ii

A DESIGNER’S CORE:
Structural Theory

CE 312 STRUCTURAL THEORY

Daisy R. Dampayla
 iii

A DESIGNER’S CORE: Structural Theory

by

Daisy R. Dampayla
and
Jose Rizal Memorial State University

All rights reserved. This book or any portion thereof

may not be reproduced or used in any manner whatsoever
without the express written permission of the author
except for the use of brief quotations in a book review.

Page and cover design: DRD

Editor:
ISBN:

Published by:
JOSE RIZAL MEMORIAL STATE UNIVERSITY
Gov. Guading Adaza St. Sta Cruz, Dapitan City, 7101
Tel. No. (065) 908-8294
[email protected]
 iv

Course Introduction

Structural Theory is a course for the Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering. With
this course the learners will be provided with the basic techniques necessary towards
achieving good if not better design projects and be molded into better designers in the future.
As a continuation of studying the methods of analyzing structures, the subject provides more
techniques needed in the investigation part and design portion of the structure. Activities were
provided to be able to measure the learners thinking ability and for them to acquire knowledge
through discovering better techniques aside from the presentations given. Thus, the learners
are expected to create a portfolio as their final output.
This course will utilize a flexible learning package which include course introduction,
course syllabus, learning guide, learning contract, summative assessments are included that
will provide insights to the students as to what the course is all about, the course requirements,
and what are the activities and assessments to be accomplished.
This learning package is distinct from other books because it has the following major
parts:
Course Introduction –It presents the vital information about the course.
Course Syllabus-This provides vital information on the course outcomes, learning
outcomes, activities, assessments, grading system and the course requirements.
Learning Guide- This provides significant information as to the students’ schedules
of submitting the output and the course requirements, feedback modality, communication
mechanism, and the contact information of the instructor/professor and other authorities of the
University/Campus.
Learning Contract- It is a document which contains the commitment of the learners
in accomplishing the activities which includes also the Data Privacy Act, plagiarism rules,
safety reminders, and parents’ support.
Summative Assessments- These are forms which include the summative
assessment plan, summative assessment instructions, and assessment rubrics.
Flexible Learning Module- This is the meat of the package that contains the front
contents, module content (learning outcomes, pretest, content, learning activities, and
assessments), and the back contents.
Moreover, a flexible learning module is also included. It is a material which presents
the different methods of analyzing plane and spatial structures. Structures subjected to static
and moving loads where given emphasis since they are of vital importance in achieving better
analyzes creating better designs.
With this learning package, the author hopes that the learner will be more efficient in
analyzing problems and be more than ready for their design subjects.
 v

Contents

Page

Copyright iii

Course Introduction iv

Course Syllabus vi

Learning Guide x

Learning Agreement xiii

Summative Assessment xiv

Flexible Learning Module 1

References 136

Glossary 137

Rubrics 138

Answer Key 139

User’s Evaluation Form 144

About the Author 146

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ix
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Learning Guide

The key to successfully finish this material lies in your perseverance to sincerely
and honestly perform the learning activities and accomplish the assessments. This flexible
learning package is developed with the aim to aid your learning for this course. Aside from
meeting the content and performance standards of this course in performing all the
learning activities and assessments, you will be able to learn the skills and values which
are needed in achieving the future skills and the graduate attributes to become globally
competitive individuals.

Classroom Rules and Conduct

The following are the house rules which will help you to be on track and
successfully finish this course:
1. Schedule and manage your time to read and understand every component
of this learning package.
2. Study on how you can manage to perform all the learning activities in
consideration with your resources and accessibility to technology. Do not ask
questions that are already answered in the guide.
3. If you did not understand the readings and the other tasks, read again. If
there are still clarifications and questions, feel free to reach me through the
contact information indicated in this guide.
4. Do not procrastinate. As much as possible, follow the time table.
5. Read and understand the assessment and technology tools as indicated in
the directions in every assessment or activity.
6. Before the end of the midterms, you will be tasked to send back the material
trough the pigeon boxes in your department. For online learners, you will
submit your output and other tasks in the google classroom. While waiting for
my feedback of your accomplished module, you may continue on
accomplishing the tasks in the succeeding units that are scheduled for the
finals.
7. Most importantly, you are the learner; thus, you do all the tasks in your own.
You may ask assistance and guidance from your parents, siblings or friends,
but all the activities shall be performed by you alone.
8. Course requirements must be submitted as to schedule.
9. Plagiarism is strictly prohibited. Be aware that plagiarism in this course would
include not only using another’s words, but another’s specific intellectual
posts in social media. Assignments must be done independently and without
reference to another student’s work. Any outside sources used in completing
 xi

an assignment, including internet references must be fully cited on any

homework assignment or exercise. All students should feel free to talk to the
instructor face-to-face or through media during office hours.
10. Academic accommodations are available for students with special needs.
Students with special needs should schedule an appointment with the
instructor early in the semester to discuss any accommodations for this
course.
Study Schedule

Week Unit Title Activities

Aug. 15-19, 2022 0rientation Reading of Learning
Package
Aug. 22-26, 2022 A. Structural Analysis: Introduction Discussion
Aug. 29-31, 2022 Analysis of Plane Frameworks
Sept. 2-5, 2022 Analysis of Space Frameworks
Sept.12-14, 2022 Arches and Cable Structures
Sept.15-19, 2022 Analysis of Building Bents Problem Solving
Sept. 20-23, 2022 Analysis of Bridge Portals
Sept. 26-29, 2022 B. Determinate Structures:
Sept.30-Oct.4, 2022 Castigliano’s Second Theorem
Oct. 5-7, 2022 Virtual Work Method
Oct. 10-14, 2022 Mid-Term Exam
C. Indeterminate Structures:
Oct. 17-19, 2022 Introduction Analyzing Structures
Oct. 20-24, 2022 Three-Moment Equation
Oct. 25-28, 2022 Moment Distribution Method Problem Solving
Nov. 14-18, 2022 Slope-Deflection Method
D. Approximate Analysis:
Nov. 21-24, 2022 Indeterminate Plane Frames Problem Solving
Nov. 25-30, 2022 E. Influence lines
Dec. 1-2, 2022 Preparation & Submission of Portfolio
Dec. 5-9, 2022 Final Exam

Evaluation
To pass the course, you must observe the following:
 xii

1. Read the course module and answer the pretest, quizzes, self-assessment
activities.
2. Write your thoughts and suggestions in the comment boxes.
3. Perform all the learning activities.
4. Accomplish the assessments.
5. Submit the course requirements.
6. Perform the Midterm and Final Assessments

Technology Tools

In order to perform all the learning activities and accomplish the assessments, you
will need these software applications: word processing and presentation software. These
are applications that are available in your desktop or laptop that will not require internet
connection. All materials and activities that will involve reporting, interpretation, and
problem solving will be created using Microsoft word or any application alike, be saved in
the CD or flash drive. These materials will be submitted through the pigeon boxes. For
online learners, materials will be uploaded in google classroom.

Feedback Modality and Communication Mechanisms

Feedback system will be facilitated through text messaging. If you need to call,
send me a message first and wait for me to respond. Do not give my CP number to
anybody. I will not entertain messages or calls from numbers that are not registered. You
may send your clarifications and questions through the google classroom.

Grading Plan

The term grade is computed using the formula:

40% - Performance
30% - Major Requirements
30% - Formative Assessment
Midterm Grade = 100% of the Midterm Grade (if applicable)
Final Grade = 50% of the Midterm Grade + 50% of the
Final Term Grade (if applicable)

Person/Office Email address CP number

Instructor [email protected] 09293541257
IMDO [email protected] 09399168104
FLS
CAS
DSAS
Library
DRMMO
 xiii

JOSE RIZAL MEMORIAL STATE UNIVERSITY

LEARNING AGREEMENT

By signing this learning agreement, I commit to the following terms and conditions of Jose
Rizal Memorial State University in the implementation of Flexible Learning System.
Specifically, I commit to observe the following:
1. That I must observe all guidelines of the state pertaining to the prevention of COVID,
specifically to stay home, to observe physical distancing and the use of face masks
when interacting with others.
2. That I shall prioritize my health and safety while I comply with all the necessary
learning activities and assessments needed in my enrolled courses.
3. That I will exhaust all means of complying the requirements at home or in a less risky
place and location that will not allow me to be exposed to other people.
4. That I have already read and understood all instructions pertaining to my enrolled
courses.
5. That I commit to do all the learning activities diligently, following deadlines and the
learning guide enabling me to deliver the course requirements.
6. That I commit to answer all forms of assessment in the learning package honestly.
7. That I shall initiate in giving feedback to my instructor at least once every two weeks.
8. That I shall not reproduce or publish any part of the learning package content without
the written consent of the University and the author/s.
9. That I shall not commit any form of plagiarism in all course requirements.

Conformed:

Name and signature of student Date signed

Name and signature of parent/guardian Date signed

Contact Number of Parent/Guardian

** Please email the signed copy of this learning agreement to your instructor as soon as
you have received the learning package.
 xiv

Jose Rizal Memorial State Form No.

F16: Summative Assessment Plan

Background: This form aims to document the summative assessment strategies that a teacher deems
appropriate to the course being taught and its corresponding course outcomes. Summative assessments
are methods used to evaluate student learning, skill acquisition, and academic achievement at the
conclusion of a defined instructional period – typically at the end of a course or a semester. Summative
assessments are requirements across all courses in JRMSU. Please refer to the JRMSU Handbook on
Flexible Learning for the guidelines in designing summative assessments.

Course Title: Structural Theory SY/ Sem: 2022-2023/1st Semester

Course Code: CE 312

No. Course Outcomes Title of Description Scoring/ Weight

Assessment Grading (%) in
Standard Final
Grade
1 Apply the methods of Compilation of the Exemplary 30%
structural analysis for learning activities (4-5): 85%
external and internal Portfolio given in the units.
actions on various types This must be Good
of structural systems due submitted before (2-3): 80%
to static and moving the final Needs
loads. examination. Improvement
(0-1): 75%
 2

PREFACE

Structural Theory module is endeavored to help students to understand the

fundamental concept of analyzing structures. Sample problems were presented and
explained thoroughly to bridge the gap between theory and its application to structures. It
is hoped that this process will enable the students to fully grasp the discussion and solution
herein.

This module covers a detailed explanation of the preliminary considerations prior

to the analysis of structures both plane and spatial. The importance of the shear and
moment diagrams were given emphasis being a necessary tool in designing structures.

However, not all topics were provided with examples. Although they were being
mentioned only to give comparison with additional methods not discussed in prerequisite
subjects. This will allow the students to discover which method is more convenient and
easier to apply.

Furthermore, the author wishes that the students will acquire the knowledge and
be equipped with greater techniques of analyzing structures.
 3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author wishes to acknowledge her indebtedness to those persons who

generously offered valuable suggestions and brilliant advice in the making of this module.
To name a few,

Dr. Daylinda Luz-Reluya Laput, the University President, for her undying support
and consideration in doing this module;

The Vice President for Academic Affairs and IMD Director for their constant
encouragement and guidance;

The Flexible Learning System committee, for the series of trainings to equip us
with ideas on the development of this learning material.

Engr. Richie L. Lacaya, the Associate Dean of the College of Engineering, for his
constant encouragement;

College of Engineering colleagues, for the patience and assistance on her

computer works;

To her mother, sisters and their kids, only daughter, and her loving husband for
the undying care and unconditional love;

And most of all, to the Almighty Father, the very essence of her existence.

The Author
 4

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

PREFACE 2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 3

MODULE: STRUCTURAL THEORY

Unit 1 Structural Analysis: Introduction 5

Unit 2 Analysis of Plane Frameworks 14
Unit 3 Analysis of Space Frameworks 24
Unit 4 Arches and Cable Structures 32
Unit 5 Analysis of Building Bents 39
Unit 6 Analysis of Bridge Portals 47
Unit 7 Structural Analysis: Determinate Structures 57
Unit 8 Indeterminate Structures: Introduction 73
Unit 9 Three-Moment Equation 82
Unit 10 Moment Distribution Method 91
Unit 11 Slope-Deflection Method 101
Unit 12 Approximate Analysis: Indeterminate Plane Frames. 119
Unit 13 Influence lines 128

References 136
Glossary 137
Rubrics 138
Answer Key 139
User’s Evaluation Form 144
About the Author 146
 5

STRUCTURAL THEORY

UNIT 1

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS: INTRODUCTION

Structural engineering focuses on the framework of structures, and on designing

those structures to withstand the stresses and pressures of their environment and remain
safe, stable and secure throughout their use.
Structural analysis is the determination of the effects of loads on physical
structures and their components. Structures subject to this type of analysis include all that
must withstand loads, such as buildings, bridges, aircraft and ships.
Structures can be classified into five basic categories, namely, tension structures
(e.g., cables and hangers), compression structures (e.g., columns and arches), trusses,
shear structures (e.g., shear walls, and bending structures (e.g., beams and rigid frames).

Learning Outcome:

At the end of this unit, the learners will be able to:

• Determine the state of static and kinematic determinacy of structures.
• Classify the stability of structural systems

Pretest:

1. Give examples of the five basic categories of structures and provide pictures
for each type.
2. How can you say that a structure could withstand the loads applied on it?
3. Research on the new trends of analyzing structures under dead and moving
loads.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Content:

Loads on Structures:

The objective of a structural engineer is to design a structure that will be able to

withstand all the loads to which it is subjected while serving its intended purpose
throughout its intended life span. The loads that act on a common civil engineering
structures can be grouped into three classes:

1. Dead loads- due to the weight of the structural system itself and other material
permanently attached to it.
2. Live loads - which are movable or moving loads due to the use of the structure.
3. Environmental loads – are caused by environmental effects, such as wind,
snow, and earthquakes.

Static Determinacy and Stability of Structures:

A structure is statically determinate externally if all of its support reactions of the

structure can be determined by solving the equations of equilibrium and condition.

For a plane internally stable structure supported by r number of reactions and 3

represents the equations of static equilibrium, if

r < 3, the structure is statically unstable externally

r = 3, the structure is statically determinate externally
r > 3, the structure is statically indeterminate externally
ie = r – 3, degree of external indeterminacy formula

For a plane internally unstable structure, which has r number of external reactions
and ec number of equations of condition (from internal hinge), if

r < 3 + ec, the structure is statically unstable externally

r = 3 + ec, the structure is statically determinate externally
r > 3 + ec, the structure is statically indeterminate externally
ie = r – (3 + ec), degree of external indeterminacy
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

An alternative approach is given below. Let fi be the total number of internal forces
transmitted through the internal hinges and internal rollers of the structure where the
internal hinge can transmit two force components while the internal roller can transmit only
one. The total number of unknowns is given r + fi and nr is the number of rigid members
or portions of the structure, if

r + fi < 3nr, the structure is statically unstable externally

r + fi = 3nr, the structure is statically determinate externally
r + fi > 3nr, the structure is statically indeterminate externally
ie = (r + fi) – 3nr, degree of external indeterminacy

In order for a plane structure to be geometrically stable, it must be supported by

reactions, all of which are neither parallel nor concurrent. The unknown joint displacement
(translations and rotations) is referred to as degrees of freedom of the structure. The
number of degrees of freedom is sometimes called the degree of kinematic indeterminacy
of the structure. For example: A continuous beam has two fixed ends A and D, and two
roller supports B and C. The fixed ends A and D cannot rotate, whereas B and C are free
to rotate. Thus, the continuous beam has two degrees of freedom, θ B and θC, which
represent the unknown rotations of B and C, respectively. The beam is then considered
to be kinematically indeterminate to the second degree. A structure without any degrees
of freedom is termed kinematically indeterminate like where the displacements of all joints
are either zero or known.

The figures below illustrate how to determine the stability and determinacy of
structures:
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Figure 1.3 Externally Statically Unstable Plane Structure

Support Reactions:
The types of supports commonly used for plane structures are depicted in the
figure below. These supports are grouped into three categories, depending on the
number of reactions they exert on the structures. The figure also gives the types of
reactions that these supports exert, as well as the number of unknowns that these
supports introduce in the analysis.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Figure 1.1 Types of Supports for Plane Structures

Figure 1.4 Types of Supports for Plane Structures

The types of supports commonly used for plane structures are depicted in the
figure above. These supports are grouped into three which in turn are divided into different
types namely: roller, rocker and link for category I; hinge for category II; and fixed for
category III. The grouping will depend on the number of reactions they exert on the
structures. The figure also gives the types of reactions that these supports exert, as well
as the number of unknowns that these supports introduce in the analysis.

Example:
Classify the structures below as externally unstable, statically determinate, or
statically indeterminate. For indeterminate structures, give the degree of indeterminacy.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

1. Continuous Beam:

Since r = 5 > 3, the beam is internally stable. Then, it is statically

indeterminate to the 2nd degree, ie = r – 3 = 5-3 = 2.

2. Restrained Beam:

a. The beam has two segments AB and BC connected by an internal hinge at B

and it is internally unstable. It has r = 6 and e c = 1. Then, r > 3 + ec, the beam
is statically indeterminate externally to the 2 nd degree, ic = r – (3+ec) = 6-(3+1)
= 2.
b. Alternate method: fi = 2, n r = 2, r = 6. Since r + fi > 3nr, 6+2 > 3(2), then the
beam is statically indeterminate externally, with ie = (r + fi) – 3nr = 8 – 6 = 2.

3. Beam with Fixed End:

a. The beam is internally unstable with r = 4 and e c = 2. It is statically unstable

externally since BC is not restrained against movement in the horizontal
direction and r < 3 + ec.

b. Alternate method: fi = 1, nr = 2, r = 4. Since r + fi < 3nr, 4+1 < 3(2), then the
beam is statically unstable externally.

