

Friction-less bearings
A bearing is a machine element that bears the load and minimizes the friction between moving
parts. Most of the energy of bearing is consumed in overcoming friction hence it results into
reduction of efficiency. The use of superconductors in designing of bearings uses principle of
Meissner effect and magnetic field repulsion. Due to this, it is kind of a magnetic cushion and it
would have following advantages:
 No lubrication and maintenance
Superconducting bearings provide the highest efficiency of all bearing technologies and
prevent contact, friction and wear. They need no lubrication or maintenance and can be
used under extreme conditions: vacuum, cryogenic environments.
 More efficient bearings
Superconducting magnetic bearings are virtually frictionless, dust-free, wear & tear less.
 High driving speed
Rotational bearings for very high driving speeds are possible.
 Frictionless motors
In frictionless motors the principle of magnetic air cushion between stator and rotator is
used.

Electronics
Variety of devices such as SQUIDs, transistors, ICs, etc can be designed using superconductors. Main
advantage of using superconductors in designing of electronic components is reduction in heat
losses and flow of current in the electronic circuit without any resistance. Some of the applications
of superconductors in electronics are listed as below:

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 Josephson junctions
Josephson junctions are used in fast electronic switches or sensitive magnetometers. A
magnetometer is able to detect very small magnetic fields of the order of 10-15T.
 Supercomputers
The semiconductor logic elements have a speed limit. They operate at a speed in orders of
few nanoseconds. Logic elements based on Josephson junction can operate at the speed of
few picoseconds. Use of superconductors in logic gates will drastically increase the speed of
computers.
 SQUID (superconducting quantum interference device)
SQUIDs are used for Non-destructive corrosion testing, Magnetoencephalography (MEG),
observing neural activities inside the brain (MRI scan), study of magnetic properties of
material, oil prospecting, mineral exploration, earthquake prediction, geothermal energy
survey, etc.
 Transistors
Superconducting transistors based on Josephson junctions could be used to switch voltages
very quickly. They will significantly speed up the processing of signals or data in
microprocessors.
 Circuitry connections
Circuit connections can be made through superconductive films. This would have advantage
that information can be transmitted more quickly without losses.
 IC fabrication
At present processing power of ICs is limited due to I2R losses of components. Use of
superconductors will make ICs more efficient.

Medical
Two of the properties of superconductors are extremely useful in medical field – production of
extensive magnetic field in devices such as MRI (upto 1.5 Tesla) and detection of smaller magnetic
fields using SQUIDs (of the order of 10-14 Tesla)

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
 Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is a technique for investigating human brain activities on a
millisecond basis. It can detect where in the brain activity is produced.
 Brain generates neuromagnetic signals that are extremely small (of the order of 10-12 Tesla).
MEG scanners use SQUIDs to detect this extremely small magnetic field.

Magnetic Resonance Imagery (MRI)

 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), also known as nuclear magnetic resonance imaging, is a
scanning technique for creating detailed images of the human body. The scan uses a strong
magnetic field (of the order of 1.5 Tesla or higher) and radio waves to generate images of
parts of the body that can't be seen with X-rays, CT scans or ultrasound. If conventional
metal wires are used to produce such a strong magnetic field, they would heat to the extent
of melting.
 Water molecules in human body contain hydrogen nuclei (protons). An MRI scanner applies
a very strong magnetic field (about 0.2 to 3 teslas), which aligns the proton "spins". This
alignment of spin can be detected by SQUIDs.
 MRI diagnosis is used for investigation of brain, including detection of tumors. MRI is also
used for investigation of sports injuries, muscle injuries, skeletal problems, spinal injuries,
etc.

