EM Wave Equation

Electromagnetic waves

for E field for B field

In general, electromagnetic waves

1  2
 = 2
2

c t 2

Where  represents E or B or their components

EM Wave Equation: separation of variables
 Solution of 3D wave equation
So we may write 1  2 X = −k 2 ; 1  2Y = −k 2 ;
X x Y y
2 x 2 y

where we use
1  Z = −k 2 ;  1  T  = − 2
2 2
 2 c 2 = k x2 + k y2 + k z2 = k 2
 2 
Z z  T t 
2 z

 ik x x  ik y y
Solutions are then X ( x) = e ; Y ( y) = e ;
Z ( z ) = e ik z z ; T (t ) = e i t

Total Solution is  ( x, y, z, t ) = X ( x)Y ( y ) Z ( z )T (t )

i[t  ( k x x + k y y + k z z )]
= Ae
 
i [ t  k . r ]
= Ae Plane wave
3D Plane waves
Plane EM waves in vacuum
 Plane EM waves in vacuum

Wave vector k is perpendicular to E

Wave vector k is perpendicular to B

 Plane EM waves in vacuum

B is perpendicular to E

B, k and E make a right handed

Cartesian co-ordinate system
Plane EM waves in vacuum
Experimental Verification of Maxwell’s Theory of Electromagnetic Wave: Hertz (1887)

Spark is created in the air gap by the induction coil.

Spark produces light (electro-magnetic wave) which is received by the Receiver.

A Neon lamp connected through 𝑆1′ and 𝑆2′ ends of the receiver can glow.

The speed of e-m wave is also measured. It turns out to be the velocity of light.
watch?v=FWCN_uI5ygY

www.youtube.com/watch?v=FWCN_uI5ygY
 First wireless EM wave transmission, Kolkata 1895
https://www.cv.nrao.edu/~demerson/bose/bose.html

J C Bose at Royal Institute London, 1897

Bose 1895, 5 mm-2.5 cm microwave transmitted over 1.6 km. Marconi: 15m waves over Atlantic 1897
Electromagnetic Spectrum
 EM Waves Transport Energy and Momentum

The energy density of the E field (between the plates of a charged capacitor):

1
uE =  o E 2
2
Similarly, the energy density of the B field (within a current carrying toroid):
1
uB = B 2

2o
1
Using: E = cB and c=
 o o
uE = uB

The energy streaming through space in the form of EM wave is shared equally between
constituent electric and magnetic fields.
 EM Waves Transport Energy and Momentum
1 2
Total energy density of the EM field: u = u E + u B =  o E =
2
B
o
S represents the flow of electromagnetic energy associated with a traveling wave.

S symbolizes transport of energy per unit time across a unit area: Poynting Vector
uctA
S= = uc
tA
1
S= EB
o c t

Assume that the energy flows in the direction of the propagation of wave (in isotropic media)
 1     
S= EB S = c oE  B
2

o
The magnitude of S is the power per unit area crossing a surface whose normal is parallel to S.
 EM Waves Transport Energy and Momentum
   
Given: E = Eo cos(k  r − t )
   
B = Bo cos(k  r − t )
Instantaneous flow of energy per unit area per unit time
    
S = c  o Eo  Bo cos (k  r − t )
2 2

Time averaged value of the magnitude of the Poynting vector

c 2 o  
S = Eo  Bo
2
The Irradiance is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the electric field:

c o 2
I S = Eo I = c o E 2

2
 EM Waves Transport Energy and Momentum

 1  
EM waves transport energy: S= EB
o

EM waves transport momentum: p =U / c U: Energy density of the EM wave

c: Speed of the EM wave

F 1 dp 1 dU S
They exert a pressure: P= = = =
A A dt cA dt c

S = power per unit area = (dU/dt) / unit area

Reflection and Transmission

19
 Inhomogeneous Medium (Reflection and Transmission)
Various possibilities for Wave incident at interface of materials with different density / refractive index
Reflection and Transmission

 2  1
/ Interface
 Reflection and Transmission

At the boundary x = 0 the wave must be continuous, (as there are no kinks in it).
Thus we must have (Continuity)