4. Continuous Beam:
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

a. With r = 5 and ec = 2, the continuous beam is internally unstable. The beam is

statically determinate externally since r = 3 + ec.
b. Alternate method: fi = 4, n r = 3, r = 5. Since r + fi = 3nr, 5+4 = 3(3), then the
beam is statically determinate externally.

5. Frame:

a. With r = 4 and ec = 1, the frame is internally unstable. The frame is statically

determinate externally since r = 3 + ec.
b. Alternate method: fi = 2, nr = 2, r = 4. Since r + fi = 3nr, 4+2 = 3(2), then the
frame is statically determinate externally.

Learning Activity:

A. Identify the type of structure and classify each as to internally stable, externally
unstable, statically determinate, or statically indeterminate. For statically indeterminate
structures, specify the degree of external indeterminacy. Indicate the number of reactions
r.
1. Continuous beam with link:
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

2. Continuous beam with hinges:

3. Frames:

4. Arch and Truss:

B. Solve the following problems:

1. Determine the reactions at the supports of the beam loaded as shown below:
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

2. Determine whether the truss is:

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STRUCTURAL THEORY

UNIT 2

ANALYSIS OF PLANE FRAMEWORKS

Plane framework or truss is defined as a structure composed of a number of bars,

all lying in one plane and hinged together at their ends in such a manner as to form a
rigid configuration.

Learning Outcome:

At the end of this unit, the learners will be able to:

• Analyze plane trusses.

Pre-test:

For the cantilever truss shown, determine the reactions. This is just a review on
how to solve reactions in Strength of Materials.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Content:

Assumptions for the Analysis of Truss:

1. Members are connected together at their ends by frictionless pins.
2. Loads and reactions are applied to the truss only at the joints.
3. Centroidal axis of each member is straight, coincides with the line connecting
the joint centers at each end of the member, and lies in a plane that also
contains the lines of action of all the loads and reactions.

Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy, and Instability of Trusses:

A truss is considered to be internally stable if the number and arrangement of its

members is such that it does not change its shape and remains a rigid body when
detached from its supports. While a truss is said to be statically determinate if all of its
member forces and reactions can be determined by using the equations of equilibrium. If
a plane truss contains m members, j joints, and is supported by r reactions’ then if
m + r < 2j the truss is statically unstable
m + r = 2j the truss is statically determinate
m + r > 2j the truss is statically indeterminate
The degree of static indeterminacy is given by i = (m + r) – 2 j

Analysis of Plane Trusses:

To analyze statically determinate plane trusses, joint and section methods will be
applied. Joint method is used when forces in all or most of the members of a truss are
desired. Section method is applied when forces in only a few specific members are
desired.
• Joint method- is consists of selecting a joint with no more unknown forces on
it and applying the two equilibrium equations to determine the unknown forces.
The procedure is repeated all desired forces will be obtained.
• Section method- involves cutting the truss into two portions by passing an
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

imaginary section through the members whose forces are desired by applying
the three equations of equilibrium to the free body diagram of one of the two
portions of the truss.

Example:

For the bridge truss below, determine the stresses in all the members applying the
method of joints and sections.

Figure 2.1 Bridge Truss

Solution:

Since joint method wa already discussed in Statics of Rigid Bodies, and as a review
of the section method, the solution is given below: Pass an imaginary section through
members CF, CE, and DE. Chosing the left portion of the truss, direction of the forces
in the cut members were assigned. Then solve for the value of these members.

∑ME = 0: 2CF = 13.75(8) – 15(40) – 5(4), CF = 15 kN, T

∑MC = 0: 2DE= 15(2) – 13.75(4), DE= -12.5 kN, C
∑MD= 0: 2( 2/√5)CE = 13.75(4) – 15(40)- 2CF, CE= - 19.57 kN, C

The result of the joint method calculations were placed on the truss below assigning +
or no sign for tensile forces and – for compressive forces of the members.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Maxwell Diagram:

Maxwell diagram is a combined diagram of loads and stresses. It is used to

determine the stress analysis of a truss. It is made by combining the force polygon
acting at each joint into a common polygon. The same order of loads and stresses must
be taken around each joint in order to combine several force polygons into a common
one.
Any vector in a Maxwell diagram (MD) which includes a numerical in its
designation is recognized as a stress in a truss member as distinguished from an applied
load whose designation includes only letters. Each force is designated by capital letters
of the two spaces separated by its line of action. On the other hand, you can make any
designations (either letter or number) of the spaces between the applied loads and
members of the truss. Each space in the truss diagram (TD) there is corresponding point
in the MD. Through all these points or each point there must pass lines parallel to all
lines bounding the corresponding space in the TD.
Example 1:
Draw the stress diagram in convenient scale and determine the force acting in
each member of the truss shown below.
Solution:
For the truss below, scales of the TD and MD were given. The spaces between
loads and truss members are all described by numbers instead of letters and MD is
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

numbered to correspond. Start with the force polygon 7-1-2-3-4-5-6, clockwise order,
considering the directions of the applied loads.

To locate points on MD:

Pt. 8: Draw lines 2-8 and 8-7 through points 2 and 7 parallel to members AD
and AC, respectively. Point of intersection (PI) is the location of pt. 8.
Pt. 9: Draw lines 2-9 and 8-9 through points 2 and 8 parallel to members CD
and DE, respectively. PI is the location of pt. 9.
Pt. 10: Draw lines 9-10 and 6-10 through points 9 and 6 parallel to members CE
& CF, respectively. PI is the location of pt. 10.
Pt. 11: Draw lines 10-11 and 5-11 through points 10 and 5 parallel to members

EF and FH, respectively. Again, PI is the location of pt. 11

Pt. 12: Draw lines 11-12 and 2-12 through points 2 and 11 parallel to members
EH and EG, respectively. PI is the location of pt. 12.
Pt. 13: Draw lines 12-13, 3-13 and 4-13 through points 12, 3, and 4 parallel to
members GH, BG, and BH. PI of the three lines is the location of pt.13,
and it serves as a check to the process if the lines intersect.
Using the scale, measure the lines corresponding to the names of the members in
clockwise direction at each joint. Compare the answers with the results from joint
method.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Figure 2.2 Maxwell Diagram

TABULATION:

No. Member Stress, kN Nature No. Member Stress Nature

1 2-8 3.09x6=18.54 C 8 4-13 2.40x6=14.40 T
2 2-9 2.22x6=13.32 C 9 8-9 2.14x6=12.84 T
3 2-12 4.65x6=27.90 C 10 9-10 3.24x6=19.44 C
4 3-13 3.20x6=19.20 C 11 10-11 1.64x6=9.84 T
5 8-7 0.30x6=1.80 C 12 11-12 0.50x6=3.00 C
6 6-10 2.64x6=15.84 T 13 12-13 2.14x6=12.84 T
7 5-11 2.64x6=15.84 T
 20

STRUCTURAL THEORY
Example 2:
The triangular Fink Truss loaded as shown in Figure 2.1 is supported by a roller at
L0 and a hinge at L5. Determine graphically the stress in each member of the truss.

Solution:
The truss diagram is first drawn to scale and the spaces between the loads are
denoted by small letters, and truss members are all described by numbers. Since the
loads are symmetrical, only the stress in half of the truss need be found. Choose a scale
also for MD.
Start with polygon a-b-c-d-e, clockwise order. Locate point 1 on the MD by drawing
lines b-1 and 1-a through points b and a parallel to members L 0U1 and L0L1, respectively.
Locate 1 and 2 and mark stress directions on the TD. All remaining joints on the left of
the truss have more than two unknowns, so we can’t go on to the next joint, if joint
method will be used. Hence, If U3M1 and U2M1 are temporarily replaced by a substitute
member L2U3, there will be no change of stress in U3U4.
Then, U3U4 can be solved by MD since there will be only two unknowns at U 2. With
U2M1 assumed removed, construct polygon 3-2-c-d-x (consider Figure 2.2a) where
space x is bounded by joints U2, U3, and L2. At U3, with U3M1 assumed removed,
construct polygon x-d-e-6, locating point 6. With 6, located on MD, L 2U3 may be
discarded and regular construction resumed. The MD is shown on Figure 2.2b and
Figure 2.2c shows the stresses in half of the truss. The results can also be tabulated as
shown in Example 1.

Figure 2.3 Triangular Fink Truss

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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Figure 2.4 Maxwell Diagram of Triangular Fink Truss

Figure 2.5 Forces of Members of Triangular Fink Truss

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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Learning Activities:

Activity 1:
For the truss shown below, use joint method to determine the forces in all the
members of the truss shown below. Indicate the nature of the forces, + for tensile forces
and – for compressive forces. Place the forces on the truss corresponding to the
members. Show all computations.

Activity 2:

For the fink truss shown below, determine the forces in members CD, KL, and
GL using the method of joints. Show all computations. Indicate also the nature of the
forces.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Activity 3:
For the truss shown below, the Maxwell Diagram is already drawn and the results
are found in the truss. Indicate the scale of the TD and MD, and outline the procedure
in drawing the MD.
 24

STRUCTURAL THEORY

UNIT 3

ANALYSIS OF SPACE TRUSSES

A space truss is a structure whose members lie in different plane like domes,
transmission- line towers, derricks, and steel off-shore oil drilling platforms. They are
consisting of trusses arranged in multiple planes, and their structural integrity depends
upon the three-dimensional interaction of the members. Space trusses are made up of
members joined together such that it is not possible to separate them into several
trusses, each lying in a single plane, and therefore should be analyzed as a single unit.

Learning Outcome:

At the end of this unit, the learners will be able to:

• Solve problems on space trusses

Pre-test:

1. Differentiate between a plane truss and a space truss.

2. Research on the different types of space and plane trusses.
3. Make your own design of the two types of trusses.
 25

STRUCTURAL THEORY

Content:

Basic Assumptions:
Most space trusses are analyzed based on the following assumptions considering
that they are subjected to axial forces and bending moments:
• Members are straight between joints.
• Members are subjected to axial forces only.
• Members are joined together by ideal, frictionless pins.
• Axes of members meeting at a joint intersect at a common point.
• All loads are applied only at the joints.

Basic Principles:
If three concurrent forces Fx, Fy and Fz act along the reference axes which are
mutually perpendicular components of a force F. Then, use the relations below:
F2 = (Fx)2 + (Fy)2 + (Fz)2 Fx/x = Fy/y = Fz/z = F/d, d2 = x2 + y2 + z2
The six scalar equilibrium equations:
∑Fx = 0, ∑Fy = 0, ∑Fz = 0
∑Mx = 0, ∑My = 0, ∑Mz = 0
To formulate the moment equations, follow the rules below: ∑M = F (d)
1. ∑Mx = 0: 2. ∑My = 0: 3. ∑Mz = 0:
Fy → z distance Fx → z distance Fx → y distance
Fz → y distance Fz → x distance Fy → x distance

Static Determinacy of a Space Truss:

Applying three equilibrium equations for each joint, use 3j equilibrium equations for
the entire structure. If the space truss has m members and r reaction components,
3j = m + r, statically determinate
3j < m + r, statically indeterminate
3j > m + r, truss is unstable
 26

STRUCTURAL THEORY

Special Rules:

1. Any three concurrent, non-coplanar forces will be in equilibrium if, and only if, all the
forces are zero. By ∑F normal to the plane of any two of the forces, equilibrium is
possible only if the 3rd force is zero.
2. If all but one of the forces meeting at a joint are coplanar and in equilibrium, the force
not on the plane is zero. Summing forces normal to the coplanar forces will indicate
that the single non-coplanar force must be zero.
3. If all but two of the forces meeting at a joint are zero, then the two forces will also be
zero, unless they are collinear. If the two forces are collinear, they will be equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction.

Example 1:

Calculate the reaction components and member forces for the space truss given
in Figure 3.1 below.

Plan View Elevation

 27

STRUCTURAL THEORY

Solution:

a. Let 3j = m + r, j = joints, m = members, r = reactions

3(8) = 16 + 8 = 24, space truss is statically determinate.
b. At joint A, all members except AD lie on the same plane, and there are no external
loads at A, thus by Rule 2, AD = 0. At C, the force in BC = 0. At B, all members
except BA lie in the same plane, and since BA and 10-kN load are collinear, the stress
in BA is 10 kN T. The forces in BF and BG are zero since they are not collinear and
out-of-plane of the other members.
c. Length of members: d2 = x2 + y2 + z2
AE = BF = CG = DH = √ 32 + 92 + 22 = 9.695 m
AF = CH = √ 92 + 92 + 22 = 12.884
BG = DE = √ 32 + 92 + 62 = 11.225 m
d. Joint A: (assume AE in C and AF in T) Solving simultaneously:
∑Fy = 0: AE (9/ 9.695) = AF (9/12.884) Then: AE = - 8.08 kN T
∑Fx = 0: AE (3/ 9.695) = -AF 99/12.884)-10 AF = -10.74 kN C

e. Joint D: (assume all members at D in C)

∑Fy = 0: DE (9/11.225) + DH (9/9.695) = 24 Then: DE = 7.49 kN C
∑Fz = 0: DE (6/11.225) – DH (2/9.695) = 0 DH = 19.39 kN C
∑Fx = 0: DE (3/11.225) + DH (3/9.695) = DC DC = 8.00 kN C

f. Joint C: (assume CH in T and CG in C)

∑Fy = 0: CG (9/9.695) = CH (9/12.884) Then: CH = 8.60 kN T
∑Fx = 0: -CG (3/9.695) = CH (9/12.884) CG = 6.47 kN C

g. Joint E: (assume VE up, EF in C and EH in C)

∑Fy = 0: VE + 8.08 (9/9.695) = 7.49 (9/11.225) Then: VE = - 1.50 kN ↓
∑Fx = 0: EF = 8.08 (3/9.695 – 7.49 (3/11.225) EF = 0.50 kN C
∑Fz = 0: EH = 8.08 (2/9.695) – 7.49 (6/11.225) EH = -2.34 kN T
 28

STRUCTURAL THEORY

h. Joint F: (assume VF up and FG in T)

∑Fy = 0: VF = 10.74 (9/12.884) = 7.50 kN ↑
∑Fx = 0: HFx = 0.50 + 10.74 (9/12.884) = 8.00 kN ←
∑Fz = 0: FG = 10.74 (2/12.884) = 1.67 kN T

i. Joint H: (assume VH up)

∑Fx = 0: HG = 19.39 (3/9.695) – 8.60 (9/12.884) = 0
∑Fy = 0: VH = 19.39 (9/9.695) – 8.60 (9/12.884) = 11.99 kN ↑
∑Fz = 0: HHz = 8.60 (2/12.884) + 2.34 – 19.39 (2/9.695) = 0.33 kN ↑

j. Joint G: (assume VG up)

∑Fx = 0: HGx = 6.47 (3/9.695) = 2.00 kN ←
∑Fz = 0: HGz = 6.47 (2/9.695) – 1.67 = - 0.33 kN ↓
∑Fy = 0: VG = 6.47 (9/9.695) = 6.01 kN ↑

Example 2:
For the space truss shown in Figure 3.2 below, calculate the reaction components
and member forces.

Solution:
a. From 3j = m + r, 3(6) = 12 + 6 = 18, so space truss is statically determinate.
b. Consider the entire:
Solve for the external reactions first because joint method cannot be applied
yet. There are three unknown member forces at each joint and the two equations of
equilibrium available are not enough to solve for these three unknowns.
∑Fx = 0: HDx = 50 kN ←
∑ME = 0: 6HFz = 50 (6) – 50 (4) – 30 (20), HFZ = 6.67 kN ↑
∑MF = 0: 6HEz = 30 (4) + 50 (4) + 50 (6), HEz = 36.67kN ↓
∑MFE = 0: 6VD = 30 (4), VD = 20 kN ↑
∑MFz = 0: 6VE = - 20 (3) + 50 (4), VE = 23.33 kN ↑
∑MEz = 0: 6VF = 50 (4) + 20 (3), VF = 43.33 kN ↓
 29

STRUCTURAL THEORY

Plan View Elevation

Length of members: AD = √ 0 + 42 + 22 = 4.472 m

AB = AC = √ 12 + 0 + 22 = 2.236 m BF = √ 42 + 42 + 22 = 6.0 m
DE = DF = √ 32 + 0 + 62 = 6.708 m CD = √ 12 + 42 + 42 = 5.745 m
CF = BE = √ 22 + 42 + 22 = 4.899 m AE = √ 32 + 42 + 42 = 6.403 m

d. Joint C: CB=0 by Rule 2, it is out-of-plane of the other members and there is no

external load at C.
e. Joint B: (assume BE and BF in T and AB in C) Solving simultaneously:
∑Fx = 0: BE(2/4.899) + AB(1/2.236)=BF(4/6) Then: BF = 15.00 kN T
∑Fz = 0: BE(2/4.899)+AB(2/2.236)=-BF(2/6)+30 BE = -12.24 kN C
∑Fy = 0: -BE(4/4.899)= BF (4/6) BA = 33.54 kN C

f. Joint A: (assume AC & AD in T and AE in C) Then:

∑Fx = 0: -AC(1/2.236)–AB(1/2.236)=AE(3/6.403) – 50 AC = 55.91 kN T
∑Fz = 0: AC(2/2.236)–AB(2/2.236)=AE(4/6.403)+AD(2/4.472), AD = 14.91 kN T
∑Fy = 0: AE(4/6.403)–AD(4/4.472)= 0 AE = 21.34 kN C

g. Joint C: (assume CD in C and CF in T)

∑Fy = 0: CD(4/5.745)=CF(4/4.899) Then: CD = 47.86 kN C
∑Fz = 0: -CD(4/5.745)–CF(2/4.899)=-55.91(2/2.236) CF = 40.82 kN T
 30

STRUCTURAL THEORY

h. Joint D: (assume DE in T and DF in C) Then:

∑Fz = 0: DE(6/6.708)–DF(6/6.708)=47.86(4/5.745)–4.91(2/4.472), DE = 61.49 kN T
∑Fx = 0: DE(3/6.708)+DF(3/6.708)=50–47.86(1/5.745) DF = 31.68 kN C

i. Joint E: (assume EF in C)
∑Fx = 0: EF=61.49(3/6.708)–12.24(2/4.899)–21.34(3/6.403) = 12.51 kN C

j. Joint F: (to check the answers)

∑Fx = 0: 40.82(2/4.899)–12.51+15(4/6)–31.68(3/6.708)= - 0. 014, ok
∑Fz = 0: 31.68(6/6.708)–6.67–15(2/6)–40.82(2/4.899) = - 0.002, ok

Learning Activities:

Activity 1:

For the space truss shown below, calculate the reaction components and member
forces. Show the assumptions of the directions of the forces. Apply the special rules, if
necessary, in the solution.
 31

STRUCTURAL THEORY

Activity 2:
For the space truss shown below, determine the following:
a. degree of determinacy
b. reaction components
c. member forces
 32

STRUCTURAL THEORY

UNIT 4

ARCHES AND CABLE STRUCTURES

Arches are buildings where larger clear spans are required like gymnasiums,
hangars, churches, warehouses, and convention halls. They are made of steel or
concrete with single spans exceeding 200 meters. The three-hinged arch is the only one
which is determinate. While the statically indeterminate ones are those arches with two
hinges, one hinge or no hinge at all.
Steel cables are used to support loads over long spans, such as for suspension
bridges, cable car systems, and similar structures. Cables support concentrated vertical
loads, horizontal uniform loads or loads that are uniform along its length. If the cable
supports vertical loads, it will take the shape of the inverted moment diagram of a simple
beam with the same loads. It will take the shape of a parabola if it supports a uniform load
along the horizontal. When supporting its own weight like an electric transmission line, it
will form a catenary.

