SC 421: Introduction to Modern Algebra

B.Tech

Gautam Dutta

August 9, 2021

Lecture 2
Groups
A large number of sets endowed with a binary operation have
properties like the set of integers with addition.
These systems are called groups defined as follows:
Groups
A large number of sets endowed with a binary operation have
properties like the set of integers with addition.
These systems are called groups defined as follows:
Groups:
A group is a set G, together with a binary operation ∗, satisfying
the following properties:
Groups
A large number of sets endowed with a binary operation have
properties like the set of integers with addition.
These systems are called groups defined as follows:
Groups:
A group is a set G, together with a binary operation ∗, satisfying
the following properties:
1. G is closed under ∗, i.e for all a, b ∈ G, a ∗ b = c ∈ G.
Groups
A large number of sets endowed with a binary operation have
properties like the set of integers with addition.
These systems are called groups defined as follows:
Groups:
A group is a set G, together with a binary operation ∗, satisfying
the following properties:
1. G is closed under ∗, i.e for all a, b ∈ G, a ∗ b = c ∈ G.
2. ∗ is associative, i.e for all a, b, c ∈ G, we have
(a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c)
Groups
A large number of sets endowed with a binary operation have
properties like the set of integers with addition.
These systems are called groups defined as follows:
Groups:
A group is a set G, together with a binary operation ∗, satisfying
the following properties:
1. G is closed under ∗, i.e for all a, b ∈ G, a ∗ b = c ∈ G.
2. ∗ is associative, i.e for all a, b, c ∈ G, we have
(a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c)
3. G has a ∗ identity element i.e ∃e ∈ G such that for all a ∈ G
a∗e =e∗a=a
Groups
A large number of sets endowed with a binary operation have
properties like the set of integers with addition.
These systems are called groups defined as follows:
Groups:
A group is a set G, together with a binary operation ∗, satisfying
the following properties:
1. G is closed under ∗, i.e for all a, b ∈ G, a ∗ b = c ∈ G.
2. ∗ is associative, i.e for all a, b, c ∈ G, we have
(a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c)
3. G has a ∗ identity element i.e ∃e ∈ G such that for all a ∈ G
a∗e =e∗a=a
4. Every element in G has its ∗ inverse i.e for all
a ∈ G, ∃b ∈ G such that a ∗ b = b ∗ a = e.
Groups
A large number of sets endowed with a binary operation have
properties like the set of integers with addition.
These systems are called groups defined as follows:
Groups:
A group is a set G, together with a binary operation ∗, satisfying
the following properties:
1. G is closed under ∗, i.e for all a, b ∈ G, a ∗ b = c ∈ G.
2. ∗ is associative, i.e for all a, b, c ∈ G, we have
(a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c)
3. G has a ∗ identity element i.e ∃e ∈ G such that for all a ∈ G
a∗e =e∗a=a
4. Every element in G has its ∗ inverse i.e for all
a ∈ G, ∃b ∈ G such that a ∗ b = b ∗ a = e.
b is called the ∗ inverse of a, denoted as, a−1 .
Groups
A large number of sets endowed with a binary operation have
properties like the set of integers with addition.
These systems are called groups defined as follows:
Groups:
A group is a set G, together with a binary operation ∗, satisfying
the following properties:
1. G is closed under ∗, i.e for all a, b ∈ G, a ∗ b = c ∈ G.
2. ∗ is associative, i.e for all a, b, c ∈ G, we have
(a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c)
3. G has a ∗ identity element i.e ∃e ∈ G such that for all a ∈ G
a∗e =e∗a=a
4. Every element in G has its ∗ inverse i.e for all
a ∈ G, ∃b ∈ G such that a ∗ b = b ∗ a = e.
b is called the ∗ inverse of a, denoted as, a−1 .
Note: Often a ∗ b is written as ab. This should not be confused
with ordinary multiplication in numbers.
Eg.1
Eg.1 hZ, +i,
Eg.1 hZ, +i, hQ, +i,
Eg.1 hZ, +i,√ hQ, +i, hQ∗ , ×i, where Q∗ = Q − {0} Eg.2
G = {a + b 2, a, b ∈ Q}
Eg.1 hZ, +i,√ hQ, +i, hQ∗ , ×i, where Q∗ = Q − {0} Eg.2
G = {a + b 2, a, b ∈ Q}
hG, +i is a group.
Eg.1 hZ, +i,√ hQ, +i, hQ∗ , ×i, where Q∗ = Q − {0} Eg.2
G = {a + b 2, a, b ∈ Q}
hG, +i is a group.
hG∗ , ×i where G∗ = G − {0}?
Eg.1 hZ, +i,√ hQ, +i, hQ∗ , ×i, where Q∗ = Q − {0} Eg.2
G = {a + b 2, a, b ∈ Q}
hG, +i is a group.
hG∗ , ×i where G∗ =√G − {0}?
Existence of (a + b 2)−1 if a2 = 2b2 ?
Eg.1 hZ, +i,√ hQ, +i, hQ∗ , ×i, where Q∗ = Q − {0} Eg.2
G = {a + b 2, a, b ∈ Q}
hG, +i is a group.
hG∗ , ×i where G∗ =√G − {0}?
Existence of (a + b 2)−1 if a2 = 2b2 ?
Such elements are not in G.
So it is a group.
Eg.1 hZ, +i,√ hQ, +i, hQ∗ , ×i, where Q∗ = Q − {0} Eg.2
G = {a + b 2, a, b ∈ Q}
hG, +i is a group.
hG∗ , ×i where G∗ =√G − {0}?
Existence of (a + b 2)−1 if a2 = 2b2 ?
Such elements are not in G.
So it is a group.
Eg. 3
hC, +i and hC∗ , ×i are groups.
Eg.1 hZ, +i,√ hQ, +i, hQ∗ , ×i, where Q∗ = Q − {0} Eg.2
G = {a + b 2, a, b ∈ Q}
hG, +i is a group.
hG∗ , ×i where G∗ =√G − {0}?
Existence of (a + b 2)−1 if a2 = 2b2 ?
Such elements are not in G.
So it is a group.
Eg. 3
hC, +i and hC∗ , ×i are groups.
Eg. 4
Set of all n × n real invertible matrices forms a group under the
operation of matrix multiplication.
Eg.1 hZ, +i,√ hQ, +i, hQ∗ , ×i, where Q∗ = Q − {0} Eg.2
G = {a + b 2, a, b ∈ Q}
hG, +i is a group.
hG∗ , ×i where G∗ =√G − {0}?
Existence of (a + b 2)−1 if a2 = 2b2 ?
Such elements are not in G.
So it is a group.
Eg. 3
hC, +i and hC∗ , ×i are groups.
Eg. 4
Set of all n × n real invertible matrices forms a group under the
operation of matrix multiplication.
This group is called the general linear group of order n, denoted
as GLn (R).
Similarly GLn (C) is a group.
Eg. 5

