senna ond Lew Transiting about its horizontal axis in a ven, In other words, transiting results jp . Pa, Shas gg the telescope 100g. 3. Face Left sFace left? means that s = tune of taking readings observer at the time of taking a pope: a The observ sy in the face left position Is calle face-lefi obser og 4. Face Right ; ; This refers to the situation when the vertical circle of the instrument is on te erver when the reading is taken. The observation taken in the fe mown as face-right observation. the vertical circle of the theodolite is on the jeg oy a * a take neh right position is ki 5. Telescope Normal he face left position is known as ‘telescope normal’ or ‘telescope direct’, , also referred to as bubble up. 6. Telescope Inverted The face right position is called ‘telescope inverted” or ‘telescope reversed’. It s also termed bub 7. Changing Face ‘The operation of bringing the vertical circle from one side of the observer to te other is known as changing face. 8. Swinging the Telescope This indicates turing of the telescope in a horizontal plane. It is called ‘rg swing’ when the telescope is tured clockwise and left swing when the telesoyt as tumed anticlockwise. 9. Line of Collimation it ts an imaginary line passing through the intersection of the cross-hairs at diaphragm and the optical centre of the object glass and its continuation. 10. Axis of the Telescope This axis is an imaginary line passin i ote 2 through 1 7 glass and the optical centre of the eyepiece, Seales 11. Axis of the Bubble Tube It is an imaginary line tan; its middle point. 12. Vertical Axis It is the axis of rotation of the telescope in the horj gential to the longitudinal curve of the bubble ube #285 Horizontal Axis 13+ he axis of rotation Of the teleseo * Temporary Adjustment f setting of the theodolite over si ition at the time of taking any observation called temporary adjustment, This adjustment is Necessary for every set up of ve instrument, (See See. 9.5 for detailed description.) t 3 15, Permanent Adjustment PC in the Vertical plane, It is also known when the desired relationship between the fundamental lines of a theodolite is gisturbed then some Procedures are adopted to establish this telationship. This jusiment is known as permanent adju a 'stment. (This ig described in detail in 16, Least Count of the Vernier This is the difference between the value of the smallest divigi and that of the smallest division of the Vernier scale, It is th can be measured by a theodolite, Let (n ~ 1) small divisio, ion of the main scale le smallest value that ws of the main scale be divided into n small divisions in the vernier scale Then "xXv=@— ng ye =) n where v= value of smallest division of vernier scale th Value of smallest division of main scale So, according to the definition, Vet cot = y's ae idl cl Mustration ‘ 2 n d= 20 and n = 60, 20 ye Least It = —x 60 = 20' £ast count 00 Me 5 and py 60, Least count = B60 = oe 60 4 9 on, " Magnification or Magnifying Power of Telescope bg Peenifying Power of a telescope isthe ratio of the focal length of the objective op © eyepiece, It J focal length of objective 'S focal length of eyepiece- aversing 287 TE €ssential parts ofa theodotit ite: a3 TRANSIT THEODOL gllowing are the vag following f 1, Trivet a circular plate having pis @ central, maped stand by a wir threade, led nut. It is al he se OP 80 called Me for fixing the theodolite on ¢ secured to this plate by Means of ba i = base plate. Three foot screws , n sOcket artes s: > Foot Screws arrangement, ¢ are meant for levelling th, thes are S the instrument, The red in the trivet by means of 4 ball-en-socyii Part of the foot screws greaded part passes through the threaded hole in the int ae and the upper if rach plate, 3. Tribrach a mangular plate carrying three foot SCTeWS at its ends 4, Levelling Head The tivet, foot screws and the tribrac! i 5 eo Sap h constitute a body which is known as the 5. Spindles Photo Transit Vernier Theodolive 20 llsurveying and Levelling 288 Vertical Circle 1 — Telencope Altitude Bubble ——*) iy az Morizontal Axis a) \ co) date taille Adjustable Mirror Focussing Screw Tubular Compass Index Bar ‘Tangent Screw Standard Upper Plate Plate Bubble i Lower Plate Fig. 9.2. Transit Theodolite 6. Lower Plate The lower plate re ee me ee e oe axis, and is also known as the scale ye Each degree is a Aa from 0 to 360° in a clockwise dire Etec cnall deed subdivided into two, three or four divisl sts Oe vine jae ae be 30’, 20° or 15! respectivel i pee i plate is provided with a clamy ively. sort whit ea novements. When the clamp ae screw and a tangent “oJ ) er axis. For fine adjustment of the is tightened, this plate! 