Learning Outcome:

At the end of this unit, the learners will be able to:

• Analyze arches and cable structures.

Pre-test:

What is the difference between an arch and a cable? State the places where you
have seen arches and cable structures. Describe what you have seen.
 33

STRUCTURAL THEORY

Assumptions for Cables with Concentrated Loads:

1. The cable is flexible, which means its resistance to bending is small and may be
neglected. This implies that the bending moment at all points of the cable is zero.
2. The weight of the cable is negligible compared with loads it supports.
3. The coordinates of one point of the cable, other than the coordinates of the
endpoints or supports, are known.

Cables with Horizontal Uniform Load:

Cables of suspension bridges are assumed loaded with a uniformly distributed load
along the horizontal since the weight of the cable is small compared with the weight of the
roadway. The formulas below are useful in solving this type of problem.

Figure 4.1 Cables of Suspension Bridges

1. Horizontal tension at O: H= wL 2/8d

𝑊𝐿 2
2. Tension at each support: TA = TB = √𝐻2 + ( )
2

3. Equation of parabola: y = 4dx2/L2

4. Tension at any pt. P: Tp = √𝐻2 + (𝑤𝑥)2
5. Length of cable: s = L {1 + (8m2/3) – (32m4/5) + (256m6/7) + …}, approximate
6. Length of cable: s = (L/8m){ 4m √12 + (4𝑚)2 + ln ( 4m + √12 + (4𝑚)2 }, exact
where: m = d/L
 34

STRUCTURAL THEORY

Cables with Uniform Load along its Length:

When the load of the cable is its own weight assumed uniform over the entire
length, it forms a catenary (Latin word for chain). Use the formulas below in solving
problems.

Figure 4.2 Cable with Level Supports

1. Equation of catenary: y = (c/2) ( e x/c + e-x/c ) = c cosh (x/c)

2. Length of CP: s = (c/2) ( ex/c – e-x/c ) = c sinh (x/c)
3. Horizontal distance CP: x = c ln {(s + y)/c}, y2 = s2 + c2
4. Load on CP: Load = ws
5. Horizontal tension at C: H = wc
6. Tension at any point P: T = w √ s2 + c2 = wy

Example 1:
For the three-hinged arch shown, find the reaction components. Joint C is a hinge.

Figure 4.3 Three-Hinged Arch

 35

STRUCTURAL THEORY
Solution:
a. Entire structure: (consider the figure above)
∑MB = 0: 85Ay + 10Ax = 40(70) + 20(30) + 30(10) + 5(85) 2/2, → eq. (1)
∑MA = 0: 85By – 10Bx = 40(15) + 20(55) + 30(75) + 5(85) 2/2, → eq. (2)

b. Segment AC: (hinge at C is removed & consider left portion of C of the figure above)
∑MC= 0: 45Ay – 10Ax = 40(30) + 5(45)(22.50), → eq. (3)
Then add eq. (1) and eq. (3): Ay = 215.58 kN, then Ax=343.85kN

c. Segment BC: (hinge at C is still removed, consider portion right of C)

∑MC = 0; 40By – 20Bx = 20(10) + 30(30) + 5(40)(20), → eq. (4)
Then add eq. (2) and eq. (4): By = 299.42 kN, then Bx=343.84kN

d. To check: (consider the entire structure),

∑Fx =0: Ax = Bx = 343.84 ≈ 3.43.85,
∑Fy = 0: Ay + By = 40 + 20 + 30 + 5(85), 515 = 515, ok

Example 2:
A cable, 200m long, and carries a uniformly distributed load of 100 N/m along the
horizontal is suspended at two points A and B. Determine the horizontal distance
between supports and the values of the tensions at the supports.

Figure 4.4 Cable with Different Elevation of Supports

 36

STRUCTURAL THEORY
Solution:

a. Consider hinge at C is removed:

Segment AC: ∑MA = 0: 12HC = 100 (L-x)2/2, eq. (1) Equate values of HC:
Segment BC: ∑MB = 0: 32HC = 100x2, eq. (2) L-x = x√3/8

b. Using the approximate formula for length of cable, s:

(use only the 1st 3 terms of the eq’n)

6 6
For AC: S1 = (L-x){1+ (8/3)(𝐿−𝑥)2 – (32/5)(𝐿−𝑥)4} Note: S1 + S2 =200m
16 16
For BC: S2 = x{1 + (8/3)( 𝑥 )2 – (32/5)( 𝑥 )4}

By interpolation: x = 119.861m, then, L = 193.26m, ans.

c. Tension at the supports:

For AC: From eq. (1): HC=22,448 kN For BC: From eq. (2): HC = 448 kN
∑Fx = 0: HA = HC = 22,448 kN ∑Fx = 0: HB = HC = 22,448 kN
∑Fy = 0: VA = 100(L-x) = 7,340 N ∑Fy = 0: VB = 100x= 11,986 kN

TA = √(22448)2 + (7340)2 TB = √(22448)2 + (11986)2

= 23,617.54 N ans. = 25,447.53 N ans.

Learning Activities

Activity 1:

For the three-hinged arch shown below, determine the reaction components. Show
all solution and check your answers.
 37

STRUCTURAL THEORY

Activity 2:

A uniform flexible cable 350m long weighs 6000 N. The resultant tensions at the
ends of the cable are10,000 N and 12,000 N, respectively. What is the difference in
elevation of the two ends? How far is the lowest point of the cable below the lower end?
What is the horizontal distance between the ends?
 38

STRUCTURAL THEORY

Activity 3:

The resultant tensions at the ends of the uniform flexible cable are 8000N and
8800N, respectively. The cable is 300m long weighing 5000N. Solve for the following:
a. difference in elevation of the two ends
b. distance of the lowest point of the cable to the lower end
c. horizontal distance between the ends
 39

STRUCTURAL THEORY

UNIT 5

ANALYSIS OF BUILDING BENTS

The assembly of roof truss attached to and supported on column at both the ends
such that they act together is known as building bent, mill building or transverse bent. An
example is an industrial building which is consists of a series of such
transverse bent supporting the roof. The distance between the two adjacent transverse
bents is known as bay.
Industrial buildings are low rise steel structures, workshops or industries. To
provide more working space, no interior walls and partitions are provided. If interior
columns cannot be avoided, its spacing is quite wide. They are classified into normal or
simple and sophisticated. Normal industrial building is single story, with or without girder
supports, no intermediate columns and will house workshops, warehouses or factories.
Sophisticated or steel mill building will house big industries where manufacturing
processes need spaces with specific and controlled environment condition.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this unit, the learner will be able to:

• Determine reactions in building bents.

Pretest:

How are wind loads applied on the building bent?

 40

STRUCTURAL THEORY

Content:

Loads on Building Bents

For dead loads the truss is considered to be simply supported on walls instead of
being rigidly attached to the columns. Due to lateral loads like wind or earthquake, the
truss and columns are assumed to act as a unit. The column base is either fixed or hinged
depending on the construction of the foundation.

Wind pressure on the roof is transferred to the truss through the purlins that support
the roofing. Likewise, the wind pressure on the vertical siding is transferred to the
windward columns through the girt that support the siding. Knee braces are used to
maintain the stability of the truss against lateral loading though its stress is zero.

Bent with Hinged Column Bases:

For dead load, the horizontal reaction is both zero at the bases. The columns are
subjected to direct axial compression only. Vertical components are solved by ΣM about
the column bases considering the entire bent as a free body.

For wind load, the windward reaction is greater than the leeward horizontal
reaction by the force F1 obtained from the area tributary to the base of the windward
column. The horizontal reactions are;

𝛴𝑊𝐻+ 𝑛
𝑖=2𝛴𝐹𝑖
H1 = H2 + F1, H2 = 2
, ΣWH = horizontal component of WL on roof
𝑛
𝑖=2𝛴𝐹𝑖 = sum of the horizontal forces on the
vertical siding, excluding F1.

Bent with Partially or Fully Fixed Column Bases:

For dead load, the horizontal reactions are both zero.

For wind load, the total horizontal component of WL above the point of contra-
flexure are assumed to produce equal shears at these points. P.C. (point of contra-
flexure) or P.I. (point of inflection) are assumed located at 1/4 to ½ of the height
from the base of the column to the bottom of the truss or to the foot of the knee
brace.
 41

STRUCTURAL THEORY

1
Horizontal components of the reactions at P.C.: H 2 = 2 ΣWH
Horizontal reaction at the base of the windward column: H 1 = H2 + F1
where: ΣWH = hor. component of WL on the bent above P.C.
F1 = total WL below P.C. of the windward column. ΣM at P.C. solves
the vertical components.

Example 1:

For the building bent shown below, determine the forces in all the members. The
column bases are hinged and the spacing of girts on the sides is 1.5m. Draw the shear
and moment diagrams for each column.

Solution:
a. Solve for the reactions:
ω = 3kN/m x 12m = 36 kN at midheight of column
W1= 36/8 = 4.5kN.m for 7 loads spaced at 1.5m on the column
F1 = 4.5/2 = 2.25kN at the top and bottom of column

1
H2 = 2 [ 7(4.5)+2.25] = 16.875kN ΣMh=0: 24V1 = 36(6), V1=9kN↓
H1 = H2 + 2.25 = 19.125kN ΣMa=0: 24V2 = 36(6), V2=9kN↑

c. Stresses in end joint members:

 42

STRUCTURAL THEORY

3
Consider left of A-A: ΣFy=0: cd=9, cd=15kN C
5
ΣMc=0: 3bd=19.125(12)-36(6), bd=4.5kN T
ΣMd=0: 3ci=19.125(9)-36(3)-9(4), ci=9.375kN C

4
To check: ΣFx=0: 5 cd +ci+19.125=36+4.5, 40.5=40.5, ok.
3
Consider right of B-B: ΣFy=0: fe=9, fe=15kN T
5
ΣMf=0: 3ge=16.875(12), ge=67.5kN C
ΣMe=0: 3fj=16.875(9)-9(4), fj=38.625kN T

4
To check: ΣFx=0: 5 fe +fj+16.875=ge, 67.5=67.5, ok.

c. Stresses in other members:

The answers are placed on the truss and are obtained by joint method.

d. Shear and moment diagrams:

Windward column:
 43

STRUCTURAL THEORY

Leeward column:

Example 2:
The building bent shown below is one of a series of bents spaced 6m apart and
has fixed column bases. The girts on the siding are spaced 1.5m apart. Wind load on the
vertical surface is 2KPa and is 1.5KPa acting normal to the roof on the windward side. Let
P.C. to be 2.5m above the column bases. Solve for the force at the end-joint members
and the knee braces. Draw the shear and moment diagrams.
 44

STRUCTURAL THEORY
Solution:

a. Panel loads on roof truss:

Full panel load = 1.5(2.236)(6) =20.124kN
Half panel load = 20.124÷ 2 = 10.062kN
Total WL on roof: WT = 2(20.124)+2(10.062) =60.372kN
Girt load on column:
Full girt load = 2(1.5)(6) = 18kN
Half girt load = 18÷2 = 9kN

b. Solving for the reactions:

1 2
On the roof: Wx = √5 (60.372) = 30kN Wy = = √5 (60.372) = 54kN
1 1
H2 = 2 W H = [30+9+3(18)] = 46.50kN, WH = hor. com. of WL above PC.
2
H1 = H2 + F1 = 46.50+18+9 = 73.50kN, F1 = WL below PC.
c. Consider portion above PC:

ΣMB=0: 12V1 = 54(9)-30(1.5+5)-9(5)-18(0.5+2+3.5), V1 = 11.5kN

ΣMA=0: 12V2 = 54(3)+30(6)+9(5)+18(3.5+2+0.5), V2 = 42.5kN
ΣFy=0: V1 + V2 = 54, ok.
Consider portion below PC: Moment at column bases.
M1 = 2.5H2 + 18(1.5) = 143.25kN.m
M2 = 2.5H2 = 2.5(46.5) = 116.25kN.m

d. Stresses in end-joint members:

Windward column: Left of cutting plane A-A

4
ΣMC=0: be(1.5)=46.5(5)-18(4.5+3+.5), be=58.75kN T
5
1 2
ΣMe=0: cd(2)=46.5(5)+11.5(2)-10.062( )(2)-18(4.5+3+.5), cd=84.41 C
√5 √5
2 4 1
ΣFx=0: ce= cd(√5)+46.5-18(3)-9-be(5)-10.062(√5)= 7.5kN T
3 2 1
ΣFy=0: 11.5+be(5) = 10.062(√5)+cd(√5), 46.75=46.75, ok.

Leeward column: Right of cutting plane B-B:

4
ΣMC=0: gj(1.5)=46.5(5), gj = 193.75kN C
5
1
ΣMj=0: hi(2)=46.5(5)-42.5(2), hi = 164.91kN T
√5
 45

STRUCTURAL THEORY
2 4
ΣFx=0: hj=46.5+hi(√5)-gj(5) = 39.0kN C
1 3
ΣFy=0: 42.5+hi(√5) = gj(5), 116.25=116.25, ok.

e. Shear and moment diagrams:

Windward column:

Leeward column:
 46

STRUCTURAL THEORY

Learning Activities:

Activity 1:

As shown below, the building bent has fixed column bases. It is subjected to wind
loads applied normally on the top chord of the truss and horizontally on the columns at its
windward side. Assume the point of contraflexure to be 5m above the column bases.
Since the loads are already indicated on the building bent, determine the stresses of the
end-joint members of the truss. Then use these values to draw the shear and moment
diagrams of the windward and the leeward portion of the bent.
 47

STRUCTURAL THEORY

UNIT 6

ANALYSIS OF BRIDGE PORTALS

Bridge is a structure that spans horizontally between supports to carry vertical

loads. It can be divided into two categories namely standard overpass bridges or unique-
design bridges over rivers, chasms, or estuaries.

Parapets or bridge railings, handrails, sidewalks, lighting, and drainage are

important aesthetic and safety features but can contribute only a little when it comes to
the structural strength of a bridge. However, the materials and workmanship in the
construction of these features require the same requirements as in the bridge construction.

The bridge design will be determined by the type of bridge like the beam bridge or
the suspension bridge. Bridge foundations have to be carefully selected and constructed
since they will bear the bridge and the vehicle loads and should be able to bear the
dynamic loads applied on it.

Learning Outcomes:

• Analyze and solve problems on bridge portals

Pretest:

Why can’t aesthetic features affect the stability of the bridge?

 48

STRUCTURAL THEORY

Content:

Introduction:

To prevent excessive vibrations and to resist lateral or horizontal forces due to

wind, earthquake, and centrifugal forces on curved bridges, bridge trusses require lateral
bracing. Thus, bracing systems are installed in the planes of the top and bottom chords,
including vertical or inclined planes of bracing.

Portal bracing is a combination of struts and ties which lie in the plane of the
inclined braces at a portal, serving to transfer wind pressure from the upper parts of the
trusses to an abutment or pier of the bridge. It is installed in the plane of the end columns
wherein the end reactions from the lateral system are transmitted to the bridge portals,
which in turn, transfer them to the supports.