Permutation Group
Eg. 5

Permutation Group
Permutation is a one-one mapping of a set onto itself.
The collection of all such mappings on n objects,
Eg. 5

Permutation Group
Permutation is a one-one mapping of a set onto itself.
The collection of all such mappings on n objects, denoted as Sn
forms a group under the operation of composition of mappings.
Eg. 5

Permutation Group
Permutation is a one-one mapping of a set onto itself.
The collection of all such mappings on n objects, denoted as Sn
forms a group under the operation of composition of mappings.
Consider the set of integers N = {1, 2, 3, ..., n}.
Eg. 5

Permutation Group
Permutation is a one-one mapping of a set onto itself.
The collection of all such mappings on n objects, denoted as Sn
forms a group under the operation of composition of mappings.
Consider the set of integers N = {1, 2, 3, ..., n}.
Let f and g be two permutations on N. Then f and g are one
one and onto on N.
Eg. 5

Permutation Group
Permutation is a one-one mapping of a set onto itself.
The collection of all such mappings on n objects, denoted as Sn
forms a group under the operation of composition of mappings.
Consider the set of integers N = {1, 2, 3, ..., n}.
Let f and g be two permutations on N. Then f and g are one
one and onto on N.
So h = f ◦ g is also one one and onto. Hence Sn is closed
under composition of permutations.
Eg. 5

Permutation Group
Permutation is a one-one mapping of a set onto itself.
The collection of all such mappings on n objects, denoted as Sn
forms a group under the operation of composition of mappings.
Consider the set of integers N = {1, 2, 3, ..., n}.
Let f and g be two permutations on N. Then f and g are one
one and onto on N.
So h = f ◦ g is also one one and onto. Hence Sn is closed
under composition of permutations.
The composition of functions is associative since
Eg. 5

Permutation Group
Permutation is a one-one mapping of a set onto itself.
The collection of all such mappings on n objects, denoted as Sn
forms a group under the operation of composition of mappings.
Consider the set of integers N = {1, 2, 3, ..., n}.
Let f and g be two permutations on N. Then f and g are one
one and onto on N.
So h = f ◦ g is also one one and onto. Hence Sn is closed
under composition of permutations.
The composition of functions is associative since
h ◦ (f ◦ g)(a) = h(f (g(a))) and
Eg. 5

Permutation Group
Permutation is a one-one mapping of a set onto itself.
The collection of all such mappings on n objects, denoted as Sn
forms a group under the operation of composition of mappings.
Consider the set of integers N = {1, 2, 3, ..., n}.
Let f and g be two permutations on N. Then f and g are one
one and onto on N.
So h = f ◦ g is also one one and onto. Hence Sn is closed
under composition of permutations.
The composition of functions is associative since
h ◦ (f ◦ g)(a) = h(f (g(a))) and (h ◦ f ) ◦ g(a) = h(f (g(a))) for any
a ∈ N.
Eg. 5 contd...
The identity permutation given by the function e(a) = a ∀a ∈ N
is the identity element w.r.t composition.
Eg. 5 contd...
The identity permutation given by the function e(a) = a ∀a ∈ N
is the identity element w.r.t composition.
If f is any permutation then
Eg. 5 contd...
The identity permutation given by the function e(a) = a ∀a ∈ N
is the identity element w.r.t composition.
If f is any permutation then
f (e(a)) = f (a) and e(f (a)) = f (a). So

f ◦e =e◦f =f
Eg. 5 contd...
The identity permutation given by the function e(a) = a ∀a ∈ N
is the identity element w.r.t composition.
If f is any permutation then
f (e(a)) = f (a) and e(f (a)) = f (a). So

f ◦e =e◦f =f

Every one-one and onto function has an inverse function. The

inverse function acts as the inverse permutation of a given
permutation.
Eg. 5 contd...
The identity permutation given by the function e(a) = a ∀a ∈ N
is the identity element w.r.t composition.
If f is any permutation then
f (e(a)) = f (a) and e(f (a)) = f (a). So