0 to the extent required. The size of late, the tangent scr. M4 diameter of the lower plate. : nated according 7. Uppe phe upper fay motion when the | sand for fi 8, Plate qwo plate the verniel gometime meant for g. Stan Two fram the telesc as standai 10. Tel The teles axis. It c is provide 11. Ve The vertheod« 7, upper Plate Ole Traversing upper plate contains the Vernier motion is controlled by the the clamp screw jg tj * for fine adjustment of 289 Scales 4 and B 'Pper | tis attach htened, is ‘AMP screy, and ed to the inner axis. Vernie, the upper tangent screw. tl T Scales ; he scales the tangent u® fixed with the inner axis, 4 late Bubble Sctew is rotated, wo plate bubbles are Mounted at right angl les t sept parallel 4p ‘© each other on the upper surface of late. One bubble j the vernier P le is k metimes one plate bubble jg Provided on the horizontal axis of the theodolite i tl geant for levelling the instrument at tne time ee baa Paes az e g, Standard or A-frame g the horizontal angles. two frames (shaped like the letter ‘A’) a the telescope, the vertical circle and een cree bi erie as standards or A-frames. 10. Telescope The telescope is pivoted between the standards at right angles to the horizontal axis. It can be rotated about its horizontal axis in a vertical plane. The telescope is provided with a focussing screw, clamping screw and tangent screw. 1]. Vertical Circle The vertical circle is rigidly fixed with the telescope and moves with it. It is divided into four quadrants. Each quadrant is graduated from 0 to 90° in opposite directions, with the ‘zero’ mark at the ends of the horizontal diameter of the vertical circle. The line joining the ‘zero’ marks, corresponds to the line of collimation. The subdivisions of the vertical circle are similar to these of the horizontal circle. The Vertical circle can be clamped or finely adjusted with the help of the clamping Screw and the tangent screw provided along with the telescope. 12. Index Bar or T-frame The index bar is provided on the standat h rd in front of the vertical circle. It carries Wo verniers (C and D) at the two ends of the horizontal pai wie ie of the index bar is provided with a clip screw at the lower end’ by mean altitude bubble can be brought to the centre. '3. Altitude Bubble top of index bar. The bubble i long sensitive bubble tube is provided on i ble is brought 10 the centre by ins is known as the altitude bubble. ia Be al angle. A mirror is provided Clip screw at the time of measuring oe the instrument is set up above top of the bubble to help observe ormal height,surveying and Levelling 290 14. Compass Sometimes a circul o standards. In modern theodolites, an can be fitted with a screw to the stan magnetic bearing of a line. |G THE VERNIER THEODOLITE | be determined first. Let it be 20”, The degree. Suppose itis divided into thre is mounted on the vernier scale bet Jar box compass ey a adjustable trough compass or tubular." Mlard. The compass 8 provided for 7" 9.4 READIN of the vernier is to is of one 20’ (i.e. d= 20’). big and 60 small divisions. The least count division of the main scale i: Then each part accounts for The vernier scale has 20 d_ 20 So, Least count = == — x 60 = 20” n 20” Least count for one small division (20” x 3) = 60” = 1’ ey Least count for one big division After making the final adjustment for measuring the angle, the position of i arrow of the vernier scale is noted. Suppose the arrow crosses 10° and 20’, i is the direct reading obtained from the main scale. Suppose, again, that th: small division after 12 big divisions exactly coincides with any of the main divisions. Then, the vernier reading 12’20”. Final angle = 10°20’ + 12’20” = 10°32'20° Here, Main Scale Fig. 9.3 Vernier Theodolite 9. 