Assumptions for Approximate Solution

The portal of a through bridge is consists of two or more end posts and provided
with bracing at the top that connect them. It serves to support the horizontal load from the
top lateral system, transmitting the reactions to the abutments. The bridge truss is then
statically indeterminate to the 3 rd degree since the magnitude, direction and point of
application of the supporting forces are unknown. The following are the assumptions:

1. Horizontal shear at the base of the end posts are equal.

2. A point of inflection occurs at 1/3 to ½ the distance from the bottom of end
post to the bottom of the portal knee brace for end posts assumed fixed.
3. End posts are firmly attached to the masonry at their bases and to a stiff truss
at the top.
For multiple portals, additional assumptions are:
4. End posts are identical.
5. At the base of each end posts, the vertical reaction is directly proportional to
its distance from the centroid of the cross-sectional areas of the end posts.

Example 1:

Determine the stresses in the members of the portal shown. Assume points of
inflection or contraflexure to be 3m above fixed column bases. Then draw the shear and
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

moment diagrams for the windward and leeward end posts. Label correctly the diagrams
emphasizing the point of contraflexure.

Note: Windward post is where the wind loads are applied and opposite to it is called the
leeward post.

Solution:

The truss shown below has its forces already labelled and its point of contraflexure
indicated.

Consider portion above P.C. and Consider left of the cutting plane a-a:
assume H1 = H2: 4
1 ΣFy=0: 5 bd=V1, bd= 22.91 kN T
ΣFx=0: H1=H2= 2 (15+30)=22.5 kN

ΣMB=0: 9V1=15(5)+30(3), ΣMb=0: 2cd=3H1 +15(2), cd=48.75 kN, C

V1=18.33 kN ↓ ΣMd=0: 2be=5H1 -30(2)-1.5V1, be=12.5 T
ΣFy=0: V1=V2=18.33 kN↑
3
ΣFx=0: H1 + cd = 45+be+ 5 bd
At the bases:
M1=M2=22.5(3)=67.5kN.m 71.25 = 71.246, ok
Consider right of cutting plane b-b:
4
ΣFy=0: 5 hj=V2, hj= 22.91 kN C

ΣMj=0: 2hi=3H2, hi=33.75 kN, T

ΣMh=0: 2gj=5H2 -1.5V2, gj=42.5 C

3
ΣFx=0: H2 + hi = gj + 5 hj

56.25 = 56.246, ok
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Joint h: Joint e:
ΣFx=0: hg=22.91kN 4 4
Fy=0: 5ed=5ef

ΣFy=0: ef=22.91kN T
3
hf=33.75-2(22.91)( ) Fx=0:
5
3 3
=6.26kN T ed+ 5ef=eb+eg
5

eg=14.992kN C
Joint g:
4 4
Fy=0: gf=5gh
5

gh=22.91kN T
Fx=0:
3 3
gf+ 5 gh=ge+gj
5

gj=42.482kN C

Summary of bar forces:

Shear and Moment Diagrams:

Windward column:
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STRUCTURAL THEORY
Leeward column:

Example 2:

The bases are hinged of the double portal shown. If the posts are the same,
draw the shear and moment diagrams of the end posts.

Solution:
a. Consider the entire structure:
1
Assume H1 = H2 = H3. ΣFx=0: H1 = H2 = H3 = 3(10+20) = 8kN

b. From assumption 5, V2=0, since the middle end post coincides with the center of gravity
of the three end posts.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

ΣMa=0: 18V3 = 10(8) + 20(6), V3 = 11.11kN↓, ΣFy=0: V1 = V3 = 11.11kN↑

c. Consider portion left of the cutting plane A-A

2
ΣFy=0: bd = V1 , bd = 20.054 kN C, ΣMb=0: 2cd = 6H 1 , cd = 24kN T
3.61

3
ΣMd=0: 2be = 8H1-3V1, be = 15.335kN C, ΣFx=0: H1+cd = be+3.61bd, 32=32, ok.

d. Consider portion right of the cutting plane B-B:

2
ΣFy=0: fi = V3 , fi = 20.054kN T ΣMf=0: 2gi= 8H3-20(2)-3V3, gi=-4.665, C
3.61

3𝑓𝑖
ΣMi=0: 2fh=10(2)+6H3, fh=34kN C ΣFx=0: +30=gi+fh+H3, 46.665=46.665, ok.
3.61

e. Shear and moment diagrams:

Leeward post:

Windward post:
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Example 3:
Given below is a triple portal with four identical end posts whose bases are fixed.
Assume the points of contraflexure to be 3m above fixed column bases. Draw the shear
and moment diagrams of the end posts.

Solution:
a. Consider portion above PC:
1
By assumption 1: ΣFx=0: H1 = H2 = H3 = H4 = 4 (14+28) = 10.5kN
𝑉1 12
By assumption 5: V1 = V4 and V2 = V3, Also: = , V1=3V2
𝑉2 4

ΣMc.g.=0: 12 V1 + 4V2 + 4V3 +12V4 = 14(6) + 28(3)

Substituting the relations above: 12V1 + 8V2 = 168
Then: V2 = 2.10kN↑ V1 = 6.3kN↑
V3 = 2.10kN ↓ V4 = 6.3kN↓
Moment at the bases:
M1 = M2 = M3 = M4 = 10.5(3) = 31.5kN.m
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

b. Consider portion left of A-A: above PC

4
ΣMc=0: bd(3) = 6H1, bd = 26.25kN C
5

ΣMd=0: 1.5ce = 4.5H1 – 2V1, ce = 23.10kN T

4
ΣMb=0: cd(3) = 3ce - 3H1, cd = 15.75kN C
5

4
To check : ΣFx=0: H1 + ce = (bd + cd), 33.6 = 33.6, ok.
5

3 3
ΣFy=0: V1 + cd = bd, 15.75 = 15.75, ok.
5 5

c. Consider portion right of B-B: above PC

4
ΣMh=0: gi(3) = 28(3) - 6H4, gi = 8.75kN C
5

ΣMg=0: 1.5hf = 4.5H4 + 14(1.5) – 28(1.5) -2V4, hf = 9.10kN, C

4
ΣMi=0: gh(3) = 14(3) + 3H4 – 3hf, gh = 19.25kN C
5

4
To check: ΣFx=0: 14 + 28 = H4 + hf + (gh + gi), 42 = 42, ok.
5

3 3
ΣFy=0: V4 + 5 gi = gh, 11.55 = 11.55, ok.
5

d. Shear and moment diagrams:

Leeward post:
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Windward end post:

Learning Activities:

Problem 1:
The double portal shown whose end posts are identical has hinged bases.
Assuming the stiff diagonals share equally the vertical shear in each panel, draw the shear
and moment diagrams for both windward and leeward end posts.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Problem 2:

The three end posts of the double portal have fixed bases as shown below. If
the point of inflection is located at 2m above fixed column bases, draw the shear and
moment diagrams of the windward and leeward end posts.
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UNIT 7

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS: DETERMINATE STUCTURES

Statically determinate structures are structures that can be analyzed using statics
alone which means that the sum of forces in any direction is zero or the reaction and
internal forces can be determined using the equations of equilibrium.

A truss is statically determinate if all of its support reactions and member forces
can be determined using the equations of static equilibrium only. For a planar truss to
be statically determinate, the number of members plus the number of support reactions
must not exceed two times number of joints.

Likewise, a beam is statically determinate if it has only two unknown reactions.

However, if internal rollers are provided, a beam can be made determinate by temporarily
removing the rollers and consider each segment with two unknowns.

Learning Outcomes:

• Analyze statically determinate plane structures.

Pretest:

As a review, give examples on how to determine the slope and deflection of simple
beams using double-integration, area-moment and conjugate beam methods since they
were discussed already in Strength of Materials. This is to compare the methods with
Castigliano’s Second theorem and Virtual work which will be discussed below.

STRUCTURAL THEORY
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Content:

The first three methods will be used to determine simple beam deflections. They
were being thoroughly discussed in Mechanics of Deformable Bodies. Hence, no
examples were given. To recapitulate:

A. Double-integration method
It is accomplished using the concept of a general moment equation where before
the deflection at a particular point can be found, complete slope and deflection equations
must be determined. The constants of integration will be zero if the origin of axes is
selected at a location where the slope and deflection are zero, as at a perfectly restrained
end or at the center of a symmetrically loaded beam.

B. Area-moment method
This method uses the area-moment theorems that requires the area and the
moment of area of moment diagrams be calculated. Drawing the moment diagram by
parts is then necessary. Deflection in cantilever beams uses the principle that the
deflection at any point is equal to the deviation of that point from a reference tangent drawn
at the fixed point. For simply supported beams, deflections are determined using a
reference tangent to the elastic curve drawn at either reaction.

C. Conjugate-beam method
It shows how the definitions of shear and moment may be applied to a fictitious
loading to determine the slope and deflection at any point.

D. Castigliano’s Second Theorem:

Castigliano’s method is a method for determining the displacements of a linear-
elastic system based on the partial derivatives of the energy. It is named after an Italian
engineer, Carlo Alberto Castigliano, who is known for his two theorems for linear elastic
structures in 1879. The basic concept is that a change in energy is equal to the causing
force times the resulting displacement. This causing force is equal to the change in energy
divided by the resulting displacement. Partial derivatives are needed to relate causing
forces and resulting displacements to the change in energy. It can be applied to unyielding
supports and the temperature of the structure is constant.

Theorem 1: The first partial derivative of the total internal energy in a structure with
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

respect to the displacement at any point is equal to the applied at

that point at that point.

Theorem 2: The first partial derivative of the total internal energy in a structure
with respect to the load applied at any point is equal to the
displacement at that point.

Castigliano’s first theorem is about forces in an elastic structure. It is used to

analyze statically indeterminate structures rather than calculating deflections. The second
theorem is concerned with the displacements in a linearly elastic struture. If Δi is the
displacement in the direction of load Pi and U is the total internal energy in the structure,
the mathematical expression of the two theorems are given below:
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
Theorem 1: = Pi Theorem 2: = ∆𝑖
𝜕∆𝑖 𝜕𝑃𝑖

Application to Beams:

To determine the deflection at any point in the beam, express the internal strain
energy U as a function of the load applied at the point and also in terms of the bending
moment M.
𝐿 𝜕𝑀 𝑀
Deflection: Δ = ∫0 𝑑𝑥 , P = applied ↓ or → load at the joint whose deflection
𝜕𝑃 𝐸𝐼
is desired.
𝐿 𝜕𝑀 𝑀
Rotation: θ = ∫0 𝑑𝑥 , P = applied fictitious moment M at the joint whose rotation
𝜕𝑃 𝐸𝐼
is required.

Example:

The cantilever beam below is loaded as shown. Determine the veritcal deflection
and slope at point A. Use E = 200x103 MPa and I = 500x106 mm4.

Solution:

a. Vertical deflection at A: (See center figure above.)

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STRUCTURAL THEORY
𝑥
Replace 15kN load with P kN ↓ at A. M AB = - Px, MBC = - P(x+3)- 25x – 5x ( 2 )

Section Origin Limit M 𝜕𝑀

𝜕𝑃
AB A 0-3 -Px -x
BC A 3-5 -P(x+3)-25x-5x2/2 -(x+3)

𝐿 𝜕𝑀 𝑀 1 3 5
ΔA = ∫0 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐸𝐼 {∫0 (−𝑥)(-Px)dx + ∫3 −(x+3)[-P(x+3)-25x-5x2/2]dx }, at P= 15k
𝜕𝑃 𝐸𝐼

1
= 𝐸𝐼
(1091.042) kN.m3 = 1091.042(1000)4/ 200x103(500x106) = 10.91 mm, ans.

b. Slope at A: (See right hand figure above.)

Place a P kN.m couple at A:

Section Origin Limit M 𝜕𝑀 ⁄𝜕𝑃

AB A 0-3 -15x -P -1
BC A 3-5 -15(x+3)-25x-5x2/2-P -1

𝐿 𝜕𝑀 𝑀 1 3 5
θA=∫0 𝑑𝑥= {∫0 (−1)(-15x-P)dx+∫3 (−1)[-15(x+3)-25x-(5x2/2) -P]dx }, at P= 0
𝜕𝑃 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼

1
= 𝐸𝐼 (559.167) kN.m2 = 559.167(1000)3/ 200x103(500x106)

= 5.592x10-3 rad, ans.

Application to Frames:

Considering axial deformation: Neglecting axial deformation:

𝜕𝐹 𝐹𝐿 𝐿 𝜕𝑀 𝑀 𝐿 𝜕𝑀 𝑀
Deflection: Δ = Σ 𝜕𝑃 + ∫0 𝑑𝑥 , Δ = Σ ∫0 dx
𝐴𝐸 𝜕𝑃 𝐸𝐼 𝜕𝑃 𝐸𝐼

𝜕𝐹 𝐹𝐿 𝐿 𝜕𝑀 𝑀 𝐿 𝜕𝑀 𝑀
Rotation: θ= Σ + ∫0 𝑑𝑥 , θ = Σ ∫0 𝑑
𝜕𝑃 𝐴𝐸 𝜕𝑃 𝐸𝐼 𝜕𝑃 𝐸𝐼

Example:

For the rigid frame loaded as shown, determine the rotation at joint C. Use E =
200x10 MPa and I = 900x106 mm4. Also, solve for the horizontal deflection at joint D in
3

terms of EI.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Solution:

a. Rotation at C: (See center figure above.)

Apply P kN.m at joint C. ΣMA=0: 30 Dy=3(30)(15)+20(10)+P, Dy=51.667+P/30

ΣMC=0: MC=20(20)-20(10) = 200kN.m

Section Origin Limit M 𝜕𝑀

𝜕𝑃
AB A 0-10 20x 0
CB C 0-10 -200 0
DC D 0-30 xDy-3x2/2 x/30

𝐿 𝜕𝑀
EIθC = Σ ∫0 𝑀 𝑑𝑥, Neglecting axial deformation
𝜕𝑃

30
= 0 + 0 + ∫0 (𝑥/30){ x[51.667+P/30]-3x2/2 }dx = 5373 kN.m2 , substitute P= 0

θC = 5373(1000)3/200x103(900x106) = 0.02985 rad x 1800/π = 1.71 deg. ans.

b. Horizontal deflection at D: (See right hand figure above.)

Place P kN load → at joint D.

ΣMA = 0, 30Dy = 3(30)(15)+20(10)+20P, ΣFx = 0: Ax = 20+P

Dy = 15.667+2P/3

Section Origin Limit M 𝜕𝑀

𝜕𝑃
AB A 0-10 xAx= x(20+P) x
BC A 10-20 xAx-20(x-10) x
DC D 0-30 xDy-3x2/2 2x/3
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STRUCTURAL THEORY
𝐿 𝜕𝑀
EIΔD = Σ ∫0 𝑀 𝑑𝑥, Neglecting axial deformation
𝜕𝑃

10 20 30
ΔD = ∫0 𝑥 [x(20+P)]dx ∫10 𝑥 [x(20+P)-20(x-10)]dx+∫0 (2𝑥/3){x [51.667+2P/3]-

3x2/2 }dx = 144,171.667/EI m, ans.

Application to Trusses:

For trusses, place a force P on the truss at the joint where the desired displacement
is to be determined. This force is assumed to have a variable magnitude and should be
directed along the line of action of the displacement. Then determine the force in each
member caused by both real loads and the variable force P. In the event that there is no
load at the point in which the deflection is needed, place an imaginary load at that point.
After the indicated operations are performed the correct value of P is substituted in the
expression obtained. If the slope or rotation is desired, P is the assumed moment acting
at the point where the rotation is required. A positive result in the answer indicates that
the assumed direction of the rotation is correct.
𝜕 𝑆𝐿 𝜕𝑆
Deflection: Δ = 𝜕𝑃 Σ S2L/2AE = Σ 𝐴𝐸 ( 𝜕𝑃 ) ,

S = stress in any member due to the given loads.

Example:

Determine the horizontal and vertical components of the deflection at joint B of the
truss loaded as shown. Also find the angle that the resultant deflection at B makes with
the horizontal. Use E=200x103 MPa and A= 1000mm2.

Solution:

a. Horizontal component of ΔB: (See center figure above)

4
Place P1 kN←load at B: ΣMA = 0: 5Cy = 4P1, Cy = 5 P1, ΣFy = 0: Ay = Cy
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Joint Method: At joint A:

4 4 4𝐵𝐶 4
ΣFy = 0: AB = 5 P1 , AB = P1 kN C At C: ΣFy = 0: 4.472 = P1
5 5
3 2
ΣFx = 0: AC = P1 - AB = P1 kN C BC = 0.0.8944P1 T
5 5

b. Vertical component of ΔB: (See right hand figure above)

Place P2 kN↓ load at B:

3 2
ΣMA = 0: 5Cy = 3P2, Cy = 5 P2, MC = 0: 5Ay = 2P2, Ay = P2
5

Joint Method: At A:
4 2 1 4𝐵𝐶 3
ΣFy = 0: AB = P2, AB = P2 At C: ΣFy = 0: 4.472 = 5 P2
5 5 2

3 3
ΣFx = 0: AC = 5 AB = P2 kN T BC = 0.6702P2 C
10

Member F F when P1=30kN & P2=50kN

AB -P1-0.5P2 -30-0.5(50) = -55.0 kN
AC -0.4P1+0.3P2 -0.4(30)+0.3(50) = 3.0 kN
BC 0.8944P1-0.6708P2 0.8944(30)-0.6708(50) = -6.708 kN

Member L(m) ∂F/∂P1 ∂F/∂P2 (∂F/∂P1)(FL) (∂F/∂P2)(FL)

AB 5 -1.0 -0.5 275.00 137.5
AC 5 -0.4 0.3 -6.00 4.5
BC 4.472 0.8944 -0.6708 -26.83 20.12
242.17 kN.m 162.12 kN.m

𝜕𝐹 𝐹𝐿
ΔBh = Σ = 242.17(1000)2/ 200x103(1000) = 1.211 mm← ans.
𝜕𝑃1 𝐴𝐸
𝜕𝐹 𝐹𝐿
ΔBv = Σ 𝜕𝑃2 𝐴𝐸 = 162.12(1000)2/ 200x103(1000) = 0.811 mm ↓ ans.
∆𝐵𝑣 0.811
tan θx = ∆𝐵ℎ = 1.211 , 𝜃x = 33.810 ans.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Learning Activities:

Activity 1:
Compute the deflection at point B and the slope at point C of the beam loaded as
shown. Use 200x103 MPa and I = 130x106 mm4.