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Transport - MagLev Trains

In conventional transportation system, friction between the wheels and ground or rail is one of the
crucial elements. Due to friction there is a limitation of speed of the vehicle also it also increases
wear and tear.
Magnetic Levitation Trains (Maglev Trains) is a floating vehicle for land transportation. MagLev trains
do not slide over the rails but float on an air cushion over a strongly magnetized track. As there is no
mechanical friction, speeds upto 500 km/h can be easily achieved. The advantages of
superconductors are:
 Permanent currents as high as about 700000 amperes can be passed through the
superconducting coils.
 This produces a strong magnetic field of order of almost 5 Tesla enough to levitate the train.

Numericals: Superconductivity
Example: In a superconductor ring of radius 0.02 m, the critical magnetic field is 2x103 A/m at 5K.
Find the value of critical current.
Solution:
Ic = 2πRHc = 2 × 3.143 × 0.02 × 2 × 103 = 251.4 A

Example: Calculate the critical current for a wire of lead having a diameter of 1 mm at 4.2 K. The
critical temperature for lead is7.18 K and 𝐻𝑐 (0)=6.5 x 104 A/m.
Solution:
𝑇2 4 4.2 2 4
𝐻𝑐 𝑇 = 𝐻𝑐 0 1 − = 6.5 × 10 1 − = 4.28 × 10 𝐴/𝑚
𝑇𝑐 7.18

Example: The transition temperature for lead is 7.2K. However, at 5K it loses the superconducting
property if subjected to magnetic field of 3.3x104 A/m. Find the maximum value of H which will allow
the metal to retain its superconductivity at
2 0K.
Solution: H T = H 0 1 −T
c c Tc
Hc (T) 3.3 × 104 4
Hc 0 25 = 6.37 × 10 A/m
= =
1 − T2 /T2c 1 − 51.28
Example: The critical field of niobium is 1x105 A/m at 8 K and 2x105 at 0 K. Calculate the transition
temperature of the element.
2
Hc T = Hc 0 1 −
T
Solution:
Tc

8
Tc = T
1/2 = = 11.3 K
5 1/2
1−H c (T) 1−1×10
H c (0) 2×10 5
Example: The transition temperature for lead is 7.26 K. The maximum critical field for the material is
8x105 A/m. Lead has to be used as a superconductor subjected to a magnetic field of 4x104 A/m. At
what maximum temperature it can be operated.
2
Solution: Hc T = Hc 0 1 − T
Tc
1/2
Hc (T) 1/2 4 × 104
T = Tc 1 − = 7.261 − 1 − = 7.08 K
Hc (0) 8 × 105
Therefore, the temperature of the materials should be kept below 7.08 K

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Example: A Josephson junction with a voltage difference of 650 V radiates electromagnetic

radiations. Calculate its frequency.
−19 ×650×10−6
Solution:  = 2𝑒𝑉 = 2×1.6×10 = 3.13 × 1011 𝐻𝑧
ℎ 6.63×10−34

Example: Calculate the voltage required to produce a frequency of 2x1011 Hz across the Josephson
junction.
2𝑒𝑉
Solution: = ℎ 11 −34
ℎ 2×10 ×6.63×10
Thus, 𝑉 = 2𝑒 = 2×1.6×10−19
= 414.38 𝑉

Questions on superconductivity
6 marks
1. Explain Meissner effect and its cause. Show that superconductors exhibit perfect
diamagnetism.
2. Differentiate between type I and type II superconductors.
3. What are SQUIDs? Explain principle, construction and working of SQUID.

3/4 marks
1. Explain following terms in superconductivity. Draw the diagram and write equation
wherever necessary:
(i) Critical transition temperature (ii) Zero electrical resistance (iii) Persistent currents
(iv) Critical magnetic field (v) Critical current and critical current density
2. Differentiate between type I and type II superconductors.
3. Discuss in brief low and high temperature superconductors. Where are they used?
4. Explain DC and AC Josephson effect.
5. What are SQUIDs? Explain their applications in brief.
6. Explain applications of superconductors in the field of (any one of below):
(i) Transmission lines and electricity (ii) Superconducting magnets (iii) Frictionless bearings
(iv) Electronics (v) Medical field (vi) MagLev trains.

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