f ◦e =e◦f =f

Every one-one and onto function has an inverse function. The

inverse function acts as the inverse permutation of a given
permutation.
Hence the collection of all permutations Sn forms a group under
the operation of composition.
Eg. 5 contd....
Eg. 5 contd....
Consider the set {1, 2, 3}.
Eg. 5 contd....
Consider
 the set{1, 2, 3}. Consider
 thetwo permutations
1 2 3 1 2 3
σ= and τ = of S3
3 1 2 2 1 3
Eg. 5 contd....
Consider
 the set{1, 2, 3}. Consider
 thetwo permutations
1 2 3 1 2 3
σ= and τ = of S3
3 1 2 2 1 3
The composites obtained from σ and τ are
Eg. 5 contd....
Consider
 the set{1, 2, 3}. Consider
 thetwo permutations
1 2 3 1 2 3
σ= and τ = of S3
3 1 2 2 1 3
The composites
 obtained
 from σ and τ are
1 2 3
σ2 = ,
2 3 1
Eg. 5 contd....
Consider
 the set{1, 2, 3}. Consider
 thetwo permutations
1 2 3 1 2 3
σ= and τ = of S3
3 1 2 2 1 3
The composites
 obtained
 from σ and 
τ are
1 2 3 1 2 3
σ2 = , σ3 = =e
2 3 1 1 2 3
Eg. 5 contd....
Consider
 the set{1, 2, 3}. Consider
 thetwo permutations
1 2 3 1 2 3
σ= and τ = of S3
3 1 2 2 1 3
The composites
 obtained
 from σ and 
τ are
1 2 3 1 2 3
σ2 = , σ3 = = e = τ 2,
2 3 1 1 2 3
Eg. 5 contd....
Consider
 the set{1, 2, 3}. Consider
 thetwo permutations
1 2 3 1 2 3
σ= and τ = of S3
3 1 2 2 1 3
The composites
 obtained
 from σ and 
τ are
1 2 3 1 2 3
σ2 = , σ3 = = e = τ 2,
2 3 1 1 2 3
   
1 2 3 2 1 2 3
στ = ,σ τ =
1 3 2 3 2 1
Eg. 5 contd....
Consider
 the set{1, 2, 3}. Consider
 thetwo permutations
1 2 3 1 2 3
σ= and τ = of S3
3 1 2 2 1 3
The composites
 obtained
 from σ and 
τ are
1 2 3 1 2 3
σ2 = , σ3 = = e = τ 2,
2 3 1 1 2 3
   
1 2 3 2 1 2 3
στ = ,σ τ =
1 3 2 3 2 1
∴ S3 = {e, σ, σ 2 , τ, στ, σ 2 τ }
Eg. 5 contd....
Consider
 the set{1, 2, 3}. Consider
 thetwo permutations
1 2 3 1 2 3
σ= and τ = of S3
3 1 2 2 1 3
The composites
 obtained
 from σ and 
τ are
1 2 3 1 2 3
σ2 = , σ3 = = e = τ 2,
2 3 1 1 2 3
   
1 2 3 2 1 2 3
στ = ,σ τ =
1 3 2 3 2 1
∴ S3 = {e, σ, σ 2 , τ, στ, σ 2 τ }
Verify that στ = τ σ 2 and σ 2 τ = τ σ.
Eg. 5 contd....
Consider
 the set{1, 2, 3}. Consider
 thetwo permutations
1 2 3 1 2 3
σ= and τ = of S3
3 1 2 2 1 3
The composites
 obtained
 from σ and 
τ are
1 2 3 1 2 3
σ2 = , σ3 = = e = τ 2,
2 3 1 1 2 3
   