Activity 2:
Without considering axial deformation, solve for the horizontal deflection at joint
D of the rigid frame shown below. Use EI = 14.99x10 12 N. mm2.

Activity 3:
For the truss shown below, determine the horizontal deflection at joint E using
A=3750 mm2 for all members and modulus of elasticity, E= 200x10 3 MPa.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

E. Virtual Work:

It is the work done by a real force acting through a virtual displacement or a virtual
force acting through a real displacement. A virtual displacement is any displacement
consistent with the constraints of the structure, i.e., that satisfy the boundary conditions at
the supports. The virtual system will consist of a known single external unit load (the virtual
external force) which will be placed on the joint the deflection is desired and must be in
the same direction as the deflection that we want to find. This virtual external force
will create known virtual internal forces which may be found using an analysis of the truss
(with the virtual external force only).

Virtual Work for Beams:

For deflection:

If the deflection at C on beam AD above is asked which is equal to Δ, place a

virtual unit load say 1N at C, which will produce a virtual external work equal to W Ve=1Δ.
𝐿 𝑚𝑀𝑑𝑥
WVe = WVi, 1N.Δ = ∫0 N2m3/EI
𝐸𝐼
For slope:

If a unit couple 1N.m is applied at C on beam AD above, the virtual external work
produced by the virtual unit couple as it undergoes the real rotation θ is equal to W Vi = 1θ.
𝐿 𝑚𝑀𝑑𝑥
WVi = ∫0 , 1N.m.θ = N2m3/EI
𝐸𝐼
where: M = moment due to actual loads Note: Upward acting force will
m = moment due to virtual load or couple positive moment.

Example:

For the beam loaded as shown, assume EI is constant with E =200x10 3 MPa
and I = 400x106 mm4. Determine the deflection and slope at point D.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Solution:

a. Deflection at D: (See left hand figure above) Consider center figure above:
Solve for the reactions RA and RC. Place 1kN ↓ at joint D.
ΣMC=0: 12RA = 30(12)(6) – 40(3), RA = 175kN ΣMC=0: 12R1 = 1(3), R1 = 1/4
ΣMA=0: 12RC = 30(12)(6)+ 40(15), RC = 253kN ΣMA=0: 12R2 = 1(15), R2 = 5/4

Tabulation:
Segment Limit M due to real loads m for ΔD m for θD
AB 0-6 175x-30x(x/2) -x/4 -x/12
BC 6-12 175x-30x(x/2)-10(x-6) -x/4 -x/12
DC 0-3 -40x -x -1

𝐿
ΔD = ∫0 𝑚𝑀𝑑𝑥/𝐸𝐼 = ∫(𝐴𝐵)𝑑𝑥 + ∫(𝐵𝐶)𝑑𝑥 + ∫(𝐷𝐶)𝑑𝑥
1 6 𝑥 12 𝑥
= {∫0 (− 4 )[175x-30x(x/2)]dx + ∫6 (− 4 )[175x-30x(x/2)-10(x-6)]dx +
𝐸𝐼
3
∫0 (−𝑥)(−40𝑥)dx}
−1450
1kN.ΔD = kN2m3/EI = -1450(1000)4/(200x103)(400x106) = - 61.875 mm, ans.
𝐸𝐼

b. Slope at D: (See right hand figure above and the tabulation)

Place a 1kN.m couple at joint D.
ΣMC=0: 12r1 = 1, r1 = 1/12, ΣMA=0: 12r2 = 1, r2 = 1, r2 = 1/12

𝐿 1 6 12 3
ΘD = ∫0 𝑚𝑀𝑑𝑥/𝐸𝐼 = 𝐸𝐼 {∫0 (𝐴𝐵)𝑑𝑥 + ∫6 (𝐵𝐶)𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 (𝐷𝐶)𝑑𝑥 }
1 6 𝑥 12 𝑥
= 𝐸𝐼 { ∫0 (− 12)[175x-30x(x/2)dx] + ∫6 (− 12) [ 175x-30x(x/2)-10(x-6)]dx +
3
∫0 1(40𝑥)𝑑𝑥 }
−1229.76
1kN.m θD= kN2m3= -1229.76(1000)3/(200x103)(400x106)= - 0.015372 rad, ans
𝐸𝐼
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Virtual Work for Frames:

Virtual work method is useful in determining the deflection at any point in a structure
like beam, frame and truss in any direction due to internal deformations caused by any
type of loading, temperature change, shrinkage, and other distortions. Applying the virtual
work equations to a frame structure is as simple as separating the frame into a series of
“beams” and summing the virtual work for each section. In addition, when evaluating the
deformation of a frame structure, you may have to consider both bending and axial internal
force components.

Example:

For the rigid frame shown, assume E = 200x10 3 MPa and I = 4000x106 mm4.
Determine the rotation at joint D and the horizontal deflection at joint E.

Solution:

a. Consider the real system above: Solve for the reactions.

1
ΣME=0: 6Ay= 20(8)+ 2(15x6)(4)+30(3)- 30(5), Ay = 46.667 kN
1
ΣMA=0: 6Ey= 2 (15x6)(2) – 20(2)+30(2), Ey = 18.333 kN
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b. Rotation at joint D: Place a 1kN.m couple at D. (See center figure above)

ΣME=0: 6R1 = 1, R1 = 1/6 kN, ΣMA=0: 6R2 = 1, R2 = 1/6 kN

Tabulation:

Segment Origin Limit M due to real loads Virtual m for θD Virtual m for ΔEh
AB A 0-2 -30x 0 -1(x)
BD A 2-5 -30x+30(x-2) 0 -1(x)
ED D 0-6 18.333x-5x3/3 x/6 5x/6

1 6𝑥 652.378
θD = 𝐸𝐼 { 0 + 0 + ∫0 [18.333x-5x3/3] } = kN.m2
6 𝐸𝐼
1kN.m.θD = 652.378(1000)3/(200x103)(4000x106) = 0.815 rad. ans.

c. Horizontal deflection at E: Apply 1kN → at E.

1
ΔEh = { ∫(𝐴𝐵)𝑑𝑥 + ∫(𝐵𝐷)𝑑𝑥 + ∫(𝐸𝐷)𝑑𝑥 }
𝐸𝐼
1 2 5 6 5𝑥
= { ∫0 −1(𝑥)(-30x)dx + ∫2 −1(𝑥)[-30x+30(x-2)]dx + ∫0 (18.333x-5x3/3)dx }
𝐸𝐼 6
1
1kN.ΔEh = 𝐸𝐼 { -135.02 }kN2/m3= -135.02 (1000)4/(200x103)(4000x106)
ΔEh = 0.1688 m ans.

Virtual Work for Trusses:

The real internal deformation for each member can be due to the applied loading,
temperature changes, fabrication errors, or any other source of deformation. These are all
treated the same way, as long as you are consistent about whether elongation or
contraction are considered positive. Elongation deformations will be considered positive,
which correspond to deformations arising from tension forces, increase in temperature,or
members that have been fabricated to be longer than necessary.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

𝑆𝑈𝐿 𝑆𝑈𝐿
Formulas: Δv = Σ Δh = Σ
𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸

where: S = internal normal force in a truss member caused by real loads

U = internal virtual normal force in a truss member caused by external virtual
unit load placed at the joint whose deflection is required
Δv = vertical displacement or deflection caused by real loads on the truss
Δh = horizontal displacement caused by real loads on the truss
A = cross sectional area of a truss member
E = modulus of elasticity of a member
L = length of a truss member

Example 1:

For the truss shown below, determine the components of the deflection at joint
B. Assume AE is constant with E = 300x10 3 MPa and A= 500 mm2.

Solution:

a. Joint Method:
Real System: The reactions are already given.
4 4
At A: ΣFy=0: AB=10, AB =12.5 kN T At C: ΣFy=0: BC=10, BC=12.5 kN C
5 5
3 3
ΣFx=0: AC+15= 5AB, AC= -7.5kN T ΣFx=0: AC= BC = 7.5 kN T
5

Virtual System: Place a 1kN load → at B: (See center figure above)

4 2 5 4 1 5
At C: ΣFy=0: BC= , BC= kN C At A: ΣFy=0: AB= , AB = kN T
5 3 6 5 2 6
3 1 3 1
ΣFx=0: AC= 5
BC=2 kN T ΣFx=0: AC=1-5AB= 2 kN T
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Virtual System: Place a 1kN load ↓ at B: (See right hand figure)

4 1 5 4 1 5
At C: ΣFy=0: BC = , BC = kN C At A: ΣFy=0: AB= , AB = 8 kN C
5 2 8 5 2
3 3 3 3
ΣFx=0: AC= 5 BC= 8 kN T ΣFx=0: AC=1- AB = 8 kN T
5

Tabulation:
Member Length S Uh ΣSUhL Uv ΣSUvL
AB 5m 12.5 5/6 52.0833 -5/8 39.0625
BC 5m -12.5 -5/6 52.0833 -5/8 39.0625
AC 6m 7.5 1/2 22.5 3/8 16.8750
126.6667 95.00

𝑆𝑈𝐿 126.6667
1kN.ΔBh = Σ 𝐴𝐸 = = 126.6667(1000)2/(500)(300x103)
𝐴𝐸
ΔBh = 0.844 mm, ans
𝑆𝑈𝐿 95
1kN.ΔBv = Σ 𝐴𝐸 = 𝐴𝐸 = 95(1000)2/(500)(300x103)
ΔBv = 0.633 mm ans.

Example 2:

Use virtual work method to find the vertical deflection at joint B of the truss
shown below.

To apply the virtual method on the truss above, solve first for the reactions caused
by the actual loads applied and determine the bar forces by joint method. The results are
shown on the truss of the real system. On the virtual system, apply a 1-kN load vertically
at joint B as shown, solve for the reactions, and use joint method to solve for the bar forces
caused by this 1-kN load. Again, the results are shown on the truss of the virtual system.
Then use the formula to solve for the deflection at B.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY
Tabulation:
Member Length (m) S (kN) U (kN) ΣSUL
AB 3 86.7 0.375 97.5375
AD 5 20.9 -0.625 -65.3125
BC 3 87.6 0.375 98.55
BD 4 0 1.0 0
CD 5 -145.9 -0.625 455.9375
Total 586.7125

𝑆𝑈𝐿 586.7125
ΔB = Σ = mm, ans.
𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸

Learning Activities:

Activity 1:
For the beam loaded as shown, determine the slope at point C, and deflection at
points A and D. Assume EI as constant with E = 200,000 MPa and I = 15x10 7 mm4.

Activity 2:

Use Virtual Work method to solve for the slope at joint F, horizontal deflection at
joint at F, and vertical deflection at joint E of the rigid frame shown.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Activity 3:

Determine the total displacement at joint C of the truss shown below. Numbers
enclosed in brackets are the areas of members in meters. Use E = 200 GPa.
 73

STRUCTURAL THEORY

UNIT 8

INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES: INTRODUCTION

A structure is statically indeterminate (or hyperstatic) when the static equilibrium

equations (force and moment equilibrium conditions) are insufficient for determining the
internal forces and reactions on that structure.

Static indeterminacy of a structure can be internal, external or internal and external

simultaneously. It will be called externally statically indeterminate if the number of support
reactions exceeds the number of independent equations.

Structural analysis aims to determine the support reactions and the variation of
internal actions in the elements of a statically indeterminate structure. This unit gives a
general introduction to the methods of analyzing statically indeterminate structures. The
succeeding units will discuss on the different methods of analyzing statically indeterminate
structures: three-moment equations, moment-distribution method, slope-deflection
method

Learning Outcome:

At the end of this, the learners will be able to:

• Analyze structures which are indeterminate.

Pretest:

Fill in the blanks with the correct word from the box below.

1. A statically indeterminate multi span beam supported on hinges is known as

____________ beam. These beams are supported by ______ or more supports. It is
provided with either free support or ________ support and can be a ___________ beam
as well because the supports are not necessarily found at the _____ of the continuous
beam. At least ___ support will develop a reaction along the axis of the continuous beam.

cantilever one fixed

continuous two ends
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

2. For the structures shown below, indicate the reactions, degree of

determinacy and stability.

a. Continuous Beam:

b. Plane Truss:
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Content:

Advantages and Disadvantages of Indeterminate Structures

One advantage of indeterminate structures is having smaller stresses. As observed,

the maximum bending moment which will produce maximum bending stress is lower than
in determinate beam. Another is having greater stiffness which means having smaller
deformations. In fact, the maximum deflection of indeterminate beam is only one-fifth that
of the determinate beam.

If properly designed, indeterminate structures have the capacity for redistributing

loads if a portion of the structure become overstressed or worst still, will collapse in cases
of overloads due to earthquakes, explosions, and other related events since such
structures have more reactions and supports.

On the other hand, support settlements may induce significant stresses in

indeterminate structures which should be taken into consideration when designing. Such
support settlements are considered negligible for determinate structures. Stresses due to
temperature changes and fabrication errors may be considered significant for
indeterminate structures but not on determinate ones.

Study the figures below to determine why indeterminate structures are more
structurally efficient than determinate ones.

Example:
Consider the simple beams (determinate structure) below. It is now unstable and
will collapse. While for the continuous beam which is indeterminate, if a span fails, the
load is redistributed to the other spans causing no collapse. If the bending force of the
center span is exceeded, a plastic hinge is formed.

Figure 8.1 Three Simple Beams (Left) and Continuous Beam (Right)
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

The figures below depict the causes of possible failures of indeterminate structures
like settlement of supports which will create large internal stresses. This will result to a
more complicated computation since equilibrium equations are insufficient to apply.

Figure 8.2 Support Settlement of Indeterminate Structures

Analysis of Indeterminate Structures

For a complete analysis, whether determinate or indeterminate, a structure

requires the use of the three kinds of relationships. First is the equilibrium equations which
relate the forces acting on the structure to ensure that the entire structure as well as a
portion of it will remain in equilibrium. Next is the compatibility equations that relate the
displacements of the structure so that its various parts fit together. Lastly, the member-
force deformation relations which provide the necessary link between the forces and
displacements of the structure and involved are the material and cross-sectional
properties like E, I and A of the members.

Although there were several methods developed for analyzing indeterminate

structures, they were broadly classified into two categories, namely, the method of forces
or flexibility and the method of displacements or rigidity which depend on the type of
unknown forces or displacements involved in the solution of the governing equations.

The force method, also known as the method of consistent deformation or

flexibility method, applies the equilibrium equations and compatibility conditions to
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

determine the unknowns which are considered redundant forces in statically indeterminate
structures. The reactions or the internal member force can be chosen as the redundant
wherein if removed from the structure will not make it unstable. This means removing
enough restraints from the indeterminate structure to render it statically determinate. The
redundant force can be treated as unknown load applied on the determinate structure and
can be solved using the compatibility equations formulated. Using the equilibrium
equations, the determinate structure can be analyzed completely together with the
external loads applied on it and already solved redundant force.

Displacement method works with equilibrium equations which are expressed in

terms of variables that correspond to displacement measures that define the position of
a structure like translations and rotations of certain points on the structure.

Stability and Determinacy of Indeterminate Structures

Structural analysis aims to determine the support reactions and the variation of
internal actions in the elements of a statically indeterminate structure. The static
indeterminacy of a structure can be internal, external or internal and external
simultaneously. Externally statically indeterminate structure has the number of support
reactions greater than the number of independent equations.
In general, if
number of unknowns < number of equations, structure is unstable
number of unknowns > number of equations, structure is indeterminate
number of unknowns = number of equations, stable and determinate

The conditions given above does not work with stability always. The displaced shape
method will also be used to know the stability of a structure.
• The structure is unstable if the displaced shape of the structure be drawn and no
member will deform.
• The structure is stable if the displaced shape of the structure can’t be drawn without
causing a member to deform.

Example 1:

- If removal of one constraint (a support force or a member force) causes the

structure to be unstable which means the structure be displaced without deforming a
member, then the original structure is stable and determinate.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

- If two or more constraints need to be removed to cause the structure to be

unstable, then the original structure is stable and indeterminate.

The continuous beam shown below has 4 support reactions and given are the
internal member forces.

Number of unknown forces

= 2 members x 3 member forces/member + 4 reactions = 10

Number of equilibrium equations = 3 joints x 3 equations/joint = 9

Since the number of unknowns > number of equations, then the structure is indeterminate
and needs one more redundant force to become determinate.

Figure 8.3 External and Internal Forces on Continuous Beam

Displaced Shape Method for Beams

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STRUCTURAL THEORY
In Figure 2 above, the beam is stable and is the determinate version of this
structure. Hence, the original structure is indeterminate with one redundant.

Example 2:

Consider the determinate and indeterminate beams shown below. When roller B
of figure a settles ΔB, AB and BC move as rigid bodies without bending and remain straight.
Thus, no stress develops in the beam. Unlike the indeterminate beam, when subjected to
the same settlement, it bends thereby producing bending moments in the beam.

