Unit II Fundamentals of IoT

Evolution of Internet of Things

The evolution of the Internet of Things (IoT) has been marked by rapid advancements and
significant impact across various sectors. Initially conceptualized in the late 20th century, IoT
began with basic sensor networks and rudimentary connectivity. Over the years, the
proliferation of wireless communication technologies, such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular
networks, facilitated the seamless connection of devices to the internet.

The advent of IPv6 further accelerated IoT growth by enabling a virtually limitless
number of unique IP addresses. The integration of cloud computing and big data analytics
allowed for real-time data processing and insights, making IoT systems more intelligent and
responsive. Today, IoT encompasses a vast array of applications, from smart homes and
wearable devices to industrial automation and smart cities.

This evolution continues as artificial intelligence and machine learning are increasingly
embedded into IoT systems, enhancing their capabilities to predict, adapt, and optimize. The
ongoing development of 5G networks promises to further revolutionize IoT by providing ultra-
low latency and high-speed connectivity, paving the way for even more innovative and
transformative applications.

Evolution of IoT (By Era wise)

1980s-1990s: Early Concepts

The concept of IoT emerged, where devices connected to the internet could
communicate and share data. Early implementations were basic, focusing on
connecting simple devices.

2000s: Initial Development

RFID Technology: Radio-frequency identification (RFID) was among the first

technologies used to implement IoT, enabling tracking and inventory management.

IPv6: The introduction of IPv6 provided a virtually unlimited number of IP addresses,

facilitating the connection of a vast number of devices.

2010s: Growth and Expansion

Smartphones and Mobile Apps: With the proliferation of smartphones, IoT devices
could now be controlled remotely through mobile apps.

Cloud Computing: The rise of cloud computing enabled scalable data storage and
processing, essential for IoT applications.

Big Data and Analytics: Analyzing large volumes of data generated by IoT devices
became feasible, leading to more informed decision-making.
2020s: Maturation and Standardization

5G Networks: The deployment of 5G networks significantly enhanced IoT capabilities,

offering higher speeds, lower latency, and greater device density.

AI and Machine Learning: Integrating AI and machine learning with IoT enabled
predictive analytics, automation, and enhanced decision-making.

Enabling Technologies

Connectivity

Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee: Short-range wireless communication technologies.

LoRa, Sigfox: Long-range, low-power communication technologies.

5G: High-speed, low-latency communication for massive IoT deployments.

Sensors and Actuators

Devices that collect data from the environment (sensors) and perform actions
(actuators).

Edge Computing

Processing data at the edge of the network, closer to where it is generated, to reduce
latency and bandwidth usage.

Cloud Computing

Centralized data storage and processing for scalable and flexible IoT solutions.

IoT Architectures

oneM2M
Definition: oneM2M is a global standards initiative aimed at promoting interoperability
and standardization on the Internet of Things (IoT) ecosystem. It was established to create
a common, standardized framework for machine-to-machine (M2M) communications,
facilitating seamless interaction between various IoT devices and systems. oneM2M
focuses on defining a set of protocols and architectures that enable efficient, secure, and
scalable communication across different networks and devices.

Purpose: OneM2M aims to develop standards that enable interoperability across

different IoT applications and sectors.

Architecture: It provides a common service layer that can be embedded within various
hardware and software to ensure devices and applications from different vendors can
work together.
Components: Includes a common service layer, application layer, and network layer.

IoT World Forum (IoTWF)

Definition: The IoT World Forum (IoTWF) is a premier annual event that gathers industry
leaders, innovators, and stakeholders from around the globe to discuss and shape the
future of the Internet of Things (IoT). Organized by Cisco, this forum serves as a platform
for networking, collaboration, and knowledge exchange, addressing the latest trends,
challenges, and advancements in the IoT landscape. The IoTWF features keynote
presentations, panel discussions, and breakout sessions led by experts from various
sectors, including technology, manufacturing, healthcare, and smart cities.

Framework: Developed by the IoT World Forum, this architecture is designed to guide
the development and deployment of IoT solutions.

Layers:

Physical Devices and Controllers: Sensors, actuators, and other physical devices.

Connectivity: Network protocols and standards.

Edge Computing: Processing data at the edge.

Data Accumulation: Data collection and storage.

Data Abstraction: Aggregating and standardizing data.

Application: Software applications that leverage IoT data.

Collaboration and Processes: Interoperability and workflow integration.

Alternative IoT Models

Explanation: Alternative IoT models offer diverse approaches to managing connectivity,
data processing, and device interactions, each suited to specific applications and
requirements. These models include edge computing, where data processing occurs
near the data source, reducing latency and bandwidth usage, ideal for real-time
applications like autonomous vehicles and healthcare monitoring. Fog computing
extends cloud capabilities to the network's edge, distributing computing resources
closer to end devices, enhancing efficiency and scalability for applications such as smart
grids and connected vehicles. The cloud-centric model relies on centralized cloud
infrastructure for storage and analytics, providing extensive computing power and
scalability, commonly used in consumer IoT products like smart home devices.