1 2 3 2 1 2 3
στ = ,σ τ =
1 3 2 3 2 1
∴ S3 = {e, σ, σ 2 , τ, στ, σ 2 τ }
Verify that στ = τ σ 2 and σ 2 τ = τ σ. The group table is
e σ σ2 τ στ σ 2 τ
e e σ σ 2 τ στ σ 2 τ
σ σ σ2 e στ σ 2 τ τ
σ 2 σ 2 e σ σ2τ τ στ
τ τ σ 2 τ στ e σ2 σ
στ στ 2
τ σ τ σ e σ2
2 2
σ τ σ τ στ τ σ 2 σ e
Eg. 6
Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}.
Eg. 6
Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}. The binary operation is addition modulo 4.
Eg. 6
Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}. The binary operation is addition modulo 4.
a ⊕ b = a + b(mod4).
Eg. 6
Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}. The binary operation is addition modulo 4.
a ⊕ b = a + b(mod4).
By definition, Z4 is closed under ⊕.
Eg. 6
Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}. The binary operation is addition modulo 4.
a ⊕ b = a + b(mod4).
By definition, Z4 is closed under ⊕.
1 ⊕ 2 = 3,
Eg. 6
Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}. The binary operation is addition modulo 4.
a ⊕ b = a + b(mod4).
By definition, Z4 is closed under ⊕.
1 ⊕ 2 = 3, 1 ⊕ 3 = 0,
Eg. 6
Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}. The binary operation is addition modulo 4.
a ⊕ b = a + b(mod4).
By definition, Z4 is closed under ⊕.
1 ⊕ 2 = 3, 1 ⊕ 3 = 0, 2 ⊕ 3 = 1, 3 ⊕ 3 = 2, 2 ⊕ 2 = 0,
Eg. 6
Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}. The binary operation is addition modulo 4.
a ⊕ b = a + b(mod4).
By definition, Z4 is closed under ⊕.
1 ⊕ 2 = 3, 1 ⊕ 3 = 0, 2 ⊕ 3 = 1, 3 ⊕ 3 = 2, 2 ⊕ 2 = 0, .....
Eg. 6
Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}. The binary operation is addition modulo 4.
a ⊕ b = a + b(mod4).
By definition, Z4 is closed under ⊕.
1 ⊕ 2 = 3, 1 ⊕ 3 = 0, 2 ⊕ 3 = 1, 3 ⊕ 3 = 2, 2 ⊕ 2 = 0, .....
0 is the identity.
Eg. 6
Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}. The binary operation is addition modulo 4.
a ⊕ b = a + b(mod4).
By definition, Z4 is closed under ⊕.
1 ⊕ 2 = 3, 1 ⊕ 3 = 0, 2 ⊕ 3 = 1, 3 ⊕ 3 = 2, 2 ⊕ 2 = 0, .....
0 is the identity. 1 and 3 are inverses of each other.
Eg. 6
Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}. The binary operation is addition modulo 4.
a ⊕ b = a + b(mod4).
By definition, Z4 is closed under ⊕.
1 ⊕ 2 = 3, 1 ⊕ 3 = 0, 2 ⊕ 3 = 1, 3 ⊕ 3 = 2, 2 ⊕ 2 = 0, .....
0 is the identity. 1 and 3 are inverses of each other.2 is its own
inverse.
Eg. 6
Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}. The binary operation is addition modulo 4.
a ⊕ b = a + b(mod4).
By definition, Z4 is closed under ⊕.
1 ⊕ 2 = 3, 1 ⊕ 3 = 0, 2 ⊕ 3 = 1, 3 ⊕ 3 = 2, 2 ⊕ 2 = 0, .....
0 is the identity. 1 and 3 are inverses of each other.2 is its own
inverse.
For groups containing a small number of elements, a group
table is a convenient way to specify the group completely.
Eg. 6
Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}. The binary operation is addition modulo 4.
a ⊕ b = a + b(mod4).
By definition, Z4 is closed under ⊕.
1 ⊕ 2 = 3, 1 ⊕ 3 = 0, 2 ⊕ 3 = 1, 3 ⊕ 3 = 2, 2 ⊕ 2 = 0, .....
0 is the identity. 1 and 3 are inverses of each other.2 is its own
inverse.
For groups containing a small number of elements, a group
table is a convenient way to specify the group completely.
We construct the group table of Z4

⊕ 0 1 2 3
0
Eg. 6
Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}. The binary operation is addition modulo 4.
a ⊕ b = a + b(mod4).
By definition, Z4 is closed under ⊕.
1 ⊕ 2 = 3, 1 ⊕ 3 = 0, 2 ⊕ 3 = 1, 3 ⊕ 3 = 2, 2 ⊕ 2 = 0, .....
0 is the identity. 1 and 3 are inverses of each other.2 is its own
inverse.
For groups containing a small number of elements, a group
table is a convenient way to specify the group completely.
We construct the group table of Z4

⊕ 0 1 2 3
0 0 1 2 3
1
Eg. 6
Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}. The binary operation is addition modulo 4.
a ⊕ b = a + b(mod4).
By definition, Z4 is closed under ⊕.
1 ⊕ 2 = 3, 1 ⊕ 3 = 0, 2 ⊕ 3 = 1, 3 ⊕ 3 = 2, 2 ⊕ 2 = 0, .....
0 is the identity. 1 and 3 are inverses of each other.2 is its own
inverse.
For groups containing a small number of elements, a group
table is a convenient way to specify the group completely.
We construct the group table of Z4

⊕ 0 1 2 3
0 0 1 2 3
1 1 2 3 0
2
Eg. 6
Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}. The binary operation is addition modulo 4.
a ⊕ b = a + b(mod4).
By definition, Z4 is closed under ⊕.
1 ⊕ 2 = 3, 1 ⊕ 3 = 0, 2 ⊕ 3 = 1, 3 ⊕ 3 = 2, 2 ⊕ 2 = 0, .....
0 is the identity. 1 and 3 are inverses of each other.2 is its own
inverse.
For groups containing a small number of elements, a group
table is a convenient way to specify the group completely.
We construct the group table of Z4

⊕ 0 1 2 3
0 0 1 2 3
1 1 2 3 0
2 2 3 0 1
3
Eg. 6
Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}. The binary operation is addition modulo 4.
a ⊕ b = a + b(mod4).
By definition, Z4 is closed under ⊕.
1 ⊕ 2 = 3, 1 ⊕ 3 = 0, 2 ⊕ 3 = 1, 3 ⊕ 3 = 2, 2 ⊕ 2 = 0, .....
0 is the identity. 1 and 3 are inverses of each other.2 is its own
inverse.
For groups containing a small number of elements, a group
table is a convenient way to specify the group completely.
We construct the group table of Z4

⊕ 0 1 2 3
0 0 1 2 3
1 1 2 3 0
2 2 3 0 1
3 3 0 1 2
I Eg. 7
The Klein 4 group (K4 )
I Eg. 7
The Klein 4 group (K4 )
The group table of K4 = {I, Rx , Ry , Rz } is
I Eg. 7
The Klein 4 group (K4 )
The group table of K4 = {I, Rx , Ry , Rz } is

