EDUC 104: Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

“If you teach a person what to learn, you are preparing Omrod, includes the following in the
that person for the past. If you teach a person how to
learn, you are preparing for the future.” - Cyril Houle,
practice of metacognition:
- Knowing the limits of one’s own learning
and memory capacities.
LESSON 1 - - Knowing what learning tasks one can
realistically accomplish within a certain
METACOGNITIO amount of time.
- Knowing which learning strategies are

N effective and which are not

- Planning an approach to a learning task
Awareness or analysis of one’s own that is likely to be successful.
learning or thinking process. - “Thinking about Using effective learning strategies to process
thinking” or “learning how to learn’- Acquired and learn new material.
knowledge about cognitive process. - This term - Monitoring one’s own knowledge and
was coined by John Flavell (1979-1987). comprehension.
- Using effective strategies for retrieval of
previously stored information.
THREE CATEGORIES OF - Knowledge is said to be metacognitive is
METACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE. keenly used in a purposeful manner to
ensure that a goal is met.
1. KNOWLEDGE OF PERSON VARIABLES
 Knowledge about how human beings learn
and process information. Huitt believes that metacognition includes
 For example, studying early in the the ability to ask and answer the following type
morning and late at night. of questions:
 Working better in a quiet library rather - What do I know about this subject, topic,
than at home where there are lot of things issue?
that make it hard for you to focus and - Do I know what | need to know?
concentrate. - Do I know where I can go to get some
information, knowledge?
2. KNOWLEDGE OF TASK VARIABLES - How much time will I need to learn this?
 Knowledge about the nature of task - What are some strategies and tactics that I
 It is about knowing what exactly needs to can use to learn this?
be accomplished, gauging its difficulty and - Did I understand what I just heard, read or
knowing the kind of effort it will demand saw?
for you. - How will I know if I am learning at an
 For example, being aware that you take appropriate topic?
more time in reading a book in educational - How can I spot an error if I make one?
philosophy than reading a novel. - How should I revise my plan if it is not?
3. KNOWLEDGE OF STRATEGY
VARIABLES
 Involves awareness of the strategy you are METACOGNITIVE
using to learn a topic. STRATEGIES TO FACILITATE
 Meta-attention is the awareness of LEARNING
specific strategies so that you can keep
your attention focused on the topic or task SOME EXAMPLES OF TEACHING
at hand. STRATEGIES TO DEVELOP
 Meta-memory is your awareness of METACOGNITION:
specific strategies that work best for you.
1. Have students monitor their own learning
and thinking.
 around them.
2. Teach students study or learning strategies.
 TQLR — it is a metacognitive strategy 6. Help students to know when to ask for
before listening to a story or a presentation help.
 PQ4R — this strategy is used in a study of
a unit or chapter. 7. Show students how to know when to
transfer knowledge, attitudes, values, skills
T- TUNE IN – It is first important for the learner to other situations of tasks.
himself to be aware that he is paying attention,
and that he is ready to learn. NOVICE AND EXPERT
Q - QUESTION - the learner is given questions LEARNERS
or he thinks of questions about what he will soon Novice Learners
learn, - A person who has just started learning or
doing something.
L—LISTEN - the learner exerts effort to listen.
Expert Learners
R— REMEMBER - the learner uses ways or - Employed metacognitive strategies in
strategies to remember what was learned learning.
- Monitored their learning and consequently
adjusted their strategies to make learning
more effective
P — PREVIEW -Scan the whole chapter before
delving in each paragraph
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NOVICE
Q — QUESTION -Read the guide question AND EXPERT LEARNERS
provided, or think of your own - Knowledge in different subject areas
questions about the topic. - Problem Solving
- Selectivity in processing
R-READ - Check out sub headings as you read. - Production of output
Find out the meaning of words
that are not clear to you.
NOVICE AND EXPERT
R— RECITE -Work on answering the questions LEARNERS
you had earlier. In the last twenty years, cognitive
psychologists have studied the distinctions among
R — REVIEW - Pinpoint topics you may need to learners in the manner they absorb or process
go back and read in order to information. They were able to differentiate the
understand better. expert learners from novice learners. A very
important factor that separated two types of
R- REFLECT - Think about what you read. learners mentioned is metacognition. Expert
learners employed metacognitive strategies in
3. Have students make predictions about learning. They were more aware of their learning
information to be presented next based on process as they read, studied, and did problem
what they have read. solving. Expert learners monitored their learning
and consequently adjusted their strategies to make
4. Have students relate ideas to existing learning more effective.
knowledge structures.
The table below shows the difference of a novice
5. Have students develop questions; ask learner and an expert learner.
question of themselves, about what's going
on