(Force balance)

A+ B = C
 Transmission Coefficient

We can define the transmission coefficient: (C/A)

 Reflection Coefficient

We can define the Reflection coefficient: (B/A)

c2 − c1
=
c2 + c1
Rigid End: 2 →  (2 >> 1)
k2 → 

When 2 > 1 ,
r<0
Change in sign of the reflected pulse
External Reflection
 Reflection Coefficient
Free End: 2 → 0 (2 << 1)
k2 → 0

When 2 < 1 ,
r>0
No Change in sign of the reflected pulse
Internal Reflection
 Transmission Coefficient

2c 2
=
c2 + c1
In either case: tr > 0
No Change in phase of the transmitted pulse
 Stoke’s relations
It can be shown that r12 = −r21 =
c2 − c1
c2 + c1
1 − r = t12t 21
2
12 Stoke’s relations

The reflectance and transmittance of Intensity is proportional to square of Amplitude

R12 = r 2
12

T12 = 1 − R12
Generation of Electromagnetic Radiation
 EM Waves
1) Oscillating magnetic field generates electric field (Faraday´s law) and
vice-versa (modified Ampere´s Law).

2) Reciprocal production of electric and magnetic fields leads to the

propogation of EM waves with the speed of light

3) Accelerating charge radiates electro-magnetic waves.

www.youtube.com/watch?v=FWCN_uI5
gY
www.youtube.com/watch?v=FWCN_uI5y
 Coherence

A coherent light source emits waves in constant phase relation

A perfectly coherent source is just a point source

 Coherence

The concept of coherence is related to stability or predictability of phase

Spatial coherence describes the correlation between signals at

different points in space. (Transverse Coherence)
Temporal coherence describes the correlation between signals at
different moments of time. (Longitudinal Coherence)
(Transverse Coherence)

Example: Electric field distribution around the focus of a laser

beam with perfect spatial and temporal coherence.
Spatial Coherence

Temporal Coherence
(Longitudinal Coherence)
 Coherence

Electric field distribution around the focus of a laser

beam with perfect spatial and temporal coherence.

A laser beam with high spatial coherence, but poor

temporal coherence.

A laser beam with poor spatial coherence, but

high temporal coherence.

34
 Quantifying Coherence
Physically, monochromatic sources are fictitious.

Band of frequencies =

Wave train / Wave packet: Formed by the superposition of many sinusoidal waves
of nearby frequencies
 Quantifying Coherence

Temporal coherence: The coherence time is the time over which a

propagating wave may be considered coherent.
Coherence time: In other words, it is the time interval within which
its phase is, on average, predictable.

(Δ𝑡)𝑐 = 1ൗΔ𝜈  : Spectral width of the source in units of frequency.

Coherence length: The coherence length is the coherence time times

the vacuum velocity of light, and thus also
characterizes the temporal (not spatial!) coherence
via the propagation length (and thus propagation
time) over which coherence is lost.
 Quantifying Coherence
Red Cadmium = 6438 Å
= 10 9
Hz, 30 cm
Yellow Sodium = 5893 Å
10
= 10 Hz, 3 cm
He-Ne Laser = 6328 Å
6
= 10 Hz, 300 m
Interference

38
 Interference

Interference is the effect produced by the superposition of waves from two coherent sources
passing through the same region.

Coherent Sources • They maintain a constant phase difference.

• Such sources may or may not be in step but are always marching together.
• They have same frequency.

Interference of water waves

The interference pattern produced in a ripple
tank using two sources of circular waves which
are in phase with each other.
Q: Can two ‘Incoherent” sources interfere?
Interference of light from two bulbs

White Light Interference

40
 Optical Interference

Optical interference corresponds to the interaction of two or more light waves yielding a
resultant irradiance that deviates from the sum of component irradiance.

• Light waves interfere with each other much like mechanical waves do.
• All interference associated with light waves arises when the electromagnetic fields
that constitute the individual waves combine.
• LINEAR SUPERPOSITION!