5 READING THE MICROMETER THEODOLITE The micrometer theodolite gi scale, * theodolite gives an accurate result more quickly than the ver Each main divisi : eae ion of the mai ‘io subdivided into si main scale cor , a alten Ho six parts. So, each subdivisi responds to one deETE sri + is divided into ten main divisions, eact eonex 10’. The dru isions, 5 ‘one min ‘aa cach PO Further, each main divi 4 ain divisi eR Penile of the drum isTheodolit, micrometer consists of . 4. ec ines. The hair lines are bait es At the beginning PF ithin the hair tines ff ¢ Traversing 291 *PhragM which as: arallel_ vertical tone i ich carries two pai neta Wt alpoudereipea eerie eee » the Micrometer is Set to zero, when the index mark of measuring any angle, the Position of the index mark on the main scale is EfisappOee it Crobece 31°30, which tg ¢ mor, scale (Fig. 9.4(a)], i "S reading directly obtained from the Yow, the micrometer ig Moved backwards u ef cotrekiondtng 10 30’) is ex theo : ‘Actly midyy, ihe micrometer reading is taken. Let the read a Mtl the next backward division (i ©, ‘ay between the hairs. At this time, ng be 510” (Fig, 9.4(b)]. ~ 31°30" + S10” 3103519" wut La Final angle So, 3 6 tui tih Hn 31 32 Fig. 9.4 (a), (b) 96 TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENT OF THEODOLITE Such adjustment involves the following steps, |. Setting the Theodolite over the Station * tripod stand is placed ove "om the box and fixed on top 10 th t the required station. The theodolite is then lifted of the stand by means of a wing nut or according i i nt, ¢ fixing arrangement provided along with the instrumen 2 Approximate Levelling by Tripod Stand nly fixed on the ground, 7° *88 of the tripod stand are placed well tin atin this, two legs are a {pproximate levelling tsdone ica ee moved in or out, ¢ firmly fixed on the ground an i cock vige a perp approximately at the centre of its run, 3, Ce, eMtring Station, sntting is the process of setting the instrument oa “toa Of a TOximate level ing by means of the wae vertical Plu pat suspended from the hook under ! NF the station peg,———So- - done accurately so that the — 4. Levellin: vey ration, all the foot xerews ate NOURI 10 the ey Mie a » the levelling oP (a) The plate bubble is placed parallel 0 any ee et foot vorews (iy the fy and second foot screws) By wming both these serews equally inwards 7 outwards, the bubble is brought to the (b) The plate bubble is turned through 90° so that it 18 per- pendicular (© the line join ing the first and second foot screws. Then by turning the third foot screw either clock- wise oF anticlockwise the bubble is brought to the centre (Fig. 9.5). Some instruments may have we centre, two plate bubbles perpendicular Bubble to each other, In such a case, one bubble is kept parallel oe i poauiion a to any pair of foot screws; the other plate bubble will Fig. 9.5 Levelling automatically be perpendicular first bubble. Here, the instrument need not be tured. to the position of the The first bubble can b foot screws, and the second bubble ¢: the third foot screw. The process is repeated several times, so that the bubble remains in the both directions perpendicular 0 central position of the plate bubble, other. about its vertical axis. If the bubble djustment of the bubble is ¢ brought to the centre by turning the first and an be brought to the centre by turning (c (d) The instrument is rotated through 360° still remains in the central position, the ai and the vertical axis is truly vertical. 5. Focussing the Eyepiece The eyepiece is focussed so that the cross-hairs can be seen the telescope is directed towards the sky or a piece of white pape! of the object glass, and the eyepiece is moved in or out by turni or anticlockwise until the cross-hairs appear distinct and sharp. To do this clearly. To do eld inf ing it clock! 6. Focussing the Object Glass s This is done to bring a sharp image of the i p Panga i object or target in the plane © 4, hairs and to eliminate parallax. To do this, the ‘ele is directed tO¥% | yptl object or target and the focussing screw is turned clockwise orTheodolite Traversing 293 sage appears clear and sharp and there is myge and cross-haits. The absence 9 nO relative movement between f relatiy i ve Me ihe eye up and down, o ‘© movement can be verified by ; setting the Vernier . veri A is set to 0° and vernier B to 180°. To do this, the lower clamp is jcd The upper clamp is loosened and the upper plate tumed until the arrow gvemier A approximately coincides with zero (i.