I Rx Ry Rz
I
I Eg. 7
The Klein 4 group (K4 )
The group table of K4 = {I, Rx , Ry , Rz } is

I Rx Ry Rz
I I Rx Ry Rz
Rx
I Eg. 7
The Klein 4 group (K4 )
The group table of K4 = {I, Rx , Ry , Rz } is

I Rx Ry Rz
I I Rx Ry Rz
Rx Rx I Rz Ry
Ry
I Eg. 7
The Klein 4 group (K4 )
The group table of K4 = {I, Rx , Ry , Rz } is

I Rx Ry Rz
I I Rx Ry Rz
Rx Rx I Rz Ry
Ry Ry Rz I RX
Rz
I Eg. 7
The Klein 4 group (K4 )
The group table of K4 = {I, Rx , Ry , Rz } is

I Rx Ry Rz
I I Rx Ry Rz
Rx Rx I Rz Ry
Ry Ry Rz I RX
Rz Rz Ry Rx I
I Eg. 7
The Klein 4 group (K4 )
The group table of K4 = {I, Rx , Ry , Rz } is

I Rx Ry Rz
I I Rx Ry Rz
Rx Rx I Rz Ry
Ry Ry Rz I RX
Rz Rz Ry Rx I

I The group table of any group with 4 elements either is

similar to Z4 or to that of K4 (exercise).
Definition ( Abellian Group)
If ab = ba ∀ a, b ∈ G then G is an abellian group.
Definition ( Abellian Group)
If ab = ba ∀ a, b ∈ G then G is an abellian group.
I All the examples given above except eg.4, the group of
matrices, and eg.5 are abellian groups.
Definition ( Abellian Group)
If ab = ba ∀ a, b ∈ G then G is an abellian group.
I All the examples given above except eg.4, the group of
matrices, and eg.5 are abellian groups.
For e.g. in S3 , στ 6= τ σ,
Definition ( Abellian Group)
If ab = ba ∀ a, b ∈ G then G is an abellian group.
I All the examples given above except eg.4, the group of
matrices, and eg.5 are abellian groups.
For e.g. in S3 , στ 6= τ σ, it is equal to τ σ 2 .
Definition ( Abellian Group)
If ab = ba ∀ a, b ∈ G then G is an abellian group.
I All the examples given above except eg.4, the group of
matrices, and eg.5 are abellian groups.
For e.g. in S3 , στ 6= τ σ, it is equal to τ σ 2 .

Lemma (1)
Let hG, ∗i be a group. then we have the following
Definition ( Abellian Group)
If ab = ba ∀ a, b ∈ G then G is an abellian group.
I All the examples given above except eg.4, the group of
matrices, and eg.5 are abellian groups.
For e.g. in S3 , στ 6= τ σ, it is equal to τ σ 2 .

Lemma (1)
Let hG, ∗i be a group. then we have the following
(i) The identity element in hG, ∗i is unique.
Definition ( Abellian Group)
If ab = ba ∀ a, b ∈ G then G is an abellian group.
I All the examples given above except eg.4, the group of
matrices, and eg.5 are abellian groups.
For e.g. in S3 , στ 6= τ σ, it is equal to τ σ 2 .

Lemma (1)
Let hG, ∗i be a group. then we have the following
(i) The identity element in hG, ∗i is unique.
(ii) Every a ∈ G has a unique inverse.
Definition ( Abellian Group)
If ab = ba ∀ a, b ∈ G then G is an abellian group.
I All the examples given above except eg.4, the group of
matrices, and eg.5 are abellian groups.
For e.g. in S3 , στ 6= τ σ, it is equal to τ σ 2 .

Lemma (1)
Let hG, ∗i be a group. then we have the following
(i) The identity element in hG, ∗i is unique.
(ii) Every a ∈ G has a unique inverse.
(iii) ∀ a ∈ G, (a−1 )−1 = a.
Definition ( Abellian Group)
If ab = ba ∀ a, b ∈ G then G is an abellian group.
I All the examples given above except eg.4, the group of
matrices, and eg.5 are abellian groups.
For e.g. in S3 , στ 6= τ σ, it is equal to τ σ 2 .

Lemma (1)
Let hG, ∗i be a group. then we have the following
(i) The identity element in hG, ∗i is unique.
(ii) Every a ∈ G has a unique inverse.
(iii) ∀ a ∈ G, (a−1 )−1 = a.
(iv) ∀ a, b ∈ G, (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1 .
Definition ( Abellian Group)
If ab = ba ∀ a, b ∈ G then G is an abellian group.
I All the examples given above except eg.4, the group of
matrices, and eg.5 are abellian groups.
For e.g. in S3 , στ 6= τ σ, it is equal to τ σ 2 .

Lemma (1)
Let hG, ∗i be a group. then we have the following
(i) The identity element in hG, ∗i is unique.
(ii) Every a ∈ G has a unique inverse.
(iii) ∀ a ∈ G, (a−1 )−1 = a.
(iv) ∀ a, b ∈ G, (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1 .

I Proof: (i)
Let if possible e and e0 be two distinct identities.
Definition ( Abellian Group)
If ab = ba ∀ a, b ∈ G then G is an abellian group.
I All the examples given above except eg.4, the group of
matrices, and eg.5 are abellian groups.
For e.g. in S3 , στ 6= τ σ, it is equal to τ σ 2 .