ASPECT OF NOVICE LEARNERS EXPERT LEARNERS

LEARNING
 constructing meaning fromknowledge
informationin and
LESSON
Knowledge
subject areas.2 -
in
LEARNER-
different Have different knowledge in Have
the different subject experience.
areas
deeper
different subject areas because
CENTERED 
they look for interrelationship.
In the
There arethings they learned.
different types of learning
PSYCHOLOGICAL
Problem solving
processes,
Satisfied at just scratching and
the motor
for
First ty
example,
learning,
habit formation
and learning
to understand the that
PRINCIPLES (LCP) surface; hurriedly gives involves
a the
problem, generation
look for of knowledge,
boundaries, or
LEARNER-CENTERED solution to the problem cognitive
and skills
createand
a learning strategies,
mental picture of
the problem.
PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES  Learning in schools emphasizes the use of
The Learner-Centered Psychological
Employ rigid strategies that
intentional processes that students use to
Principles were put together by American
Learning/Thinking Strategies may not be appropriate to construct
the Designmeaning
new strategies that
from information,
Psychological Association. The following 14
task at hand would and
experiences, be appropriate to the and
their own thoughts
principles have the following aspects:
task.
beliefs.
American
 Selectivity in processing Psychological
Attempt to process all Select Important
Successful learners information
are active, togoal-
Association) Focus on psychological
information they received directed, process
self-regulating, and assume
factors that are primarily internal to and able to breakdown
responsibility information
for contributing to their own
under the control of the learner rather than to manageable chunks,
learning
conditioned habits of physiological factors.
However,ofthe
Production principles alsoDoattempt
output to the quality
not examine 2.) Check their
GOALS OF errors
THEand LEARNING
redirect
acknowledge external environment or nor stop to PROCESS
of their work, their efforts to maintain quality
contextual fact that interactsmake withrevisions.
these output.
internal factors. The successful learner, over time and with
support and instructional guidance, can create
 The principles are intended to deal meaningful, coherent representations of
holistically with learners in the context of knowledge
real-world learning situations. Thus, they
are best understood as an organized set of  The strategic nature of learning requires
principles; no principle should be in students to be goal-directed. To construct
isolation. useful representations of knowledge and to
acquire the thinking and learning strategies
 Finally, the principles are intended to necessary for continued learning success
apply to all learners—from children, to across the life span, students must generate
teachers, to administrators, to parents, and and pursue personally relevant goals.
to community members involved in our Initially, students’ short-term goals and
educational system, learning may be sketchy in an area, but
over time their understanding can be
The 14 principles are divided into those refined by filing gaps, resolving
referring to (1) cognitive and metacognitive, (2) inconsistencies, and deepening their
motivational and affective, (3) developmental and understanding of the subject matter so that
social, and (4) individual difference factors they can reach longer-term goals.
influencing learners and learning.
 Educators can assist learners in creating
meaningful learning goals that are
consistent with both personal and
COGNITIVE AND educational aspirations and interests.
METACOGNITIVE FACTORS
3.) CONSTRUCTION OF KNOWLEDGE
1.) NATURE OF THE LEARNING
PROCESS.
The successful learner can link new information
with existing knowledge in meaningful ways.
The learning of complex subject matter is most
effective when itis an intentional process of
  Knowledge widens and deepens as 5.) THINKING ABOUT THINKING
students continue to build links between
new information and experiences and their Higher order strategies for selecting and
existing knowledge base. The nature of monitoring mental operations facilitate creative
these links can take a variety of forms, and critical thinking.
such as adding to modifying, or
reorganizing existing knowledge or skills.  Successful learners can reflect on how
How these links may be made or they think and learn, set reasonable leaning
developed may vary in different subject or performance goals, select potentially
areas, and among students with varying appropriate learning strategies or methods,
talents, interests and abilities. and monitor their progress toward these
goals.
 However, unless new knowledge becomes
integrated with the learner's prior  In addition, successful learners know what
knowledge and understanding, this new to do if a problem occurs or if they are not
knowledge remains isolated cannot be making sufficient or timely progress
used most effectively in new tasks, and toward a goal. They can generate
does not readily transfer to new situations, alternative methods to reach their goal (or
reassess the appropriateness and utility of
 Educators can assist learners in acquiring the goal).
and integrating knowledge by a number of
strategies that have been shown to be  Instructional methods that focus on
effective with learners of varying abilities, helping learners develop these higher order
such as concept mapping and thematic (metacognitive) strategies can enhance
organization or categorizing. student learning and personal
responsibility for learning.