¢, the 360° mark) and that of emier B approximately coincides with the 180° mark. Then the upper clamp is sgtened, and by turning the upper tangent screw, the arrows are brought to a pesition of exact coincidence, First Position \ \ wr Second Position c Fig. 9.6 Setting the Vernier eng COMPIees the temporary adjustment required for taking readings with the Motel, struments with four foot screws are absolete nowadays. Ho: Ne fog, , Procedure of levelling involves making the bubble Parallel to the oun AB and CD successively, and by turning these foot screws eq) the bubble is brought to the centre of its run. wever the line joining * jually inwards ir Process is repeated several times and the Permanent adjustment of th “Sument is tested by turning the bubble through 180°, eSBS my &jons- gator yerse can also be checke by calcu, we. ADP and DFP as Closed figures fing ¢ p 4 » coordinates of P, calculated from b it sumed to be correct, be 3s py ive »~_ vverse and plotting Ma Ust m, eet at P when plotted from Vy o'"8 the coordinates of the point P, oy Oth sides ate equal then the traverse 6 SOURCES OF ERROR IN THEODOLITES 4 instrumental Errors A following are the major causes of instrament ‘al tror: }, Non-adjustment of Plate Bubble is avis of the plate bubble may not ge plate levels are centered, the ve be perpendicular to the vertical axis. So, when Ttical axi the horizontal circle would be S May not be truly vertical. In such a inclined and the an; inclined plane. This would cause an error in { This error may be eliminated by levelling attude bubble also. gles will be measured in * he angle measured. the instrument with reference to the 2. Line of Collimation not being Perpendicular to Horizontal Axis Inthis case, a cone is formed when the telescope is revolved in the vertical plane, ad this causes an €rror in the observation, This error is eliminated by Treading the angle from both faces (left and tight), ad taking the average of the Teadings. ‘scope, there is an 1S error is elimin; by taking Teadings Tier readings, This error is eliminated by verniers and considering the average of the readings, ray being Uniform if 85 to this cona; ie % 4itfere, 0 this, Condition is eliminate rts Of the circle, d by Measuring the angles several times312 Surveying and Levelling 7. Verniers being Eccentric Th of the verniers should be diametrically opposite to each le Zero , Pe ii Ais set at 0°, vernier B should be at 180°, May not exist. ; er, But in some Cases, thi, Wg Ming This error is eliminated by reading both verniers and taking the erage B. Personal Errors . The centering may not be done Perfectly, due to carelessness, - The levelling May not be done carefully a ccording to usua - Tf the clamp Screws are not Properly fixed, the instrument The proper tangent screw may not be operated by mistake, ~ The focussing in order to avoid Parallax May not be Perfectly done - The object or Tanging rod may not be bisected accurately, - The verniers in proper place. May not be set © verniers are not Tead because of Oversight I Procedure May slip. aie Pm ee °° also result if th C. Natural Errors to irregular Tefraction. 2 nstrument, and this May lead to wrong Teadings on th In the ij Ie Verniers, AND ITs LIMITATION ‘averse, the algebraic sum of ; alge o! latitudes Must be equal to zero, and 9 es, fiel Measurements of an, eet ; Soincide with the g © distance PY Which g traverse fyi error of closure, m on In Fig. 9 20, the traverse the closing ¢ * tra DAY Sails tg, ‘TOF Of this traverse, eeTheodolite Traversing 315 josed Traverse pec for CH 1, Sum of northings = sum of southings 2, Sum of eastings ~ sum of westings 5, ; + feonsec utive Coordinates The latitude and departure of a point calculated reference to the preceding point for what are called consecutive coordinates 7 4ndependent Coordinates he coordinates of any point with respect “common origin are said to be the independent coordinates of that point T may be a station of the survey or a point entirely outside the traverse_7 Consecutive coordinates may be positive or negative, depending upon the ant in which they lie. In Gale’s table, the independent coordinates of all the points are made positive ty suitably selecting the coordinates of the starting station of the traverse. The coordinate of the starting station (i.e. origin) are assumed to be some positive values slightly greater than the maximum negative values of the latitudes nd departures of the concerned traverse. Thus, all the stations will ultimately come wo the first quadrant when the coordinates of the traverse stations are correlated with the origin by computing the algebraic sum. This method helps calculate the area of the traverse easil\ by the coordinate method, and also simplifies plotting of the traverse. As for example, the coordinates of the starting station 4 are assumed to be (150, +50), Thus, all the stations are brought to the first quadrant. (as shown in the Table 9.9) e Table 9.9 Independent Coordinates of Points of a Traverse eco ae Independent coordinate Remark \4 150.00 50.00 Res ;, 115.00 40.00 35.00 10.00 arting lc 50.00 40.00 60,00 | Pomtot \ BC 5.00 50.0 traverse | ee 25,00 120.00 83.00 4 , 35.00 150.00 $0.00 See ¥y,, MBative latitude = la » Neo. Be lh iei dlotiie equipped WA IEEE whe _ IN recent years, modern then aller dist distance Measuring device, yenerally infrared trased, aller Distances py. in one go under three-dimensional vectors, popmlanly KN i Keser tiny hy, (a) Characteristics of Electronic Theadolite (i) Angle for least count can be 1” with precision Faniaing WAD WT io, (ii) Digital read-outs eliminate the personal Erfor Asi WAU WS tend, interpolation of scale and micrometer settings, (iii) Display window or unit for horizontal and vertical angles availass x. oy or both ends, (iv) Some digital theodolites have modular arrangernent wher upgraded to be a total station of have ar EDM attaches measurement, (v) Large dot-matrix dual-line LCD screen to display beth vertice us horizontal angles simultaneously, (vi) Introducing unique linear focussing mechaniss to simplifyi (vii) Continuous operation for up to 48 hours with fresh alk batteries. (b) Specifications for Digital Theodolite (i) Magnification: 26X to 30K (ii) Field of view: 1.5 (iii) Shortage viewing distance: 1.0 m (iv) Angle read-outs, direct: 5” to 20” (v) Digital angle display is user-switchable from 5S’/1” to 17/5" [98 DIRECT METHOD OF MEASURING HORIZONTAL ANGLE Consider Fig. 9.7. Suppose an angle ZAOB is to be measured. The following procedure is adopted: 1. The instrument is set up over O. It is centred and levelled perfectly according to the procedure described for temporary adjustment. Suppose the instrument was initially in the face left position.Theodtolite Traversing 297 mp is_loosened,_and_by Set to 0° and_vernier B to 2, The lower. clamp is_kepttixed. The upper turing the telescope clockwise vernier A is approximately 180°, The upper clamp is then tightened. Now by turing the upper tangent serew, verniets and B are set to exactly 0° and 180° by looking through the magnifying glass, ten The upper clamp is tightly fixed. The lower one is loosened andthe. telescope is directed to the left-hand object 4. The ranging rod at A is bisected approximately by properly focussing the telescope and eliminating parallax, The lower clamp is tightened, and by turning the lower tangent screw the ranging rod at 4 is accurately bi The lower clamp is kept fixed. The u telescope is turned clockwise by properly focussing the ranging rod at B bisected 5, The readings on ve directly, But in the cas the initial reading from the form, as in Table 9.1, 6 The face of the instrument is changed and the previous procedure is followed. The readings of the verniers are noted in.the table.- The mean of the observations (ie. face left and face right) is the actual angle ZAOB. The two observations are taken to eliminate any possible error due to imperfect adjustment of the instrument, There ary methods of measuring horizontal angles—those of Tepetition ted. pper clamp is loosened and the to approximately bisect the ranging rod at B telescope. The upper clamp is tightened, and the accurately by turning the upper tangent screw. A and B are noted, Vernier_4 gives the angle vernier B, the angle is obtained by subtracting final reading. The readings are noted in tabular A. Repetition Method 'n this method, the anj gle is added a number of times. The total is divided by the umber of readings fo get the angle. The angle should be measured clockwise in the face left and face right positions, with three tepetition at each face. The final ‘eading