Hub-and-Spoke Model:

Description: Centralized architecture where all devices (spokes) connect to a central

hub.
Use Case: Smart home systems where a central hub (e.g., smart speaker) manages all
connected devices.

Mesh Network Model:

Description: Decentralized architecture where devices communicate with each other

directly, without a central hub.

Use Case: Industrial IoT systems where reliability and fault tolerance are critical.

Edge-Cloud Hybrid Model:

Description: Combines edge computing and cloud computing, processing some data
locally and sending other data to the cloud.

Use Case: Smart cities where real-time data processing is required, but historical data
is stored in the cloud for analysis.

Fog Computing:

Description: Extends cloud computing to the edge of the network, bringing computing
power closer to IoT devices.

Use Case: Autonomous vehicles where low latency is crucial for safety.

The IoT landscape is continually evolving, with new technologies and architectures
emerging to meet the growing demand for connected devices and intelligent systems.

Simplified IoT Architecture:

A simplified IoT architecture consists of four key layers: devices, connectivity, data
processing, and application. The devices layer includes physical IoT devices and sensors
that collect data from the environment, such as temperature sensors and wearable
health monitors. The connectivity layer involves communication protocols and networks
like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular networks, ensuring data transmission between devices
and central systems. The data processing layer aggregates and analyzes the collected
data, either at the edge or in the cloud, transforming raw data into meaningful
information. Finally, the application layer comprises user-facing applications that utilize
the processed data to provide insights and services, such as mobile apps and web
dashboards. This architecture ensures a cohesive system for efficiently managing and
utilizing IoT data.
It is further divided into 8 parts completing the four key layers of Simplified IoT Architecture
they are as follows:

1. Devices/Sensors

• Description: These are the physical components that collect data from the
environment. Sensors can measure various parameters like temperature, humidity,
motion, light, etc.
• Examples: Temperature sensors, motion detectors, smart thermostats.

2. Connectivity

• Description: This layer is responsible for transmitting the data collected by the
devices/sensors to other parts of the IoT system. Different communication protocols
and network technologies can be used.
• Examples: Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, LoRaWAN, cellular networks (3G/4G/5G).

3. Edge Computing

• Description: In some cases, data is processed closer to where it is generated to reduce

latency and bandwidth usage. Edge devices can perform preliminary data processing
before sending it to the cloud.
• Examples: Edge gateways, microcontrollers, local servers.

4. Data Processing and Analytics

• Description: This layer processes and analyzes the data received from
devices/sensors. It can include real-time processing, storage, and advanced analytics.
• Examples: Data processing frameworks (e.g., Apache Kafka), databases (e.g.,
MongoDB), analytics platforms (e.g., Apache Spark).

5. Cloud Services

• Description: The cloud provides scalable storage and computing resources. It can
host applications, perform in-depth analytics, and store large volumes of data.
• Examples: AWS IoT, Microsoft Azure IoT, Google Cloud IoT.

6. Application Layer

• Description: This layer includes the end-user applications that interact with the IoT
system. These applications provide user interfaces and actionable insights based on
the processed data.
• Examples: Mobile apps, web dashboards, alert systems.

7. User Interface

• Description: The interface through which users interact with the IoT system. It allows
users to monitor and control IoT devices and view analytics results.
• Examples: Smartphone apps, web portals, voice assistants.
8. Security

• Description: Security is critical in IoT systems to protect data integrity, privacy, and
prevent unauthorized access.
• Examples: Encryption, authentication mechanisms, firewalls.

Simplified Diagram
[ Devices/Sensors ]
|
[ Connectivity ]
|
[ Edge Computing ]
|
[ Data Processing and Analytics ]
|
[ Cloud Services ]
|
[ Application Layer ]
|
[ User Interface ]
|
[ Security (across all layers) ]

Core IoT Functional Stack, Fog, Edge and Cloud in IoT

The IoT functional stack is a comprehensive framework that describes the different
layers and components involved in an IoT system. It includes the core functions
required to capture, process, store, and act on data.

Roles of Edge, Fog, and Cloud Computing in IoT

• Edge Computing:
o Proximity: Located close to IoT devices.
o Function: Handles immediate data processing, real-time analytics, and quick
decision-making.
 o Advantage: Reduces latency and bandwidth usage, improves response times.
• Fog Computing:
o Proximity: Sits between edge devices and the cloud.
o Function: Performs more complex processing than edge computing, serves as
an intermediary that can offload some tasks from the cloud.
o Advantage: Enhances data processing efficiency, reduces data transfer to the
cloud, supports distributed computing.
• Cloud Computing:
o Proximity: Centralized, remote data centers.
o Function: Provides large-scale storage, powerful computing resources, and
advanced analytics capabilities.
o Advantage: Scalable infrastructure, centralized data management, and
sophisticated analytics.

In summary, edge computing provides immediate data processing near the source, fog
computing offers a bridge with distributed processing capabilities, and cloud computing
provides robust, centralized processing and storage. This hierarchical approach helps
optimize IoT system performance, scalability, and efficiency.