Figure 8.4 Determinate Beam (Left) and Indeterminate Beam (Right)

Example 3:

For the frame shown below, support reactions and internal member forces are
indicated.
Number of unknown forces
= 3 members x 3 member forces/member + 6 reactions = 15
Number of equilibrium equations
= 4 joints x 3 equations/joint + 2 moment releases = 14
Since number of unknowns > number of equations, then frame is indeterminate
with one redundant.

Figure 8.5 External and Internal Forces on Frame

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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Displaced Shape Method for Frames:

Figure 1 depicts a frame that is stable since the displacement of the joints caused
vertical member deformation, that is, it curves towards the right. In figure 2 below, the
frame is stable and is the determinate version of this structure. Hence, the original
structure is indeterminate with one redundant. On the other hand, figure 3 below shows
that the vertical members remain straight despite the displacements of the joints, so the
frame is unstable.

Figure 8.6 Displacement of Frame Showing its Stability

Static Determinacy of Internally Unstable Structures:

Equations of Condition:

If there are ec equations of condition, that is, one equation for each internal hinge
and two equations for each internal roller, for an internally unstable structure supported
by r external reactions, then if

r = 3+ec, structures is statically determinate externally

r > 3 + ec, structure is statically indeterminate externally

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STRUCTURAL THEORY

r < 3 + ec, Structure is statically unstable externally

ie = r – (3+ec), degree of external indeterminacy of externally

indeterminate structure.

Alternative approach:

If r = support reactions, fi = internal forces (2 components for internal hinge, 1

component for internal roller), n r =rigid members, and 3n r = total number of equations,
then

r + fi = 3nr, statically determinate externally

r + fi < 3nr. statically unstable externally
r + fi > 3nr, statically indeterminate externally
ie = (r + fi ) – 3nr, degree of external indeterminacy for indeterminate structures

Learning Activities:

Classify each of the structures given below as externally unstable, statically

determinate or statically indeterminate. Label correctly the external and internal reactions
and support your answers with valid explanations.
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UNIT 9

THREE-MOMENT EQUATION

A continuous beam is a structural element that provides resistance to bending

when a load or force is applied on it. It has more than two supports along its horizontal
length. There are several methods of determining moments over the supports of
continuous beams. Among these methods, the three-moment equation is widely used
since it is simple and easy to apply.

The theorem of three moments is a relationship among the bending moments at

three consecutive supports of a horizontal beam and their relative vertical distances or
deviations.

Learning Outcome:

At the end of this unit, the learner will be able to:

• Analyze indeterminate beams using the three-moment equation.

Pretest:

What is the difference between a simple beam and a continuous beam? Give
examples for each type.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Content:

Three-Moment Equation

The theorem of three moments is a relationship among the bending moments at

three consecutive supports of a horizontal beam and their relative vertical distances or
deviations. In this method, it is necessary to find a general relation between the bending
moments at any three sections in a beam. The general form of the three-moment equation
is
M1L1 + 2M2 (L1 + L2) + M3L2 + (6A1a1/L1) + (6A2b2/L2) = 6EI (h1/L1 + h3/L2)

The factors (4th and 5th terms) in this equation are tabulated for different span loadings in
Table 8-1 of the book Strength of Materials by Singer.

If the supports of the continuous beam are at the same level, h 1 and h3 are both
zero. If one end of the continuous beam is fixed, treat the fixed end to be an imaginary
span with an imaginary loading. However, all the terms that refer to the imaginary span
have zero values.

If deflection will be asked, the three-moment equation is written between three

points 1, 2, and 3, so that either or both of the heights h 1 and h3 is equal to the desired
deflection. Two of the points must be at the supports and the third one is at the location of
the desired deflection. Moments over the supports are then computed.

Example 1:

For the continuous beam loaded as shown, solve for the moments over the
supports. Draw the shear and moment diagrams. Find the deflection at the overhang.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY
Solution:
a. Moment over the supports:
6𝐴𝑎1 7 7
= 60 wL3 = 5(4)3 = 37.333, M1 = 0, M4 = -12(1)(0.5) = - 6kN.m
𝐿1 60
6𝐴𝑏2 1 𝑃𝑏 1 7(2)
= 4 wL3 + (L2-b2) = 4 10(5)3 + (52-22) = 371.30 kN.m
𝐿2 𝐿 5
6𝐴𝑎2 1 𝑃𝑎 1 7(3)
= 4 wL3 + (L2-a2) = 4 10(5)3 + (52-32) = 379.70 kN.m
𝐿2 𝐿 5
6𝐴𝑏3 1 1
= 4 wL3 = (12)(3)3 = 81.00 kN.m
𝐿3 4

Three-moment equations:
6Aa1 6Ab2
M1L1 + 2M2 (L1 + L2) + M3L2 + + = 0, 2M2(9)+5M3+37.333+371.30 = 0
L1 L2
6Aa2 6Ab3
M2L2 + 2M3 (L2 + L3) + M4L3 + + = 0, 5M2+2M3(8)-6(3)+379.7+81 = 0
L2 L3

Solving simultaneously: M2 = - 16.438kN.m, M3 = -22.532kN.m

b. Solving the reactions:

1 2
Segment AB: ΣMB=0: 4Ay=2 (5)(4)(3x4)-16.438, Ay = 2.557kN
1 1
ΣMA=0: 4By=2 (5)(4)(3x4)+16.438, By = 7.443KN
1
ΣFy=0: Ay + By = (5)(4), 20=20, ok.
2

Segment BC: ΣMC=0: 5By=10(5)(2.5)+7(2)+16.438-22.532, By = 26.581kN

ΣMB=0: 5Cy=10(5)(2.5)+7(3)-16.438+22.532, Cy = 30.419kN
ΣFy=0: By + Cy = 10(5) +7, 57=57, ok.

Segment CD: ΣMD=0: 3Cy=12(4)(1)+22.532, Cy = 23.511kN

ΣMC=0: 3Dy=12(4)(2)-22.532, Dy = 24.489kN
ΣFy=0: Cy + Dy = 12(4), 48=48, ok.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

c. Shear and moment equations of segment AB:

For x, consider segment AB shown below:

𝑥 4 5𝑥 1 𝑥(5𝑥) 5𝑥 2
= 5, y = , P= 2
xy = =
𝑦 4 2(4) 8
1 5𝑥 2 5𝑥 2
VE = 2.557- P-F = 2.557- 2xy-x(45-y) = 2.557- – 5x + =0
8 4

5x2+5x-2.557=0, x=0.4823m
5𝑥 2 2 1 5𝑥 2 1
ME=2.557x- (3 x)–5x(2 𝑥) + (2 𝑥)
8 4

At x=0.4823m, ME= 0.6752kN.m

X=4m, MB= -16.4387kN.m

(Consider the shear and moment diagrams

below after solving for the deflection.)

d. Solve for the deflection y at the overhang.

(Consider the moment diagram below for the value of the moment to be used in
the three-moment equation.)
6Aa1 6Ab2 h1 h
M1L1 + 2M2 (L1 + L2) + M3L2 + + = 6EI ( + L3 )
L1 L2 L1 2

6Aa1 1 1
L1
= 4 wL3 = 4 (12)(3)3 = 81 kN.m, h1 = 0
6Ab2 1 1
= 4 wL3 = 4 (12)(1)3 = 3 kN.m, h3 = -y
L2
y
-22.532(3)+2(-6)(4)+0+81+3=6EI (0- )
1
5.266
-31.596=6EIy, y = - m, down.
𝐸𝐼

e. Shear and moment diagrams:

𝑉 26.581 𝑉 23.511
For x1: x1 = = = 2.6581m For x2: x2 = = = 1.9593m
𝐿 10 𝐿 12
 86

STRUCTURAL THEORY

Example 2:

Determine the moments over the supports of the continuous beam shown. Solve
for the reactions. Then draw the shear and moment diagrams.

Solution:
a. Moments over the supports:
 87

6Aao 6𝐴𝑏1 6𝐴𝑏1 𝑃𝑏

MoLo + 2M1 (Lo + L1) + M2L1 + + = 0, = (L2-b2)
Lo L1 L1 𝐿
STRUCTURAL THEORY

6Aa1 6Ab2 10(2)

M1L1 + 2M2 (L1 + L2) + M3L2 + + = 0, = (32-22)= 33.333
L1 L2 3
6Aa2 6Ab3 6Aa1 𝑃𝑎
M2L2 + 2M3 (L2 + L3) + M4L3 + + = 0, = (L2-a2)
L2 L3 L1 𝐿
6Aa3 6Ab4 10(1)
M3L3 + 2M4 (L3 + L4) + M5L4 + + = 0, = (32-12)= 26.667
L3 L4 3
6Aa4 6Ab5 6Ab2 7𝑤𝐿3 7(6)(3)3
M4L4 + 2M5 (L4 + L5) + M6L5 + + = 0, = = = 18.9
L4 L5 L2 60 60

6Aa2 8𝑤𝐿3 8(6)(3)3 6Ab4 𝑤𝐿3 5(4)3 6Aa4 𝑤𝐿3

= = =12.6, = = = 80, = = 80
L2 60 60 𝐿4 4 4 L4 4
6Ab3 𝑃𝑏 9(2) 12(1)
= (L2-b2) = (32-22) + (32-12) = 62
L3 𝐿 3 3
6Aa3 𝑃𝑎 9(1) 12(2)
= (L2-a2) = (32-12) + (32-22) = 64
L3 𝐿 3 3

Substituting: 0+2M1(3)+M2L3 + 0+33.333=0 Using determinants:

3M1+2M2(6)+3M3 + 26.667+18.9=0 M1 = -4.858 kN.m
3M2+2M3(6)+3M4 + 21.6+60=0 M2 = -1.396
3M3+2M4(7)+4M5 + 64+80=0 M3 = -4.748
4M4+2M5(4) +0 + 80+0=0 M4 = -7.480
M5 = -6.260

b. Solve for the reactions:

For L1: ΣMR2=0: 3V1=10(2)+4.858-1.396, V1 = 7.821kN

ΣMV1=0: 3R2=10(1)-4.858+1.396, R2 = 2.179kN

For L2: ΣMR3=0: 3R2=0.5(6)93)(1)+1.396-4.748, R2 = 1.883kN

ΣMR2=0: 3R3=0.5(6)93)(2)-1.396+4.748, R3 = 7.117kN
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

For L3: ΣMR4=0: 3R3=9(2)+12(1)+4.748-7.48, R3 = 9.089kN

ΣMR3=0: 3R4=9(1)+12(2)-4.748+7.48, R4 = 11.911kN

For L4: ΣMV5=0: 4R4=5(4)(2)+7.48-6.26, R4 = 10.305kN

ΣMR4=0: 3V5=5(4)(2)-7.48+6.26, R4 = 9.695kN

c. Solve for x in span L2:

𝑥 3 1 1
Ratio: = 6, y = 2x, P= 2xy= 2x(2x)= x2
𝑦

VA = 1.883–P=1.883-x2=0, x=1.372m
𝑥 1
MA= 1.883x-x2(3) 1.883 - 3x3

at x=1.372, MA = 0.327kN.m
x=3m, M3 = -4.747kN.m

d. Shear and moment diagrams:

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STRUCTURAL THEORY

e. Deflection at under the 12-kN load:

6Aa1 𝑃𝑎
= (L2-a2)
L1 𝐿
9(1)
= (22-12) =13.5
2

h1 = h3 = y

6Aa1 6Ab2 h1 h
M1L1 + 2M2 (L1 + L2) + M3L2 +
L1
+ L2
= 6EI (
L1
+ L3 )
2
𝑦 y
-4.747(2)+2(4.431)(3)-7.48(1)+13.5+0 = 6EI ( 2 + 1)
2.568
23.11 = 6EI(1.5y), y = m, down, ans
𝐸𝐼

f. Deflection at x = 1.939m from V5:

6Aa1 5(2.061)3
= = 10.943
L1 4

6Ab2 5(1.939)3
= = 9.113
L2 4

h1 = h3 = y

6Aa1 6Ab2 h1 h
M1L1 + 2M2 (L1 + L2) + M3L2 + + = 6EI ( + L3 )
L1 L2 L1 2
𝑦 𝑦
-7.48(2.061)+2(3.139)(4)-6.26(1.939)+10.943+9.113 = 6EI(2.061+ 1.939)
17.61358 = 6EIy(0.4852+0.5157)
2.9356
y= m, down, ans.
𝐸𝐼

Learning Activities:

Activity 1:

For the continuous beam loaded as shown, determine the moments over the
supports using the three-moment equation. Solve for the reactions. Draw the shear and
moment diagrams. Find the deflection at the overhang, and at x = 1.934m from R 1.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Activity 2:

Determine the moments over the supports of the continuous beam shown with
both ends fixed. Solve for the reactions. Draw the shear and moment diagrams. Solve for
the deflection at x = 1.51m from V4.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

UNIT 10

MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD

The moment distribution method is a structural analysis method for statically

indeterminate beams and frames developed by Hardy Cross. The method only accounts
for flexural effects and ignores axial and shear effects. It was widely used from 1930s
until computers were famous in designing and analyzing of structures,
The moment distribution method falls into the category of displacement method of
structural analysis and makes use of the four concepts of structural mechanics: The fixed
end moment at each end of a member, its rotational stiffness, its lateral stiffness and the
carry-over factor.

Learning Outcome:

At the end of this unit, the learner will be able to:

• Analyze indeterminate beams using moment-distribution method.

Pretest:

What is the difference between three-moment equation and moment distribution

methods if applied to continuous beam?
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Content:

In moment distribution method, every joint of the structure is fixed so as to

develop the fixed-end moments. Then each fixed joint is sequentially released and the
fixed-end moments (which by the time of release are not in equilibrium) are distributed to
adjacent members until equilibrium is achieved. It is the process of solving a set
of simultaneous equations by means of iteration or the process of successive corrections
that can be carried to any degree of accuracy depending on the number of corrections.
This method is used to determine support moments in continuous beams and is
also applicable to all types of rigid-frame analysis. To apply it, consider each span to be
fixed at the supports, then compute the fixed end moments from the general values listed
in Table 7-2 of the book Strength of Material, 3 rd ed. by Ferdinand L. Singer and Andrew
Pytel. Each support is then released, and the resulting unbalanced moments are
distributed at each support in the ratio of the stiffness factors of the adjacent beams. After
distributing the unbalanced moment, carry over one-half of this amount, with the same
sign, to the other end of the span. Once the support moments have been solved, the shear
and moment diagrams can then be drawn of which the maximum shear and bending
moment can be found.

In order to apply the moment distribution method to analyze a structure, the

following things must be considered.

Fixed-End Moment:

Fixed End Moments (FEM) are the moments produced at member ends by
external loads. Any load supported by a beam fixed at both ends will induce a fixed-end
moment. For the signs: clockwise end moment and rotation of a member are considered
positive.

Rotational Stiffness: K

Rotational stiffness or beam stiffness, K=EI/L, is the flexural rigidity of the member
and needed is not the specific values but the ratios of bending stiffness between all
members. It is the moment required at the simply supported end of a beam to produce
unit rotation at that end, while the other end rigidly fixed. For an angle of rotation, θ=1
radian, M=k=4EI/L which is the absolute K=4EI/L. Since E is the same for many structures,
only relative resistance to rotation is needed which is called relative beam stiffness K=I/L.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Modified stiffness factor at the near end when the far end is hinged is equal to ¾
of that when the far end is fixed.

𝑲 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒆𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓
Distribution Factor: DF = ∑𝑲 𝒐𝒇 𝒋𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕
If a joint is unlocked it begins to rotate under the unbalanced moment thus,
resisting forces occur at each member meeting at the joint. This unbalanced moment is
then distributed according to the distribution factors of each member. Distribution factors
can be defined as the proportions of the unbalanced moments carried by each of the
member. For fixed ends, DF = 0 and 1 for hinged or roller supports.

Distributed moments are end moments developed in the ends of the members
meeting at the joint when the unlocked joint rotates under the unbalanced moment.

𝟔𝑬𝑰 𝟔𝑬𝑲
Lateral Stiffness: LS = =
𝑳𝟐 𝑳

It is the measure of resistance to lateral displacement of one end of the member

when both of its ends are fixed against rotation. It is the moments developed at the ends
of a member caused by a unit displacement Δ=1 of one end.

Carry-Over Factor: COF

If a joint is released, balancing moment occurs to counterbalance the unbalanced

moment. The balancing moment is initially the same as the fixed-end moment and is then
carried over to the member's other end. The ratio of the carried-over moment at the other
end to the fixed-end moment of the initial end is the carryover factor.

In other words, it is the ratio of the moment at the fixed end to the moment
producing rotation at the other end if both ends of a member are on unyielding supports,
with one end fixed and the other end rotated by an applied moment.

𝑀𝐹 3𝑀
COF = , R=
𝑀 2𝐿
2 𝑀
MF = RL – M = 3 M – M = 2
𝑀 1
COF = 2𝑀 = 2,
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Moment-Distribution Method for Beams

A. Without Yielding of Supports:

For beams with no joint movements, the following are the steps in using moment
distribution method:
a. Solve for the FEM for each member using the table below.
b. Solve for DF at each end of the member using the formula given above.
c. Solve for the balancing moments developed after unlocking each joint.
These are opposite to the sign of the unbalanced moment.
d. Having distributed the unbalanced moment to each adjacent member, carry
over ½ of this moment with same sign to the other end of each member
adding moments to FEM thereby creating another unbalanced on the next
joint. Then another cycle of distribution will follow.
d. Steps c and d will be repeated until carry over moments become very small.
Then add the columns of moments.