of the first observation will be the initial reading of the second observation, ‘nd so on. The following procedure should be adopted: p Yocedure | Suppose the angle ZAOB (Fig. 9.8) is to be measured. by the repetition Process. The theodolite is set up at O. 4 A The instrument is centered and levelled Properly. Vernier A is set to 0° and vernier B to 180°, The upper clamp is fixed, and the lower one loosened, By turning the telescope, the ranging rod at A is perfectly bisected With the help of the lower clamp screw and the lower tangent screw. Here, the initial, Teading of vernier A is 0°.zontal Angle Measurement of Table 9.1 Surveying and Leveling 180-00" ower 30720420" 3072030" 302030" o2040" 2102020" 3072040" Thedaie Tareing + clamp is 5, The wpe loosened and rfectly bisect the ranging od af, Th ‘is tumed clockwise to Pre reading on vernier is 39" ‘Pper clamp is clamped. Suppose 'e lower clamp is loosened, _ 4, The I 0d the exactly isect the ranging rod at 4, Hee "PE SuMEamlockise ta Second observation, Here the initial reading is 30° for the js tured clockwise to exactly bisect ne omen a Rs ‘on vernier Abe 60°, - 6, The initial_reading for_the_ third observation 2 AOB is again measured, Let the final ang os ho sae oe which is the accumulated angle. ae rei 1 vr, 24op ~ 2ctulted angie no. ofeadings 0° ule 7. The face of the instrument is changed and the previous procedure is followed. 8, The mean of the two observations gives the actual angle 2408. The result is shown in Table 9.2. B. Reiteration Method This method is suitable when several angles are measured fom a single station In this method, all the angles are measured succesively and finally the horizon is closed (i. the angle between the last station and fist sation is measured) So the final reading of the leading vernier should be the same 25 is initial reading lFthe discrepancy is small, the ero is equally dsribated among all the observed angles. IF itis large, the readings should be cancelled and new sets taken. Suppose it is required to measure 2408 and ZBOC fom sation O. The ocedure is as follows. * First Set |. The theodolite is perfectly cen jn the usual manner. Suppest Position and the telescope is tured over 0 (ig 99) and led prone tr orceava i ken the fe Tet chock (rah si).ment of Angle by Repel 3 £ a waver 20720" 271°00" 304020" 210°40"0" or°4or20" 240°20'40" a0r26°46" 30°200" 30729723" 130-00" 21a" wr040 These Tring i811. (66 360" nd venir 9 amy to 180, "EF One loosened. The veri A upper clamp is fited and the lon rmiers are taken. 2AOB is ote. TAME on Both the Similarly, the object Cis bisected gre noted. BOC is reconded Now the horizon is closed, ie. 6. Moron of the Keading vere is Sar rath oud 1s measured. The the initial reading on which it was st If t dee woe ae discrepancy iS noted. If it is small, the ero is taker amount of angles. If the discrepancy large, the observanon should be oe Propel. andthe readings on the veins second Set 1. The face of the instrument is changed. Again the veries are set at their inital positions. This time the angles ae measured anticlockwise (lef swing). 2. The upper clamp is fixed, and the lower one loosened. Then the object A is perfectly bisected. 3, The lower clamp is tightened. The telescope is tured anticlockwise, and the object-C bisected by loosening the upper clamp screw The readings ‘on both the veriers are taken. COM is noted. 44. Then the object B is bisected by tuning the telescope anticlockwise, and the readings on the veries are taken. 2B0C ss reonded 5. Finally, the horizon is closed ic. the object 4s bisected. Her. the lading vemier’A should show a reading of O° (since t was initially sett 0") The last angle Z40B is noted. “The mean angles of the two sets give the actual values of the angles, If some ‘ermor is found afier arithmetical check, it should be equally distnbuted among the angles. The observations are note as shown iTable 9. 9.9 MEASURING VERTICAL ANGLES as ‘The vertical angle is the one between the horizontal line (line of cop maton Fa a Oh. When is above tx bozonal ie tis own the angle of elevation. When this angle is below the horizontal lin, itis ca the angle of series the angle of elevation Z40C and that of depression Consider Fig. 9.10. Suppose . 2BOC ar tee meaned Te flowing rete is ate: a Seanang «Yel Ande