Lemma (1)
Let hG, ∗i be a group. then we have the following
(i) The identity element in hG, ∗i is unique.
(ii) Every a ∈ G has a unique inverse.
(iii) ∀ a ∈ G, (a−1 )−1 = a.
(iv) ∀ a, b ∈ G, (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1 .

I Proof: (i)
Let if possible e and e0 be two distinct identities.
Then e ∗ e0 = e0 ∗ e = e0 ,
Definition ( Abellian Group)
If ab = ba ∀ a, b ∈ G then G is an abellian group.
I All the examples given above except eg.4, the group of
matrices, and eg.5 are abellian groups.
For e.g. in S3 , στ 6= τ σ, it is equal to τ σ 2 .

Lemma (1)
Let hG, ∗i be a group. then we have the following
(i) The identity element in hG, ∗i is unique.
(ii) Every a ∈ G has a unique inverse.
(iii) ∀ a ∈ G, (a−1 )−1 = a.
(iv) ∀ a, b ∈ G, (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1 .

I Proof: (i)
Let if possible e and e0 be two distinct identities.
Then e ∗ e0 = e0 ∗ e = e0 , since e is an identity
Definition ( Abellian Group)
If ab = ba ∀ a, b ∈ G then G is an abellian group.
I All the examples given above except eg.4, the group of
matrices, and eg.5 are abellian groups.
For e.g. in S3 , στ 6= τ σ, it is equal to τ σ 2 .

Lemma (1)
Let hG, ∗i be a group. then we have the following
(i) The identity element in hG, ∗i is unique.
(ii) Every a ∈ G has a unique inverse.
(iii) ∀ a ∈ G, (a−1 )−1 = a.
(iv) ∀ a, b ∈ G, (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1 .

I Proof: (i)
Let if possible e and e0 be two distinct identities.
Then e ∗ e0 = e0 ∗ e = e0 , since e is an identity
Also e ∗ e0 = e0 ∗ e = e,
Definition ( Abellian Group)
If ab = ba ∀ a, b ∈ G then G is an abellian group.
I All the examples given above except eg.4, the group of
matrices, and eg.5 are abellian groups.
For e.g. in S3 , στ 6= τ σ, it is equal to τ σ 2 .

Lemma (1)
Let hG, ∗i be a group. then we have the following
(i) The identity element in hG, ∗i is unique.
(ii) Every a ∈ G has a unique inverse.
(iii) ∀ a ∈ G, (a−1 )−1 = a.
(iv) ∀ a, b ∈ G, (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1 .

I Proof: (i)
Let if possible e and e0 be two distinct identities.
Then e ∗ e0 = e0 ∗ e = e0 , since e is an identity
Also e ∗ e0 = e0 ∗ e = e, since e0 is an identity
Definition ( Abellian Group)
If ab = ba ∀ a, b ∈ G then G is an abellian group.
I All the examples given above except eg.4, the group of
matrices, and eg.5 are abellian groups.
For e.g. in S3 , στ 6= τ σ, it is equal to τ σ 2 .

Lemma (1)
Let hG, ∗i be a group. then we have the following
(i) The identity element in hG, ∗i is unique.
(ii) Every a ∈ G has a unique inverse.
(iii) ∀ a ∈ G, (a−1 )−1 = a.
(iv) ∀ a, b ∈ G, (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1 .

I Proof: (i)
Let if possible e and e0 be two distinct identities.
Then e ∗ e0 = e0 ∗ e = e0 , since e is an identity
Also e ∗ e0 = e0 ∗ e = e, since e0 is an identity
=⇒ e = e0 .
Lemma (2)
Let a, b ∈ G. Then there exist a unique solution to a ∗ x = b and
y ∗ a = b in G.
Lemma (2)
Let a, b ∈ G. Then there exist a unique solution to a ∗ x = b and
y ∗ a = b in G.
Also ∀ a, x, y ∈ G

a∗x = a ∗ y =⇒ x = y left cancelation law

and x ∗ a = y ∗ a =⇒ x = y right cancelation law
Lemma (2)
Let a, b ∈ G. Then there exist a unique solution to a ∗ x = b and
y ∗ a = b in G.
Also ∀ a, x, y ∈ G

a∗x = a ∗ y =⇒ x = y left cancelation law

and x ∗ a = y ∗ a =⇒ x = y right cancelation law

I Lemma 2 ensures that every row and every column of the

group table contains each element of the group exactly
once.
Lemma (2)
Let a, b ∈ G. Then there exist a unique solution to a ∗ x = b and
y ∗ a = b in G.
Also ∀ a, x, y ∈ G

a∗x = a ∗ y =⇒ x = y left cancelation law

and x ∗ a = y ∗ a =⇒ x = y right cancelation law

I Lemma 2 ensures that every row and every column of the

group table contains each element of the group exactly
once.
I Lemma 1 and Lemma 2 are valid only when the algebraic
structure is a group.
Definition (Order of a group)
The number of elements in a finite group G is called the order
of the group, denoted as o(G).
Definition (Order of a group)
The number of elements in a finite group G is called the order
of the group, denoted as o(G).
I Notation: a ∗ a ∗ .... ∗ a(i times) = ai
Definition (Order of a group)
The number of elements in a finite group G is called the order
of the group, denoted as o(G).
I Notation: a ∗ a ∗ .... ∗ a(i times) = ai
(ai )−1 = (a−1 ∗ a−1 ∗ .... ∗ a−1 ) = (a−1 )i denoted as a−i
Definition (Order of a group)
The number of elements in a finite group G is called the order
of the group, denoted as o(G).
I Notation: a ∗ a ∗ .... ∗ a(i times) = ai
(ai )−1 = (a−1 ∗ a−1 ∗ .... ∗ a−1 ) = (a−1 )i denoted as a−i
With this notation we can write a i ∗ (a j )−1 =
Definition (Order of a group)
The number of elements in a finite group G is called the order
of the group, denoted as o(G).
I Notation: a ∗ a ∗ .... ∗ a(i times) = ai
(ai )−1 = (a−1 ∗ a−1 ∗ .... ∗ a−1 ) = (a−1 )i denoted as a−i
With this notation we can write a i ∗ (a j )−1 = ai−j
Subgroups