Table of End-Moments:
 95

STRUCTURAL THEORY

If there is yielding or settlement of support, joints are first held against rotation and
6𝐸𝐼△ 6𝐸𝐼𝑅
then use the formulas: R = Δ/L, MFAB = MFBA = - =
𝐿2 𝐿

Example 1:

Analyze the continuous beam loaded as shown below. Draw the shear and
moment diagrams.

Solution:
𝐼
a. Relative stiffness factors: k =𝐿, LCM = 60
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼
AB = x 60 = 10 BC = x 60 = 15 CD = X 60 = 12
6 4 5

b. Fixed-end moments: FEM

𝑤𝐿2 6(6)2 𝑤𝐿2 5(4)2
AB = = = -7.20 BC = = = -6.67 kN.m
30 30 12 12

𝑤𝐿2 6(6)2 𝑤𝐿2 5(4)2

BA = = = 10.80 CB = = = +6.67 kN.m
20 20 12 12

CD = -Mk2(1-3k1)= -2(2){1-3(3)}=-32 DC = Mk1(1-3k2)=2(3){1-3(2)} = 30.00

At the overhang: MA = 12(1.5) = 18.00 kN.m
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STRUCTURAL THEORY
c. Moment distribution:

Joint A B C D
Member AB BA BC CB CD DC
k 10 10 15 15 12 12
Cycle DF 1.00 0.40 0.60 0.556 0.444 1.00
1 FEM 18 -7.200 10.800 -6.667 6.667 -32.000 30.000
Bal -10.800 -1.653 -2.480 14.085 11.248 -30.000
2 CO -0.827 -5.400 7.043 -1.24 -15.000 5.624
Bal -0.827 -0.657 -0.986 9.029 7.211 -5.624
3 CO -0.329 0.414 4.515 -0.493 -2.812 3.606
Bal 0.329 -1.972 -2.957 1.838 1.467 -3.606
4 CO 0.986 0.165 0.919 -1.479 -1.803 0.734
Bal -0.986 -0.434 -0.650 1.825 1.457 -0.734
Total 18 -18.000 1.263 -1.263 30.232 -30.232 0.000

d. Solve for the reactions:

For segment AB:

1 1
ΣMB=0: 6RA=2(6)(6)(2)+12(7.5)-1.236, RA = 20.7895kN ΣFy=0: RA+RB=2(6)(6)+12
1
ΣMA=0: 6RB=2(6)(6)(4)-12(1.5)+1.236, RB = 9.2105kN 30=30, ok.

For segment BC:

ΣMC=0: 4RB=5(4)(2)+1.236-30.232, RB = 2.7578kN ΣFy=0: RB+RC=5(4)
ΣMB=0: 4RC=5(4)(2)-1.236+30.232, RC = 17.2422kN 20=20, ok.
For segment CD:
ΣMD=0: 5RC=30.232-2, RC = 5.6464kN ↑ To check: ΣFy=0: RC = RD
ΣMC=0: 5RD=30.232-2, RD = 5.6464kN ↓ 5.6464=5.6464, ok.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

e. Shear and moment diagrams:

Example 2:
Determine the moments over the supports by the moment distribution method.
Draw the shear and moment diagrams. Use E=200x10 3 MPa and I=104x106mm4.
Compare the results if both relative beam stiffness and modified beam stiffness are
used.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY
Solution:
a. Relative stiffness factors: k
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼
AB = x12 = 4, BC = x 12 = 4, CD = 4 x 12 = 3,
3 3

Modified stiffness factor:

3
CD = x 3 = 2.25
4

∆
b. Fixed-end moments: R = 𝐿

𝑃𝐿 40(3)
AB = = = - 15.0 BA = + 15.0
8 8

𝑃𝑎𝑏2 6𝐸𝐼𝑅 60(2)(1)2 6(200𝑋103 )(104𝑋106 )(25)

BC = - + =− + = 333.333
𝐿2 𝐿 32 3𝑋1000(10002 )(3𝑋103 )

𝑃𝑎𝑏2 6𝐸𝐼𝑅 60(2)(1)2 6(200𝑋103 )(104𝑋106 )(25)

CB = + + =+ + = 373.334
𝐿2 𝐿 32 3𝑋1000(10002 )(3𝑋103 )

−𝑤𝐿2 6𝐸𝐼𝑅 10(4)2 6(200𝑋103 )(104𝑋106 )(25)

CD = - =- - = - 208.333
12 𝐿 12 4𝑋1000(10002 )(3𝑋103 )

𝑤𝐿2 6𝐸𝐼𝑅 10(4)2 6(200𝑋103 )(104𝑋106 )(25)

DC = - = - = - 181.667
12 𝐿 12 4𝑋1000(10002 )(3𝑋103 )

c. Moment distribution using relative k: k

Joint A B C D
Member AB BA BC CB CD DC
k 4 4 4 4 3 3
C DF 0 0.5 0.5 0.571 0.429 1.00
1 FEM -15.000 15.000 333.333 373.334 -208.333 -181.667
Bal -174.167 -174.166 -94.216 -70.785 181.667
2 CO -87.084 -47.108 -87.083 90.834 -35.393
Bal 23.554 23.554 -2.142 -1.609 35.393
3 CO 11.777 -1.071 11.777 17.697 -0.805
Bal 0.535 0.536 -16.830 -12.644 0.805
4 CO 0.268 -8.415 0.268 0.403 -6.322
Bal 4.2075 4.2075 -0.383 -0.288 6.322
Total -90.039 -130.871 130.871 184.725 -184.725 0.00

d. Moment distribution using modified k: k’

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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Joint A B C D
Member AB BA BC CB CD DC
k 4 4 4 4 3 3
k’ 4 4 4 4 2.25 2.25
C DF 0 0.5 0.5 0.64 0.36 1.00
1 FEM -15. 000 15.000 333.333 373.334 -208.333 -181.667
Bal -174.167 -174.166 -105.621 -59.400 181.667
2 CO -87.084 -52.801 -87.083 90.834
Bal 26.400 26.401 -2.401 -1.350
3 CO 13.200 -1.201 13.201
Bal 0.600 0.601 -8.449 -4.752
4 CO 0.300 -4.225 0.301
Bal 2.113 2.112 -0.193 -0.108
Total -88.584 -130.054 130.054 183.109 -183.109 0.00

e. Solve for the reactions:

Segment AB:
ΣMB=0: 3Ay=40(1.5)+90.039-130.871, Ay = 6.389kN ΣFy=0: Ay+By=40
ΣMA=0: 3By=40(1.5)-90.039+130.871, By = 33.611kN 40=40, ok.
Segment BC:
ΣMC=0: 3By=60(1)+130.871-184.725, By = 2.049kN ΣFy=0: By+Cy=60
ΣMB=0: 3Cy=60(2)-130.871+184.725, Cy = 57.951kN 60=60, ok.
Segment CD:
ΣMD=0: 4Cy=40(4)(2)+184.725, Cy = 66.181kN ↑ ΣFy=0: Cy+Dy=10(4)
ΣMC=0: 4Dy=10(4)(2)-184.725, Dy = 6.389kN ↓ 40=40, ok.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY
f. Shear and moment diagrams:

Learning Activities:

Activity:
For the continuous beam shown below, solve for the moments over the supports
using moment distribution method. Determine the reactions and draw the shear and
moment diagrams. Use E=200 GPa and I= 190x10 6 mm4.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

UNIT 11

SLOPE-DEFLECTION METHOD

The slope-deflection method relies on the use of the slope-deflection equation,

which expresses the moment at the end of the member in terms of the following
parameters: the fixed end moments due to the external loads, the rotation of the tangent
at each end of the elastic curve of the member, and the rotation of the chord joining the
ends of the elastic curve.

Then apply the equilibrium conditions to all the joints to solve for the unknown
rotations. These are the equilibrium equations for each node and the unknowns are the
translations and rotations of each node.

Learning Outcome:

At the end of this unit, the learner will be able to:

• Analyze indeterminate beams using slope-deflection method.

Pretest:

Discuss briefly the parameters mentioned above which will be very useful in the
analysis of beams using the slope-deflection method.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Content:

To apply the method, the first step is to formulate an equation for the moment at
each end of an arbitrary member in an indeterminate structure in terms of the rotations
and translations of the nodes at either end. If there are load between the points, then
consider its effect as well.

An arbitrary member is shown in the figure below. This member is a smaller part
of a larger structure, so at each end there is a section cut and at that cut, there is a shear
force and a moment. We will be most concerned about the moment at the ends.

Consider counter-clockwise direction as positive. Each end of the element at point

A has its own rotation relative to the element's initial position (θA and θB) as shown in the
figure. In addition, point B can translate vertically by an amount Δ relative to point A as
also shown. This will result in a rotation of the entire element. Represent this overall rigid
body rotation by the rotation of the element chord (i. e. a straight-line connecting point A
and B). The rotation of this chord (with the Greek symbol psi ψ) is equal to ψ=ΔL (1)
where Δ is the vertical translation of point B relative to point A, and L is the total length of
the element between A and B. The rotations are assumed small. There is no relative
horizontal translation between A and B since the elements are assumed axially rigid for
the slope-deflection method. Note that if the figure below is reversed wherein point A is
above point B, then clockwise direction will be considered positive.

Figure 11.1 Portion of an Indeterminate Structure

Figure 11.2 deformation of Structure Portion

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STRUCTURAL THEORY

The slope-deflection equations for a member AB subjected to different types of

loads and which has restrained ends are:
MAB = MFAB + 2EK (2𝜃A + 𝜃B − 3R)
MBA = MFBA + 2EK (𝜃A + 2𝜃B − 3R)

where: MAB = actual moment at end A MBA = actual moment at end

MFAB = fixed end moment at end A MFBA = fixed end moment at end B
k = stiffness factor of member AB = I/L 𝜃A = rotation of end A
R = displacement factor = ∆/L 𝜃 B = rotation of end B

Figure 11.3 Moments and Displacements on Indeterminate Beams

Procedure in solving slope-deflection method:

1. Determine the fixed-end moments (FEM) at the ends of every member of the
structure using the Table 7-2 for restrained beam loadings of the book entitled
“Strength of Materials”, 3rd ed. by Ferdinand L. Singer and Andrew Pytel.
2. Write the equations for the joint conditions at each joint.
3. Write the slope deflection equations for the moment at each end of every member.
4. The equations formulated in step3 are solved simultaneously for the unknown 𝜃
and R.
5. When these are determined, the actual end moments are solved by substituting the
values of 𝜃 and R into the equations in step 3.
6. If the shear and moment diagrams are required, then solve for the reactions first.
 104

STRUCTURAL THEORY
Example 1:

Analyze the continuous beam shown using the slope deflection method. All the
supports are hinges. Then, solve for the reactions.

Solution:

a. Relative stiffness factors: k = I/L

Note: Since there is no flexural rigidity (EI) given, then relative k will be used.
The overhang AB is not considered a span, hence it has no value of k.

BC = I/3 x 18 = 6I, k = 6; CD = I/ 6 x 18 = 3I, k = 3

Note: 18 = common multiple, or you can use LCM.

I = cancelled since it is common to the 2 spans

b. Fixed-end moments: FEM (Table 7-2, Strength of Materials by Singer & Pytel)

BC=wL2/12+Pab2/L2=8(32)/12+15(2)(12)/32= -9.333 CD=wL2/30=12(62)/30 = -14.4

CB=wL2/12+Pa2b/L2=8(32)/12+15(22)(1)/32=12.667 DC=wL2/20=12(62)/20 =+21.6

c. Joint Conditions:
At B: MBC = -10(2) = - 20 kN.m At C: MCB + MCD = 0 At D: MDC = 0

d. Slope-deflection equations:

Note: Since there is no displacement of the support, then R=0.

MBC = -9.333 + 6(2𝜃B + 𝜃C) = -9.333 + 12𝜃B + 6𝜃C
MCB = 12.667 + 6(𝜃B + 2𝜃C) = 12.667 + 6𝜃B + 12𝜃C
MCD = -14.400 + 3(2𝜃C + 𝜃D) = -14.40 + 6𝜃 C + 3𝜃D
MDC = 21.600 + 3(𝜃C + 2𝜃D) = 21.60 + 3𝜃C + 6𝜃D

e. Apply the joint conditions:

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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Substitute the moment equations above to the joint conditions, thereby obtaining
three linear equations. Solving them simultaneously will give the value of 𝜃. The values
of 𝜃 are: 𝜃B = - 1.55074, 𝜃C = 1.32348, 𝜃D = -4.26173

f. Actual bending moments:

Since the values of 𝜃 are now determined, substitute the values to the slope-
deflection equations obtaining the actual bending moments:
MBC = -20.000 kN.m MCB = 19.244 kN.m
MDC = 0 MCD = -19.244 kN.m

Going back to the joint conditions, it is obvious that the three equations were
satisfied. This means that the answers are correct. If the shear and moment diagrams
are required, then solve for the reactions first.

g. Solving for the reactions:

To solve for the reactions, it is easier to isolate each span by applying the
moments obtained above. These moments will be applied to the free-body diagrams
(FBD) of each span considering the signs of these moments: + M = counterclockwise,
-M = clockwise. Remember that the signs of the moments will only be used in applying
it to the FBDs and will be neglected in the computation.

By taking summation of moments at both ends of the FBD of spans ABC and
BC, the values of the reactions will be obtained. Be sure that the summation of forces
along the y-axis are satisfied for both spans.

For ABC: RB = 27.252 kN RC = 21.748 kN.

For CD: RC = 15.207 kN RD =20.793 kN.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

h. Shear and moment diagrams:

STRUCTURAL THEORY

Example 2:

Analyze the continuous beam shown using the slope-deflection method. Use E=
200x103 MPa, and I= 190 x106 mm4. The support at C has a vertical displacement ∆ =15
mm.

Solution:

a. Absolute stiffness factors: k

 107

STRUCTURAL THEORY

Note: Difference between absolute and relative k: Absolute k is represented in

terms of E, I and L like 4EI/L. Relative k is represented in terms of I and L, omitting E
and it is the ratio of stiffness of two or more members at a joint.

AB = 2EI/L = 2(200x103)(190x106)/(6x103) = 12.667x109 N.mm = 12,667.67 kN.m

BC = 2EI/L = 2(200x103)(190x106)/(4x103) = 19.000x109 N.mm = 19,000 kN.m

b. Fixed-end moments:
AB = wL2/30 = 8(62)/30 = - 9.6 kN.m BC = wL2/12 = 5(42)/12= - 6.66
BA = wL2/20 = 8(62)/20 = 14.4 kN.m CB = wL2/12 = 5(42)/12 = + 6.667

c. Joint conditions:
At A: MAB = 0 At B: MBA + MBC = 0 At C: MCB = 10x2 = 20 kN.m

d. Slope-deflection equations:
Note: Only members BC & BC have values of R=∆/L since they are affected by
the movement of support C.

MAB= - 9.6+12,666.67 (2θA + θB) MBC=-6.667+19,000(2θB+θC+3x0.015/4)

MBA = 14.4+ 2,666.67 ( θA + 2θB) MCB = 6.667+19,000(θB+2θC+ 3x0.015/4 )

e. Apply the joint conditions:

Substitute the moment equations above to the joint conditions obtaining three
linear equations and solving them simultaneously will give the values of θ A=1.7060 x
10-3, θB = - 2.6542 x 10-3, and θC = - 3.9470 x 10-3.

f. Moment over the supports:

With the values of θ already solved, substitute them to the moment equations to
obtain the actual bending moments. Thus,
MAB = 0 MBA = - 31.23 kN.m
MCB = 20.00 kN.m MBC = 31.23 kN.m

Again, if you are going to refer to the joint conditions, they are satisfied indicating
that the values obtained are correct. If the shear and moment diagrams are required,
then solve first for the reactions following the procedure presented in the first example.
The diagrams will be done in the same manner as Example 1.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Slope-Deflection Method for Frames

A. Frames with No Side Sway:

If a frame does not have any translational degrees of freedom, then a slope-
deflection analysis for the frame is the same as it would be for a beam. A frame that only
has rotational degrees-of-freedom (no translational degrees-of-freedom) is called a non-
sway frame. Slope deflection equations are applied to solve the statically indeterminate
frames without side sway.
In frames axial deformations are much smaller than the bending deformations and
are neglected in the analysis. With this assumption, consider the frames below. Fig. 1(a)
& 1(b) are properly restrained against side sway which means that it will not side sway nor
be displaced to the right or left.

Figure 11.4 Frames with Proper Restraint Against Side Sway

The slope-deflection method for a no side sway frame will be illustrated using the
example below. In this frame, joints C, D and E are restrained from translating horizontally
by the fixed end support at joint B (assume all members to be axially rigid). The vertical
translation of joint C is restrained by member AC connected to the fixed end at point A,
and the vertical translation of joint D is restrained by the roller support at D. Joint E is
able to translate vertically and rotate; however, since it is an overhang, degrees of freedom
is neglected but can contribute an equivalent moment to CD at D. Joint A experiences a
support settlement of 10mm downwards. Assuming AC to be axially rigid, this will also
cause C to move downwards by exactly 10mm. This settlement is not considered a
degree-of-freedom since it is not free to take any value based on loading. No matter what
the loading condition is on the frame, the settlement only has one set value equal to 10mm.

Example:

For the frame loaded as shown, draw the shear and moment diagrams. Use E =
200,000 MPa, I = 1350x10 6 mm4, EI = 270x103 kN.m2 and assume EI is constant and no
sidesway.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Figure 11.5 Rigid Frame with No Side Sway

Solution:

The frame above is loaded with a uniform distributed moment of 30 kN.m on CDE
and a moment at C of 150 kN.m (+M is counter-clockwise). Since the degrees-of-freedom
associated with the free end at E is not counted, this structure has only two degrees of
freedom, θC and θD. Then slope-deflection method can be used to solve for the unkowns.

