GRAPHS

A graph can be defined as a pictorial representation or a diagram that represents data or values in
an organized manner.
Apart from diagrams, Graphic presentation is another way of the presentation of data and
information. Usually, graphs are used to present time series and frequency distributions. In this
article, we will look at the graphic presentation of data and information along with its
merits, limitations, and types

Construction of a Graph

The graphic presentation of data and information offers a quick and simple way of understanding
the features and drawing comparisons. Further, it is an effective analytical tool and a graph can
help us in finding the mode, median, etc.

We can locate a point in a plane using two mutually perpendicular lines – the X-axis (the
horizontal line) and the Y-axis (the vertical line). Their point of intersection is the Origin.

We can locate the position of a point in terms of its distance from both these axes. For example, if
a point P is 3 units away from the Y-axis and 5 units away from the X-axis, then its location is as
follows:
Some points to remember:

 We measure the distance of the point from the Y-axis along the X-axis. Similarly,
we measure the distance of the point from the X-axis along the Y-axis. Therefore, to measure
3 units from the Y-axis, we move 3 units along the X-axis and likewise for the
other coordinate.

 We then draw perpendicular lines from these two points.

 The point where the perpendiculars intersect is the position of the point P.

 We denote it as follows (3,5) or (abscissa, ordinate). Together, they are the coordinates of the
point P.

 The four parts of the plane are Quadrants.

 Also, we can plot different points for a different pair of values.

General Rules for Graphic Presentation of Data and Information

There are certain guidelines for an attractive and effective graphic presentation of data and
information. These are as follows:

1. Suitable Title – Ensure that you give a suitable title to the graph which clearly indicates the
subject for which you are presenting it.

2. Unit of Measurement – Clearly state the unit of measurement below the title.

3. Suitable Scale – Choose a suitable scale so that you can represent the entire data in an
accurate manner.

4. Index – Include a brief index which explains the different colors and shades, lines and
designs that you have used in the graph. Also, include a scale of interpretation for better
understanding.

5. Data Sources – Wherever possible, include the sources of information at the bottom of the
graph.

6. Keep it Simple – You should construct a graph which even a layman (without any exposure
in the areas of statistics or mathematics) can understand.

7. Neat – A graph is a visual aid for the presentation of data and information. Therefore, you
must keep it neat and attractive. Choose the right size, right lettering, and appropriate lines,
colors, dashes, etc.
Merits of a Graph

 The graph presents data in a manner which is easier to understand.

 It allows us to present statistical data in an attractive manner as compared to tables. Users can
understand the main features, trends, and fluctuations of the data at a glance.

 A graph saves time.

 It allows the viewer to compare data relating to two different time-periods or regions.

 The viewer does not require prior knowledge of mathematics or statistics to understand a
graph.

 We can use a graph to locate the mode, median, and mean values of the data.

 It is useful in forecasting, interpolation, and extrapolation of data.

Limitations of a Graph

 A graph lacks complete accuracy of facts.

 It depicts only a few selected characteristics of the data.

 We cannot use a graph in support of a statement.

 A graph is not a substitute for tables.

 Usually, laymen find it difficult to understand and interpret a graph.

 Typically, a graph shows the unreasonable tendency of the data and the actual values are not
clear.

Types of Graphs

Graphs are of two types:

1. Time Series graphs

2. Frequency Distribution graphs

Time Series Graphs

A time series chart, also called a times series graph or time series plot, is a data representation
tool that illustrates data points at successive intervals of time.
A time series graph is a graph which depicts the value of a variable over a different point of time.
In a time series graph, time is the most important factor and the variable is related to time. It helps
in the understanding and analysis of the changes in the variable at a different point of time. Many
statisticians and businessmen use these graphs because they are easy to understand and also
because they offer complex information in a simple manner.

Further, constructing a time series graph does not require a user with technical skills. Here are
some major steps in the construction of a time series graph:

 Represent time on the X-axis and the value of the variable on the Y-axis.

 Start the Y-value with zero and devise a suitable scale which helps you present the whole
data in the given space.

 Plot the values of the variable and join different point with a straight line.

 You can plot multiple variables through different lines.