Definition ( Subgroup)
Let hG, ∗i be a group. A non-empty subset H of G is called a
subgroup of G if hH, ∗i is a group.
Subgroups

Definition ( Subgroup)
Let hG, ∗i be a group. A non-empty subset H of G is called a
subgroup of G if hH, ∗i is a group.
I 2Z = {...., −6, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, 6, ....} = {2k |k ∈ Z}
h2Z, +i is a subgroup of hZ, +i
Subgroups

Definition ( Subgroup)
Let hG, ∗i be a group. A non-empty subset H of G is called a
subgroup of G if hH, ∗i is a group.
I 2Z = {...., −6, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, 6, ....} = {2k |k ∈ Z}
h2Z, +i is a subgroup of hZ, +i
I hZ, +i is a subgroup of hR, +i is a subgroup of hC, +i.
Subgroups

Definition ( Subgroup)
Let hG, ∗i be a group. A non-empty subset H of G is called a
subgroup of G if hH, ∗i is a group.
I 2Z = {...., −6, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, 6, ....} = {2k |k ∈ Z}
h2Z, +i is a subgroup of hZ, +i
I hZ, +i is a subgroup of hR, +i is a subgroup of hC, +i.
I Let M be the set of real 2 × 2 matrices with determinant
=1. Then M is a subgroup of GL2 (R).
Subgroups

Definition ( Subgroup)
Let hG, ∗i be a group. A non-empty subset H of G is called a
subgroup of G if hH, ∗i is a group.
I 2Z = {...., −6, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, 6, ....} = {2k |k ∈ Z}
h2Z, +i is a subgroup of hZ, +i
I hZ, +i is a subgroup of hR, +i is a subgroup of hC, +i.
I Let M be the set of real 2 × 2 matrices with determinant
=1. Then M is a subgroup of GL2 (R).
Lemma (3)
A non-empty subset H of a group hG, ∗i is a subgroup of G if
and only if
(i) H is closed under ∗.
(ii) a ∈ H =⇒ a−1 ∈ H.
Lemma (3)
A non-empty subset H of a group hG, ∗i is a subgroup of G if
and only if
(i) H is closed under ∗.
(ii) a ∈ H =⇒ a−1 ∈ H.

Example
Let n ∈ Z and consider the set nZ.
Lemma (3)
A non-empty subset H of a group hG, ∗i is a subgroup of G if
and only if
(i) H is closed under ∗.
(ii) a ∈ H =⇒ a−1 ∈ H.

Example
Let n ∈ Z and consider the set nZ.
Let nk1 , nk2 ∈ nZ where k1 , k2 ∈ Z.
Lemma (3)
A non-empty subset H of a group hG, ∗i is a subgroup of G if
and only if
(i) H is closed under ∗.
(ii) a ∈ H =⇒ a−1 ∈ H.

Example
Let n ∈ Z and consider the set nZ.
Let nk1 , nk2 ∈ nZ where k1 , k2 ∈ Z.
Then nk1 + nk2 = n(k1 + k2 ) ∈ nZ
Lemma (3)
A non-empty subset H of a group hG, ∗i is a subgroup of G if
and only if
(i) H is closed under ∗.
(ii) a ∈ H =⇒ a−1 ∈ H.

Example
Let n ∈ Z and consider the set nZ.
Let nk1 , nk2 ∈ nZ where k1 , k2 ∈ Z.
Then nk1 + nk2 = n(k1 + k2 ) ∈ nZ since Z is closed under
addition.
Lemma (3)
A non-empty subset H of a group hG, ∗i is a subgroup of G if
and only if
(i) H is closed under ∗.
(ii) a ∈ H =⇒ a−1 ∈ H.

Example
Let n ∈ Z and consider the set nZ.
Let nk1 , nk2 ∈ nZ where k1 , k2 ∈ Z.
Then nk1 + nk2 = n(k1 + k2 ) ∈ nZ since Z is closed under
addition.
So nZ is closed under addition.
Lemma (3)
A non-empty subset H of a group hG, ∗i is a subgroup of G if
and only if
(i) H is closed under ∗.
(ii) a ∈ H =⇒ a−1 ∈ H.

Example
Let n ∈ Z and consider the set nZ.
Let nk1 , nk2 ∈ nZ where k1 , k2 ∈ Z.
Then nk1 + nk2 = n(k1 + k2 ) ∈ nZ since Z is closed under
addition.
So nZ is closed under addition.
For any nk ∈ nZ,
Lemma (3)
A non-empty subset H of a group hG, ∗i is a subgroup of G if
and only if
(i) H is closed under ∗.
(ii) a ∈ H =⇒ a−1 ∈ H.