IoT Functional Blocks

IoT systems are composed of a number of building blocks, including sensors/actuators,
connectivity, security, services, etc. The functional blocks are responsible for sensing,
verification, actuation, management, and communication.

These functional blocks are made up of devices that handle interactions between a web server
and the client, enable controls and monitoring functions, manage data transfer, secure the IoT
system through authentication and various purposes, and offer an interface for monitoring and
managing various concepts. Let’s gather more information about the IoT Functional Blocks.
Sensor/Actuator block (Device)

The sensor/actuator block serves as the data entry point in an IoT system. Sensors
collect data from their surroundings, whereas actuators drive physical processes.
Sensors gather data on temperature, humidity, light, motion, and other variables,
whereas actuators turn on lights, open doors, and control machines. These gadgets
work together to collect data and operate in the physical world.

Connectivity Block (Communication)

Once the sensor/actuator block has collected data, it must be sent to the remainder of
the system. This is when the connection block enters the picture. The connectivity block
is in charge of creating and managing communication channels amongst IoT system
devices. This can be accomplished with the use of several technologies such as Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, ZigBee, and cellular networks.

Data Processing Block (Services)

The obtained data is examined and processed in the data processing block. This block
is in charge of filtering out noise and irrelevant data, converting the data into an easily
studied format, and recognizing patterns and anomalies in the data. This block can also
execute real-time analysis, enabling speedy data-driven decisions.

Application Block

The application block is the component of the IoT system that gives value to the end
user. This block is in charge of utilizing the processed data to provide a specified
function or service. An application block, for example, could be used to provide insights
into energy usage in a building or to adjust the temperature in a greenhouse.

Security Block

The security block is in charge of assuring the IoT system's security and protection
against illegal access. This block is in charge of authentication and authorization, as
well as data encryption during transmission and storage. It also handles intrusion
detection and response, assisting in the prevention and mitigation of threats.

Management Block

The management block is in charge of overseeing the overall operation of the IoT
system. This block is capable of handling device configuration, firmware updates, and
system monitoring. It can also give analytics and reporting, allowing system
administrators to understand how the system is operating and find areas for
improvement.
 Sensors, Actuators, Smart Objects and Connecting
Smart Objects
On the Internet of Things (IoT), sensors, actuators, smart objects, and their connectivity form
the core elements of intelligent systems. Sensors are responsible for detecting and measuring
environmental conditions or physical parameters, such as temperature or motion, and
converting these measurements into data. Actuators then take this data and perform physical
actions, like adjusting a thermostat or opening a valve, based on the instructions they receive.
Smart objects integrate both sensors and actuators, along with communication capabilities,
allowing them to autonomously collect data, process it, and interact with other devices. The
connecting of smart objects involves using network technologies and protocols to enable
seamless communication and coordination between these devices. This interconnected network
ensures that smart objects can work together efficiently, creating a cohesive system where data
flows freely and actions are synchronized, enhancing the overall functionality and intelligence
of IoT applications.

The Internet of Things (IoT), sensors, actuators, smart objects, and their interconnections
form the foundational components that enable intelligent and automated systems. Here’s a
brief overview of each:

1. Sensors:
o Description: Sensors are devices designed to detect and measure various
physical parameters such as temperature, humidity, light, motion, and
pressure. They convert these measurements into electrical signals that can be
interpreted by other systems.
o Function: Provide real-time data from the physical world, which is crucial for
monitoring, analysis, and decision-making in IoT systems. For example, a
temperature sensor in a smart thermostat monitors room temperature to
regulate heating or cooling.
2. Actuators:
o Description: Actuators are devices that convert electrical signals into physical
actions or movements. They execute commands received from a control
system to perform tasks such as opening valves, adjusting motors, or turning
lights on and off.
o Function: Carry out physical actions based on the data and instructions from
the IoT system. For instance, a smart lock actuator would physically lock or
unlock a door in response to a command from a security system.
3. Smart Objects:
o Description: Smart objects are integrated with sensors, actuators, and
communication capabilities, enabling them to collect data, process it, and
interact with other devices or systems. These objects are often embedded with
intelligence and connectivity features.
o Function: Serve as the interactive and autonomous elements within IoT
systems. For example, a smart refrigerator can monitor its contents, suggest
recipes, and automatically adjust its temperature based on usage patterns.
 4. Connecting Smart Objects:
o Description: Connecting smart objects involves the integration and
communication between various smart devices through network technologies
and protocols. This connectivity enables seamless data exchange and
coordination among devices.
o Function: Facilitate the interoperability of smart objects, allowing them to
work together in a cohesive system. For example, in a smart home, a network
might connect a smart thermostat, lights, and security cameras, enabling
coordinated actions based on user preferences or environmental conditions.

Together, sensors collect data, actuators perform physical actions, smart objects integrate
these components, and connectivity ensures seamless interaction, creating a cohesive and
intelligent IoT ecosystem.