Line Graph

A line graph is usually used to show the change of information over a period of time. This means
that the horizontal axis is usually a time scale, for example minutes, hours, days, months or
years.

Example: 1
The table shows the daily earnings of a store for five days.

Day Mon Tues Wed Thurs Fri

Earnings 300 450 200 400 650

a) Construct a line graph for the frequency table.

b) On which days were the earnings above $ 400
Solution:
a)

Example 2

The table shows the daily sales in RM of different categories of items for five days.

Day Mon Tues Wed Thurs Fri

Drinks 300 450 150 400 650
Food 400 500 350 300 500

a) Construct a line graph for the frequency table.

b) On what days were the sales for drinks better than the sales for food?
c) What is the total earnings for food and drinks on Wednesday?
Solution:
a)

b) Sales for drinks were better than sales for food on Thursday and Friday
c) Total earnings for food and drinks on Wednesday is
150 + 350 = $ 500

Advantages

 You can compare multiple continuous data-sets easily

 You can infer the interim data from the graph line
Disadvantages

 It is only used with continuous data.

Frequency Distribution Graphs

The frequency distribution of events is the number of times each event occurred in an experiment
or study.

Frequency Distribution Tables

Frequency tells you how often something happened. The frequency of an observation tells you
the number of times the observation occurs in the data. For example, in the following list of
numbers, the frequency of the number 9 is 5 (because it occurs 5 times):
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 9, 8, 5, 1, 1, 9, 9, 0, 6, 9

How to make a Frequency Distribution Table:

Example 1
Tally marks are often used to make a frequency distribution table. For example, let’s say you
survey a number of households and find out how many pets they own. The results are 3, 0, 1, 4,
4, 1, 2, 0, 2, 2, 0, 2, 0, 1, 3, 1, 2, 1, 1, 3. Looking at that string of numbers boggles the eye; a
frequency distribution table will make the data easier to understand.
Steps
To make the frequency distribution table, first write the categories in one column (number of
pets):
How to Draw a Frequency Distribution Table (Slightly More Complicated Example)
A frequency distribution table is one way you can organize data so that it makes more sense.
For example, let’s say you have a list of IQ scores for a gifted classroom in a particular
elementary school. The IQ scores are: 118, 123, 124, 125, 127, 128, 129, 130, 130, 133, 136,
138, 141, 142, 149, 150, 154. That list doesn’t tell you much about anything. You could draw
a frequency distribution table, which will give a better picture of your data than a simple list.

Class width refers to the difference between the upper limits of two consecutive (neighboring)
classes, or the difference between the lower limits of two consecutive classes.
To find the width:

1. Calculate the range of the entire data set by subtracting the lowest point from the highest,
2. Divide it by the number of classes.
3. Round this number up (usually, to the nearest whole number).

How to Draw a Frequency Distribution Table: Steps.

Step 1: Figure out how many classes (categories) you need. There are no hard rules about how
many classes to pick, but there are a couple of general guidelines
 Pick between 5 and 20 classes. For the list of IQs above, we picked 5 classes.
 Make sure you have a few items in each category. For example, if you have 20 items,
choose 5 classes (4 items per category), not 20 classes (which would give you only 1 item
per category).
Part 2: Sorting the Data
Step 2: Subtract the minimum data value from the maximum data value. For example, our IQ list
above had a minimum value of 118 and a maximum value of 154, so:
154 – 118 = 36
Step 3: Divide your answer in Step 2 by the number of classes you chose in Step 1.
36 / 5 = 7.2
Step 4: Round the number from Step 3 up to a whole number (you round off to the higher
value) to get the class width. Rounded up, 7.2 become 8.
Step 5: Write down your lowest value for your first minimum data value:
The lowest value is 118
Step 6: Add the class width from Step 4 to Step 5 to get the next lower class limit:
118 + 8 = 126
Step 7: Repeat Step 6 for the other minimum data values (in other words, keep on adding your
class width to your minimum data values) until you have created the number of classes you
chose in Step 1. We chose 5 classes, so our 5 minimum data values are:
118
126 (118 + 8)
134 (126 + 8)
142 (134 + 8)
150 (142 + 8)
Step 8: Write down the upper class limits. These are the highest values that can be in the
category, so in most cases you can subtract 1 from the class width and add that to the minimum
data value. For example:
118 + (8 – 1) = 125
118 – 125
126 – 133
134 – 141
142 – 149
150 – 157
3. Finishing the Table Up
Step 9: Add a second column for the number of items in each class, and label the columns with
appropriate headings:

IQ NUMBER

118-125

126-133

134-141

142-149

150-157

Step 10: Count the number of items in each class, and put the total in the second column. The
lists of IQ scores are: 118, 123, 124, 125, 127, 128, 129, 130, 130, 133, 136, 138, 141, 142, 149,
150, 154.

IQ NUMBER

118-125 4

126-133 6

134-141 3

142-149 2
150-157 2

Histogram
Histogram: a representation of tabulated frequencies, shown as adjacent rectangles, erected over
discrete intervals (bins), with an area equal to the frequency of the observations in the interval

A histogram is a graph of a grouped frequency distribution. In a histogram, we plot the class

intervals on the X-axis and their respective frequencies on the Y-axis. Further, we create a
rectangle on each class interval with its height proportional to the frequency density of the class.

Frequency Polygon or Histograph

A frequency polygon is a graph constructed by using lines to join the midpoints of each interval,
or bin. The heights of the points represent the frequencies. A frequency polygon can be created
from the histogram or by calculating the midpoints of the bins from the frequency distribution
table

A frequency polygon or a Histograph is another way of representing a frequency distribution on a

graph. You draw a frequency polygon by joining the midpoints of the upper widths of the
adjacent rectangles of the histogram with straight lines.
Frequency Curve
A frequency-curve is a smooth curve for which the total area is taken to be unity. It is a limiting
form of a histogram or frequency polygon. The frequency curve for a distribution can be
obtained by drawing a smooth and free hand curve through the midpoints of the upper sides of
the rectangles forming the histogram

When you join the verticals of a polygon using a smooth curve, then the resulting figure is a
Frequency Curve. As the number of observations increase, we need to accommodate more
classes. Therefore, the width of each class reduces. In such a scenario, the variable tends to
become continuous and the frequency polygon starts taking the shape of a frequency curve.

Cumulative Frequency Curve or Ogive

A cumulative frequency distribution is the sum of the class and all classes below it in
a frequency distribution. Cumulative frequency distribution displays a running total of all the
preceding frequencies.

A cumulative frequency curve or Ogive is the graphical representation of a cumulative frequency

distribution. Since a cumulative frequency is either of a ‘less than’ or a ‘more than’ type, Ogives
are of two types too – ‘less than ogive’ and ‘more than ogive’.

There are two types of ogives:

 1. Less than ogive: Plot the points with the upper limits of the class on the x-axis. The points
are joined by free hand smooth curve to give less than cumulative frequency curve or the
less than Ogive. It is a rising curve.
2. Greater than ogive: Plot the points with the lower limits of the on the Y-axis. Join the
points by a free hand smooth curve to get the “More than Ogive”. It is a falling curve.

The following table shows the daily sales of 230 footpath sellers of Chandni Chowk.

Sales in Rs. No. of sellers

0 – 500 12

500 – 1000 18

1000 – 1500 35

1500 – 2000 42

2000 – 2500 50

2500 – 3000 45

3000 – 3500 20

3500 – 4000 8

Locate the median of the above data using only the less than type ogive.

Solution: To draw ogive, we need to have a cumulative frequency distribution.

 cumulative
Sales in Rs. No. of sellers
frequency

0 – 500 12 12

500 – 1000 18 30

1000 – 1500 35 65

1500 – 2000 42 107

2000 – 2500 50 157

2500 – 3000 45 202

3000 – 3500 20 222

3500 – 4000 8 230

Less than ogive:

Seles in Rs. are taken on the y-axis and number of sellers is taken on x-axis. For drawing less
than ogive, points (500, 12), (1000, 30), (1500, 65), (2000, 107), (2500, 157), (3000, 202), (3500,
222), (4000, 230) are plotted on graph paper and these are joined free hand to obtain the less than
ogive.