4.) STRATEGIC THINKING

6.) CONTEXT OF LEARNING
The successful learner can create and use a
repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to Learning is influenced by environmental factors,
achieve complex learning goals. including culture, technology, and instructional
practices.
 Successful learners use strategic thinking
in their approach to learning, reasoning,  Learning does not occur in a vacuum.
problem solving and concept learning. Teachers play a major interactive role with
both the learner and the learning
 They understand and can use a variety of environment.
strategies to help them reach learning and
performance goals, and to apply their  Cultural or group influences on students
knowledge in novel situations. can impact many educationally relevant
variables, such as motivation, orientation
 They also continue to expand their toward learning, and ways of thinking.
repertoire of strategies by reflecting on the
methods they use to see which work well  Technologies and instructional practices
for them, by receiving guided instruction must be appropriate for learners’ level of
and feedback, and by observing or prior knowledge, cognitive abilities, and
interacting with appropriate models. their learning and thinking strategies.

 Learning outcomes can be enhanced if  The classroom environment, particularly

educators assist learners in developing, the degree to which it is nurturing or not,
applying, and assessing their strategic can also have significant impacts on
learning skills. student learning,
MOTIVATIONAL AND which is in large part a function of meeting
basic needs to be competent and to
AFFECTIVE FACTORS exercise personal control.
7.) MOTIVATIONAL AND EMOTIONAL  Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on tasks
INFLUENCES ON LEARNING that learners perceive as interesting and
personally relevant and meaningful,
What and how much is learned is influenced by appropriate in complexity and difficulty to
the learner's motivation. Motivation to learn, in the learners’ abilities, and on which they
tum, is influenced by the individual's emotional believe they can succeed. Intrinsic
states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of motivation is also facilitated on tasks that
thinking. are comparable to real-world situations
and meet needs for choice and control.
 The rich internal world of thoughts,
beliefs, goals, and expectations for success  Educators can encourage and support
of failure can enhance or interfere with the learners’ natural curiosity and motivation
learner’s quality of thinking and to learn by attending to individual
information processing. differences in learners’ perceptions of
optimal novelty and difficulty, relevance,
 Students’ beliefs about themselves as and personal choice and control.
learners and the nature of learning have a
marked influence on motivation.
Motivational and emotional factors also 9.) EFFECTS OF MOTIVATION ON
influence both the quality of thinking and EFFORT
information processing as well as the
individual's motivation to learn. Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills
require extended learner effort and guided
 Positive emotions, such as curiosity, practice. Without learners’ motivation to learn,
generally enhance motivation and facilitate the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely
learning and performance. Mild anxiety without coercion.
can also enhance learning and performance
by focusing the learner's attention on a  Effort is another major indicator of
particular task. However, intense negative motivation to learn. The acquisition of
emotions (e.g. anxiety, panic, rage, complex knowledge and skills demands
insecurity) and related thoughts (e.g. the investment of considerable learner
worrying about competence, ruminating energy and strategic effort, along with
about failure, fearing punishment, ridicule, persistence over time.
or stigmatizing labels) generally detract
from motivation, interfere with learning,  Educators need to be concerned with
and contribute to low performance. facilitating motivation by strategies that
enhance learner effort and commitment to
learning and to achieving high standards of
8.) INTRINSIC MOTIVATION TO comprehension and understanding.
LEARN
 Effective strategies include purposeful
The learner's creativity, higher order thinking,
learning activities that enhance positive
and natural curiosity all contribute to ‘motivation
emotions and intrinsic motivation to learn,
to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by
and methods that increase learners’
tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to
perceptions that a task is interesting and
personal interests, and providing for personal
personally relevant
choice and control.

 Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking,

and creativity are major indicators of the
learners’ intrinsic motivation to learn,
DEVELOPMENTAL AND Learning is influenced by social interactions,
interpersonal relations, and communication with
SOCIAL FACTORS others.
10.) DEVELOPMENTAL  Learning can be enhanced when the
INFLUENCES ON LEARNING earner has an opportunity to interact and to
collaborate with others on instructional
As individuals develop, there are different tasks.
opportunities and constraints for learning.
Learning is most effective when differential
 Learning setting that allow for social
development within and across physical,
interactions, and that respect diversity,
intellectual, emotional and social domains is
encourage flexible thinking and social
taken into account.
competence.
 Individuals learn best when material is
 In interactive and collaborative
appropriate to their developmental level
instructional contexts, individuals have the
and is presented in an enjoyable and
opportunity for respective taking and
interesting way. Because individual
reflective thinking that may lead to higher
development varies across intellectual,
levels if cognitive, social, and moral
social, emotional, and physical domains,
development, as well as self-esteem.
achievement in different instructional
domains may vary
 Quality personal relationships that provide
stability, trust and caring can increase
 Overemphasis on one type of
learners’ sense of belonging, self-respect
developmental readiness—such as reading
and self-acceptance, and positive climate
readiness, for example—may preclude
for learning
learners from demonstrating that they are
more capable in other areas of
 Family influences, positive interpersonal
performance.
support and instruction in self-motivation
strategies can offset factors that interfere
 The cognitive, emotional, and social
with optimal learning such as negative
development of individual learners and
beliefs about competence in a particular
how they interpret life experiences are
subject, high levels of test anxiety,
affected by prior schooling, home, culture
negative sex role expectations, and undue
and community factors.
pressure to perform well
 Early and continuing parental
 Positive learning climates can also help to
involvement in schooling and the quality
establish the context for healthier levels of
of language interactions and two-way
thinking, feeling, and behaving. Such
communications between adults and
contexts help learners feel safe to share
children can influence these developmental
ideas, actively participate in the learning
areas.
process, and create a learning community.
 Awareness and understanding of
developmental differences among children INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
with and without emotional, physical, or FACTORS
intellectual disabilities can facilitate the 12.) INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
creation of optimal learning contexts. IN LEARNING

Learners have different strategies, approaches,

11.) SOCIAL INFLUENCES ON and capabilities for learning that are function of
LEARNING prior experience and heredity.

 Individuals are born with and develop their

own capabilities and talents,
 leaning progress- including diagnostic, process
 In addition, through ad social and outcome assessment-are integral parts of the
acculturation, they have acquired their own learning process.
preferences for how they like to learn and
the pace at which they learn. However,  Assessment provides important
these preferences are not always useful in information to both the learners and the
helping learners reach their learning goals. teacher at all stages of the learning
process.
 Educators need to help students examine
their learning preferences and expand or  Effective learning takes place when
modify them, if necessary learners feel challenged to work. Towards
appropriately high goals; therefore,
 The interaction between learner appraisal of the learner's cognitive
differences and curricular and strengths and weakness, as well as current
environmental conditions is another key knowledge and skills,
factor affecting learning outcomes. is important for the selection of
instructional materials of an optimal
 Educators need to be sensitive to degree of difficulty,
individual differences, in general. They
also need to attend to learner perceptions  Ongoing assessment of the learner's
of the degree to which these differences understanding of the curricular material
are accepted and adapted to by varying can provide valuable feedback to both
instructional methods and materials. learners and teachers about progress
toward the learning goals.

13.) LEARNING AND DIVERSITY  Standardized assessment of learner

progress and outcomes assessment
Learning is most effective when differences in provides one type of information about
learners' linguistic, cultural, and social achievement levels both within and across
backgrounds are taken into account. individuals that can inform various type of
programmatic decisions.
 The same basic principles of learning,
motivation, and effective instruction apply  Performances assessments can provide
to all learners. However, language, other sources of information about the
ethnicity, race, beliefs, and socioeconomic attainment of learning outcomes.
status all can influence learning. Careful
attention to these factors in the  Self-assessments of learning progress can
instructional setting enhances the also improve student's self-appraisal skills
possibilities for designing and and enhanced motivation and self-directed
implementing appropriate learning learning.
environments.