Example
Let n ∈ Z and consider the set nZ.
Let nk1 , nk2 ∈ nZ where k1 , k2 ∈ Z.
Then nk1 + nk2 = n(k1 + k2 ) ∈ nZ since Z is closed under
addition.
So nZ is closed under addition.
For any nk ∈ nZ, n(−k ) ∈ nZ, which is its additive inverse.
Lemma (3)
A non-empty subset H of a group hG, ∗i is a subgroup of G if
and only if
(i) H is closed under ∗.
(ii) a ∈ H =⇒ a−1 ∈ H.

Example
Let n ∈ Z and consider the set nZ.
Let nk1 , nk2 ∈ nZ where k1 , k2 ∈ Z.
Then nk1 + nk2 = n(k1 + k2 ) ∈ nZ since Z is closed under
addition.
So nZ is closed under addition.
For any nk ∈ nZ, n(−k ) ∈ nZ, which is its additive inverse. So
by Lemma 3 hnZ, +i is a subgroup of hZ, +i.
I
Lemma (4)
If H is a non-empty
Lemma (4)
If H is a non-empty finite subset of a group hG, ∗i, and H is
closed under ∗ then H is a subgroup of G.
Lemma (4)
If H is a non-empty finite subset of a group hG, ∗i, and H is
closed under ∗ then H is a subgroup of G.
I Proof:
Lemma (4)
If H is a non-empty finite subset of a group hG, ∗i, and H is
closed under ∗ then H is a subgroup of G.
I Proof:
Since H is non-empty, ∃a ∈ H.
Lemma (4)
If H is a non-empty finite subset of a group hG, ∗i, and H is
closed under ∗ then H is a subgroup of G.
I Proof:
Since H is non-empty, ∃a ∈ H. Since H is closed under ∗,
a, a2 , ..... ∈ H.
Lemma (4)
If H is a non-empty finite subset of a group hG, ∗i, and H is
closed under ∗ then H is a subgroup of G.
I Proof:
Since H is non-empty, ∃a ∈ H. Since H is closed under ∗,
a, a2 , ..... ∈ H.
But H is finite.
Lemma (4)
If H is a non-empty finite subset of a group hG, ∗i, and H is
closed under ∗ then H is a subgroup of G.
I Proof:
Since H is non-empty, ∃a ∈ H. Since H is closed under ∗,
a, a2 , ..... ∈ H.
But H is finite. So ∃r , p ∈ Z, p > r such that
ap = ar
Lemma (4)
If H is a non-empty finite subset of a group hG, ∗i, and H is
closed under ∗ then H is a subgroup of G.
I Proof:
Since H is non-empty, ∃a ∈ H. Since H is closed under ∗,
a, a2 , ..... ∈ H.
But H is finite. So ∃r , p ∈ Z, p > r such that
ap = ar =⇒ ap−r = e ∈ H.
Lemma (4)
If H is a non-empty finite subset of a group hG, ∗i, and H is
closed under ∗ then H is a subgroup of G.
I Proof:
Since H is non-empty, ∃a ∈ H. Since H is closed under ∗,
a, a2 , ..... ∈ H.
But H is finite. So ∃r , p ∈ Z, p > r such that
ap = ar =⇒ ap−r = e ∈ H.
So e ∈ H.
Lemma (4)
If H is a non-empty finite subset of a group hG, ∗i, and H is
closed under ∗ then H is a subgroup of G.
I Proof:
Since H is non-empty, ∃a ∈ H. Since H is closed under ∗,
a, a2 , ..... ∈ H.
But H is finite. So ∃r , p ∈ Z, p > r such that
ap = ar =⇒ ap−r = e ∈ H.
So e ∈ H.
Now a(p−r )−1 ∗ a = a ∗ a(p−r )−1
Lemma (4)
If H is a non-empty finite subset of a group hG, ∗i, and H is
closed under ∗ then H is a subgroup of G.
I Proof:
Since H is non-empty, ∃a ∈ H. Since H is closed under ∗,
a, a2 , ..... ∈ H.
But H is finite. So ∃r , p ∈ Z, p > r such that
ap = ar =⇒ ap−r = e ∈ H.
So e ∈ H.
Now a(p−r )−1 ∗ a = a ∗ a(p−r )−1 = ap−r = e.
Lemma (4)
If H is a non-empty finite subset of a group hG, ∗i, and H is
closed under ∗ then H is a subgroup of G.
I Proof:
Since H is non-empty, ∃a ∈ H. Since H is closed under ∗,
a, a2 , ..... ∈ H.
But H is finite. So ∃r , p ∈ Z, p > r such that
ap = ar =⇒ ap−r = e ∈ H.
So e ∈ H.
Now a(p−r )−1 ∗ a = a ∗ a(p−r )−1 = ap−r = e.
So a(p−r )−1 = a−1 .
Lemma (4)
If H is a non-empty finite subset of a group hG, ∗i, and H is
closed under ∗ then H is a subgroup of G.
I Proof:
Since H is non-empty, ∃a ∈ H. Since H is closed under ∗,
a, a2 , ..... ∈ H.
But H is finite. So ∃r , p ∈ Z, p > r such that
ap = ar =⇒ ap−r = e ∈ H.
So e ∈ H.
Now a(p−r )−1 ∗ a = a ∗ a(p−r )−1 = ap−r = e.
So a(p−r )−1 = a−1 .
Hence ∀ a ∈ H, a−1 ∈ H. By Lemma 3, H is a subgroup
of G.