Wavefront Division: Involves taking one wavefront and dividing it up

into more than one wave.
• Wavefront splitting Ex: Young’s double slit interference; Diffraction grating
• Amplitude splitting
Amplitude Division: Involves splitting a light beam into two beams at
a surface of two media of different refractive index.
Ex: Michelson interferometer
 Optical Interference
Resultant: E = E1 + E2 + E3 + E4 + .....

http://www.acs.psu.edu/drussell/demos/superposition/superposition.html
 Optical Interference

E1 (r , t ) = E01 cos(k1.r − t + 1 )
E2 (r , t ) = E02 cos(k2 .r − t +  2 )
2 Strictly speaking irradiance is power/area
Irradiance 𝐼∝ 𝐸 And intensity is power/solid angle.

E = ( E1 + E2 ).( E1 + E2 )
2

2 2 2  
E = E1 + E2 + 2( E1  E2 )
Taking time average on both sides
I1 = E12 I12 = 2 Eሜ 1 . Eሜ 2
Taking time average on both
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼12
I =
sides
I1 + I 2 + I12 2
I 2 = E2 Interference term
 Optical Interference E1 (r , t ) = E01 cos(k1.r − t + 1 )
E2 (r , t ) = E02 cos(k2 .r − t +  2 )
𝐸ሜ1 . 𝐸ሜ 2 = 𝐸ሜ 01 . 𝐸ሜ 02
cos 𝐴 − 𝐵 = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + sin 𝐴 sin B

× [cos( 𝑘ሜ 1 . 𝑟lj + 𝜀1 ). cos( 𝜔𝑡) + sin( 𝑘ሜ 1 . 𝑟lj + 𝜀1 ). sin( 𝜔𝑡)]

× [cos( 𝑘ሜ 2 . 𝑟lj + 𝜀2 ). cos( 𝜔𝑡) + sin( 𝑘ሜ 2 . 𝑟lj + 𝜀2 ). sin( 𝜔𝑡)]

1
Time average gives: E1.E2 = E01.E02 cos(k1.r + 1 − k2 .r −  2 )
2
The interference term I12 = E01.E02 cos  I12 = 2 E1.E 2

 = k1.r + 1 − k2 .r −  2
The phase difference arising from the combined path length and initial phase difference.
 Optical Interference
2
𝐸01
2
𝐸 = 2
𝐸1 + 2
𝐸2 + 2(𝐸1 ⋅ 𝐸2 ) 𝐼1 = 𝐸ሜ12 =
2
2
𝐸02
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼12 ሜ
𝐼2 = 𝐸22
=
2
Most commonly Eሜ 01 and Eሜ 02 are parallel to each other. Then,

𝐼12 = 2 𝐸ሜ1 . 𝐸ሜ 2 = 𝐸ሜ 01 . 𝐸ሜ 02 cos 𝛿 = 2 𝐼1 𝐼2 cos 𝛿

𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2 𝐼1 𝐼2 cos 𝛿
 Optical Interference I = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 Cos
For maximum irradiance cos 𝛿 = 1
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2 𝐼1 𝐼2
Total constructive interference  = 0,  2 ,  4 ,..........

For minimum irradiance cos 𝛿 = −1

𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 2 𝐼1 𝐼2
Total destructive interference  =  ,  3 ,  5 ,..........
 Optical Interference

Components out of phase 0  cos   1 Constructive Interference

I1 + I 2  I  I max

cos  = 0
Components 90o out of phase
I = I1 + I 2

0  cos   −1
Destructive Interference
I1 + I 2  I  I min
 Twin Source Interference Pattern I = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 Cos

For I1=I2 I = 2 I 0 (1 + cos  )


= 4 I 0 cos 2
2 cos 2 𝑥 − 1 = cos 2𝑥
2

For the spherical wave emitted by two sources, in-phase at the emitter

 = k1.r + 1 − k2 .r −  2
 = k (r1 − r2 )

48
Optical Interference
 Summary

Interference by two plane polarized light wave

I = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos 

For constructive interference  = 0,  2 ,  4 ,..........

For destructive interference  =  ,  3 ,  5 ,..........