 When learners perceive that their Alexander ad Murphy gave summary of

individual differences in abilities, the 14 principles and distilled them into
backgrounds, cultures, and experiences are
five areas:
valued, respected, and accommodated in
learning task and context, level of
1. The knowledge base. One's existing knowledge
motivation and achievement are enhanced.
serves as the foundation of all future learning. The
learner's previous knowledge will influence new
learning ‘specifically on how he represents new
14) STANDARDS AND ASSESSMENTS information, makes associations and filters new
experiences.
Setting appropriately high and challenging
standards and assessing the learner as well as
2. Strategic processing and control. Learners can This includes the oral, anal, phallic, latency and
develop skills to reflect and regulate their thoughts genital stages. Each stage demands satisfaction of
and behaviors in order to learn more effectively needs, and failure to do so results in fixations.
(metacognition).
Erikson said, “Healthy children will not
3. Motivation and affect. Factors such as intrinsic fear life if their elders have integrity enough not to
motivation (from within), reasons for wanting to fear death.” He believed in the impact of the
learn, personal and enjoyment of learning tasks all significant others in the development of one’s
have a crucial role in the learning process. view of himself, life and of the world. He
presented a very comprehensive framework of
4. Development and Individual Differences. eight psycho-social stages of development. Itis
Learning is unique journey for each person Erikson who described the crisis (expressed in
because each learner has his own unique opposite polarities) that a person goes through,
combination of genetic and environmental factors the maladaptations and malignancies that result
that influence him. from failure to effectively resolve the crisis: and
the virtue that emerges when balance and
5. Situation or context. Learning happens in the resolution of the crisis is attained.
context of a society as well as within an
individual. Piaget said “The principle goal of
education in the schools should be creating men
and women who are capable of doing new things,
not simply repeating what other generations have
done.”
LESSON 3 - FOCUS
Piaget's theory centered on the stages of
ON THE LEARNER cognitive development. He described four stages
of cognitive development, namely the sensory-
The ideas of the theorist, Freud, Erikson, motor, pre-operational, concrete-operational, and
Piaget, Vygotsky, and Bronfenbrenner remain to formal operational stages. Each has characteristic
be foundational in the teacher's understanding of ways of thinking and perceiving that shows how
the learners’ development. Let us recall highlights one’s cognitive abilities develop.
of their theories. Freud said, “The mind is like an
iceberg, it floats with one-seventh of its bulk Kohlberg said, “Right action tends to be
above water.” This is the course the very famous defined in terms of general individual Tights and
analogy that Freud referred to when he explained standards that have been critically examined and
the subconscious mind. He believed that much of agreed upon by the whole society.” Kohlberg
what the person is rely, about is not what we see proposed three level of moral development (pre-
in the outside. And what is conscious, but what is conventional, conventional and post conventional)
there hidden in the subconscious mind, As which are further subdivided into the stages.
teachers, it is important that we remember not to Influenced by Piaget, Kohlberg believed that
be too quick in making conclusions about our one’s cognitive development influenced the
students’ intention for their actions. development of one’s moral reasoning.

Always consider that there are many factors that Vygotsky said, “The teacher must orient
may influence one’s behavior. his work not on yesterday's development in the
child but on tomorrow's.” Vygotsky emphasized
Freud also emphasized the three the role of social interaction in learning and
components that make up one’s personality, the development. Scaffolding is the systematic
id, ego, and the superego. The id is pleasure- manner of providing assistance to the learner that
centered: the ego, reality-centered and the helps the learner to effectivity acquire a skill. He
superego, which is related to the ego ideal or believed that guidance from a more
conscience. knowledgeable other (MKO) would lead a learner
to a higher level of performance than if he were
Freud believed that an individual goes alone. This higher level of Performance then
through five psychosexual stages of development. eventually becomes the learner's actual
performance when he ‘works independently in the between his/her immediate family/community
future. His concept of zone of proximal environment, and the societal landscapes fuels and
development (ZPD) illustrates this. steers his/her development. Changes or confit in
any one layer will ripple throughout other layers.
To study a child's development then, we must look
Bronfenbrenner’s model also known as the not only at the child and his/her immediate
Bioecological System theory presents the child environment, but also at the larger environment
development within the context of relationship with which the child interacts,
systems that comprise the child's environment.
The model is composed of microsystem,
mesosystem, ecosystem, macrosystem and the What follows are graphic organizers that
chronosystem. Each layer is further made up of will help you review the principles of these
different structures. The term “biological” points important theories. You may refer to any Child
out that a child’s, ‘own biological make-up and Adolescent Development book or other
impacts on his/her development. The child’s resources to complete them.
growing and developing body and the interplay