The next step is to find an equilibrium equation for each degree-of-freedom.

Degrees of freedom (DOF) are set of independent displacements/rotations that completely
define the displaced position of the mass wrt its initial position.

Consider the figure below. The moment equilibrium for joints C and D are shown.
At joint C, there are three different members that frame into it, members CA, CB and CD.
Each of these members has an unknown end moment MCA, MCB and MCD which are all
positive (ccw). The moments caused by each of these members on joint C are also shown.
Since the members here are cut just beside the joint, the moments on the joint will have
an equal magnitude but opposite direction to the moments at the member ends
(−MCA, −MCB and –MCD). In addition to these moments, joint C also has a clockwise
moment applied directly to it of +150kN.m. Since joint C is at rest, we can now formulate
the first equation for the slope-deflection analysis:
∑MC = 0: MCA + MCB + MCD + 150 = 0.

At joint D (associated with the second degree-of-freedom θD) shown on the right
side of the figure below. The member to the right of D of member DE has a free end at
point E. This free end acts like a cantilever with its root at point D and the load on the
cantilever will produce a moment at D. This is because member DE with the free end does
not contribute any rotational stiffness to D, so the moment applied by member DE is
independent of the amount of rotation of D. So, member DE may be removed from our
 110

STRUCTURAL THEORY

analysis and replaced by a point moment at D that has a magnitude equal to the moment
applied by member DE onto D as shown.

Figure 11.6 Equilibrium Conditions

Applying ∑MD = 0, - MDC – 60 = 0, MDC = −60 kN.m. Having developed our

equilibrium conditions for joints C and D, we can now use the slope-deflection equations
to find expressions for each moment from each equilibrium condition in terms of unknown
DOFs (the rotations θC & θD). Then equations for MCB, MCA, MCD, and MDC are needed.

All of the members have either a fixed end or continuous ends at both joints (i.e.
none of the members have a pin at one end with only one member framing into it).
Therefore, use the slope deflection equations given below:

MAB = MFAB + 2EK (2θA+θB−3R) (1)

MBA = MFBA +2EK (θA+2θB−3R) (2)

To formulate the slope-deflection equations, calculate the chord rotations and the
fixed end moments for each member (if they exist). In a non-sway frame, chord rotations
will only be caused by support settlements or other support movements. In the example
below, there is a support settlement of joint A by 10mm downwards. When A displaces
downwards, this also causes joint C to displace downwards by an equal amount (10mm)
because all members are considered axially rigid. This causes the element chords of
members BC and CD to rotate to accommodate that downwards displacement. Recall that
the element chord is simply a straight line drawn between the two element end joints as
shown in the figure.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Figure 11.7 Frame with Support Settlement

The calculation of chord roations are given below. The chord rotation for member
BC is negative because the chord rotates clockwise from its initial position as point C
settles downwards. The chord rotation for member CD is positive because the chord
rotates counter-clockwise from its initial position as point C settles downwards. There is
only one chord rotation for each member. Regardless of which end joint is considered as
the centre of rotation, the rotation direction for a member will be the same. Member DE
would also have some chord rotation, but since member DE was replaced by an equivalent
point moment at point D, the behaviour of member DE was not considered explicitly at this
point.
Chord rotation: RBC = ΨBC = Δ/L = − 10/3000 = −0.00333rad↷
RCD = ΨCD = ∆/L ꞊꞊ −10/5000 = +0.00200rad↶

Fixed end moments are required for each member that has loads applied to the
member between the end joints. Only member CD will have fixed end moments. From
Table 7-2, Strength of Materials, 3rd ed. by Singer & Pytel,
CD = wL2/12 = 30(52)/12 = + 62.5 kN.m ( +M = ccw)
DC = wL2/12 = 30(52)/12 = - 62.5 kN.m ( - M = cw )

The slope-deflection equations can now be formulated using the same equations
as for beams. For both ends of member AB:

MAB = MFAB + 2EK (2𝜃A+𝜃B− 3R ), K = I/L

MBA = MFBA + 2EK (𝜃A+2𝜃B−3R), R = ∆/L

MAC= 0+2EK(2θA+θC –3x0)=2E(I/6)(2θA+θC−3(0)), Note: MFAC=0, no load on AC

= = 2E(I/6)( θC) = 0.333 EIθC θA = 0, fixed end A
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MCA = 0+2EK(θA+2θC−3x0) = 2E(I/6) (2θC+θA−3(0)) ∆ = 0 for AC

= = 2E(I/6)(2θ) = 0.667EIθC

MBC = 0+2EK(2θB+θC−3(-0.00333)) MFBC = 0, no load on BC

= 2E(I/3)(θC+0.0100) = 0.667EIθC+0.00667EI θB = 0, fixed end B
= 0.667EIθC +1800.9 Given: EI = 270X103kN.m2
MCB = 0+2EK[θB+2θC−3(−0.00333)]
= 2E(I/3)(2θC+0.0100) =1.333EIθC+0.00667EI
= 1.333EIθC+1800.9
MCD = 62.5+2EK(2θC+θD −3(0.0020) = 62.5+2E(I/5)[2θC+θD−3(0.00200)]
= −585.5+0.8EIθC+0.4EIθD
MDC = - 62.5+2EK(θC+2θD−3(0.0020) = -62.5+2E(I/5)[θC+2θD−3(0.00200)]
= - 710.5 + 0.4EIθC + 0.8EIθD

These six equations represent the moment at each end of every member in the
structure in terms of the unknown DOF rotations θC and θD only. From the 1st & 2nd
equilibrium equations, substitute the moment equations above, and then solve them
simultaneously to obtain the values of θ C and θD:
MCA + MCB + MCD + 150 = 0, (1st equation)
0.667EIθC+(1.333EIθC+1800.9)+(−585.5+0.8EIθC+0.4EIθD)+150 = 0
2.80EIθC + 0.4EIθD + 1065.4 = 0
MDC = - 60, (2nd equation)
- 710.5+0.4EIθC+0.8EIθD = - 60
0.4EIθC+0.8EID - 650.5 = 0, then, θc = - 0.00198 rad, cw
θD = + 0.00400 rad, ccw

From the slope-deflection equations formulated earlier, substitute the values of θ C

and θD giving the actual values for the magnitudes and directions of the end moments for
all of the members:

MAC = −178.2 kN.m↷ MCA = −356.0 kN.m↷

MBC = +1444.0 kN.m↶ MCB = +1088.0 kN,m↶
MDC = −60.0 kNm↷ MCD = −581.0 kN.m↷
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Figure 11.8 Shear Forces and End Moments

The shear forces at the ends of each member may be found based on the
computed end moments. For member BC, the shear at the left end (By) may be found by
evaluating the moment equilibrium around joint C. The axial forces for each member may
then be calculated using the member end shear forces. Examples for the calculation of
axial forces in members BC and AC are shown in Figure 3.9 above.

The individual member free body diagrams may also be used to draw shear and
moment diagrams for the structure. The resulting shear and moment diagrams for this
frame are shown in the figure below.

Figure 11.9 Shear and Moment Diagrams

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B. Frames With Side Sway:

Again, in the analysis of frames, the axial deformation in the members due to direct
stress is disregarded. In the design of members the direct stress, together with stresses
and moments must be included. An important assumption for rigid frames is that the angle
between any two members meeting at a joint remains unchanged, that is, the two tangents
to the elastic curve at a joint maintain the angle between them as in the original
undeformed structure.
The side sway of frames is caused by the unsymmetrical loading (eccentric
loading), unsymmetrical out-line of portal frame, different end condition of the columns of
the portal frame, non-uniform section of the members of the frame, horizontal loading on
the columns of the frame, and settlement of the supports of the frame.

Consider the example below. Due to non-symmetry about the centerline of

member CD, the frame will obviousy sway to one side. Joints C and D move to the right a
distance ∆Cx, neglecting the axial deformation of CD. Chord rotations for AC and BD will
occur, but theoritically CD will not experience any rotation. The chord rotations will be :

Figure 11.10 Frames with Sidesway

For the same value of θ, the shorter member will have a larger chord rotation. The
slope-deflection equations are the same with the equations for beams:
MAB = MFAB + 2EK ( 2𝜃A + 𝜃B − 3R ) K = I/L
MBA = MFBA + 2EK ( 𝜃A + 2𝜃B − 3R ) R = ∆/L

For the frame above, since joint A and B are fixed ends, θ A and θB = 0. Only three
unknowns θA, θB and ∆ remain and these can be solved using the following equations:

At C: ∑MC = MCA + MCD = 0 At D: ∑MD = MDC + MDB = 0

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Shear Condition: ∑FH = HA + HB = 0

where: HA = (MAC + MCA)/ LAC, HB = (MBD + MDB)/ LBD

HA = (MAC + MCA)/ LAC - P1h1/L1, if there is a horizontal force P1 applied
on AC at h1 from P1 to point C, see rightmost fig. above.

Example:

Analyze the frame shown below considering side sway. It is loaded with a uniform
load of 5kN/m on BC and a horizontal load of 25kN applied as shown. Assume EI as
constant for all members. Draw the shear and moment diagrams of the frame.

Solution:

a. Relative stiffness factors: k=I/L

AB= 3I/6 = I/2 x 4 = 2, k=2 Note: LCM = 4 for lengths
BC= 4I/8 = I/2 x 4 = 2, k=2
CD= I/4 = I/4 x 4 = 1, k=1

b. Relative values of R: R=∆/L

AB= ∆/6 x 12 = 2∆, Rrel = 2R Note: LCM = 12 for lengths
CD= ∆/4 x 12 = 3Δ Rrel = 3R

c. Fixed-end moments: (Table 7-2: Strength of Materials by Singer & Pytel)

MFAB =-Pab2/L2 =-25(4)(22)/(62)=-11.111 MFBC=-wL2/12=-5(82)/12=-26.667

2 2 2 2
MFBA =+Pa b/L = 25(4 )(2)/(6 )=+22.222 kN. MFCB = + 26.667 kN.m
MFCD = MFDC = 0, no applied external load on CD.

d. Joint and shear conditions:

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For joint conditions, take ∑M at each joint:

At A: MAB = 0, At D: MDC = 0, no moment at the hinge
B: MBA + MBC = 0 supports A and D
C: MCB + MCD = 0
For shear condition, take ∑FH = HA + HD + 25 = 0

e. Slope-deflection equations:

Note: Follow the same equations used in beams. Only the vertical members
AB and CD will have side sway, and the horizontal member BC will be displaced ∆
mm. Signs of R are the same because the columns sway in the same direction.

MAB = -11.111 + 2(2θA + θB -2R) MBC = -26.667 + 2(2θB + θC – 0)

MBA = 22.222 + 2(θA + 2θB -2R) MCB = 26.667 + 2(θB + 2θC – 0)
MCD = 0 + 1(2θC + θD – 3R) MDC = 0 + 1(θC + 2θD – 3R)

f. Apply the joint and shear conditions:

The joint and shear conditions formulated above will give the vaues of the
unknowns. Since there are 5 unkowns R, θA, θB, θC and θD, Gaussian elimination is
highly recommended to solve for these unknowns. Remember to check the answers
by substituting it to the 5 equations. The values of the unknowns are given below:

R = 38.2837 θA = 35.9395 θB = 10.2461

θC = 1.8663 θD = 56.4924
g. The actual end moments:
The actual end moments can now be solved since all the unknowns of the
slope-deflection equations are determined, and are summarized below:
MAB = 0 MBA = - 18.049 kN.m MCB = +54.624 kN.m
MDC = 0 MBC = +18.050 kN.m MCD = - 54.624 kN.m

Analyzing the results, it is obvious that the joint conditions are satisfied. This
means that the solution is correct. Next is to solve for the reactions, and then draw
the shear and moment diagrams.

h. Solve for the reactions:

To solve for the reactions, consider the free-body diagrams of each member of
the frame. Then, apply the end moments already solved considering its direction
(+M= cw & -M= ccw) as shown below.
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Figure 11.11 Free-Body Diagrams of Frame Members

By taking summation of moments at each end of the free-body diagrams of

members AB, BC and CD, the reactions can be solved. Summarizing the results:

For AB: Ax=11.342 kN For BC: By=10.916 kN For CD: Cx=13.6565kN

Bx=13.368 kN Cy=29.084 kN Dx=13.6565kN

i. Shear and moment diagrams:

Learning Activity:

Activity 1:

Analyze the continuous beam shown below using the slope-deflection method.
Draw the shear and moment diagrams. Show the complete solution of each problem.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY
Activity 2.
The continuous beam shown below is loaded with a couple, M= 120kN.m,
uniformly distributed load of 6kN/m, and two concentrated loads of 12kN and 8kN. Analyze
the beam using slope-deflection method. Draw the shear and moment diagrams.

Activity 3.
The rigid frame is loaded with a concentrated load of 48 kN and a uniformly
distributed load of 18kN/m. Joints A and E are fixed supports while joint D is a hinge
support. Using slope-deflection method, draw the shear and moment diagrams.

Activity 4:
Analyze the rigid frame loaded with a uniformly varying load on member BC and a
horizontal concentrated load of 16 kN applied on member AB. End A is a fixed support
while support D is hinged. Consider side sway of the columns. Draw the V&M diagrams.
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UNIT 12

APPROXIMATE ANALYSIS: INDETERMINATE PLANE FRAMES

The objective of this lesson is to present certain approximate methods of analysis

applicable to building frames. In general, the analysis of every structure, is approximate
since certain initial assumptions have to be made to carry out the analysis. For example,
the loads sustained by a structure during its lifetime may differ considerably from the given
design loads; the members of a truss are usually assumed to be joined by frictionless pins
even though the members are actually continuous at the joints.

The exact methods require the estimate of the sizes of members before analysis
can be performed. A practical application of approximate methods of analysis is the
calculation of a reasonably good initial estimate of forces acting on the members and their
respective sizes.

Learning Activity:

At the end of this unit, the learners will be able to:

• Analyze indeterminate plane frames using the approximate methods.

Pretest:

Discuss the difference between the exact and approximate methods of analyzing
structures. When can you say that a frame is statically indeterminate?
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Content:

Multi-story building frames subjected to lateral loads are statically indeterminate and
exact analysis by hand calculation takes much time and effort. Using simplifying
assumptions, approximate analysis of these frames yields good estimate of member
forces in the frame, which can be used for checking the member sizes. The following
methods can be employed for lateral load (like wind and earthquake) analysis of rigidly
jointed frames.
1. Factor method
2. Cantilever method
3. Portal method

The portal method and the cantilever method yield good results only when the
height of a building is approximately more than five times its least lateral dimension. Either
classical techniques such as slope deflection or moment distribution methods or computer
methods using stiffness or flexibility matrices can be used if a more exact result is desired.

Factor Method:

For the application of this method, the relative stiffness (k = I/i), for each beam and
column should be known or assumed, where, I is the moment of inertia of cross section
and L is the length of the member.

It is more accurate than either the portal method or the cantilever method. The
portal method and cantilever method depend on assumed location of hinges and column
shears whereas the factor method is based on assumptions regarding the elastic action
of the structure.

The application of the factor method involves the following steps:

1. The girder factor g, is determined for each joint using the formula: g= ∑k c/∑k, where
∑kc= sum of relative k of the column members meeting at that joint, ∑k= sum of
relative k of all the members meeting at that joint

2. The column factor c= 1-g, is found for each joint and each value of c is written at the
near end of each meeting at the joint. The column factor for the column fixed at the
base is 1. At each end of every member, there will be factors from step 1 or step 2.
To these factors, half the values of those at the other end of the same member are
added.
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3. The sum obtained as per step 2 is multiplied by the relative stiffness k of the respective
members. This product is termed as column moment factor C, for the columns and
the girder moment factor G, for girders.

4. Calculation of the beam end moments. G values give the approximate relative beam
end moments. The sum of beam end moments at a joint is equal to the sum of column
end moments at that joint. Beam end moments can be solved using Mij = Gij B, where
Mij= moment at end i of beam ij, Gij= girder moment factor at end I of beam ij, and
B= joint constant = sum of Mcol/ ∑G of that joint.

Cantilever Method:

Cantilever method gives good result for high-narrow buildings compared to those
from the portal method and it may be used satisfactorily for buildings of 25 to 35 stories
tall. It is not as popular as the portal method. It considers the frame as a vertical cantilever
beam with the windward columns acting in tension and the leeward columns in
compression. The simplifying assumptions made in this method are:
1. A point of inflection occurs at the mid-span of each girder.
2. A point of inflection occurs at the mid-height of each column.
3. The axial force in each column is directly proportional to its distance from the
center of gravity of all the columns on that level.

The steps involved in the application of this method are:

1. The center of gravity of the columns is located by taking moments of areas of all the
columns and dividing by the sum of the areas of the columns.
2. If a lateral force P is acting at the top the column of a 2-storybuilding frame with 3
spans. Assume the axial forces in the columns to be F1, F2, F3, and F4, and the
columns are at distance of x1, x2, x3 and x4 from the centroidal axis respectively. The
axial force in one column may be assumed as F and the axial forces of the remaining
columns can be expressed of F using the assumption (3).
3. The beam shears are determined joint by joint from the column axial forces.
4. The beam moments are determined by multiplying the shear in the beam by half the
span of the beam according to assumption (1).
5. The columns moment are found joint by joint from the beam moments.
6. The column shears are obtained by dividing the column moments by the half column
heights using assumption (2).
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Portal Method:

This method is satisfactory for buildings up to 25 stories, hence is the most

commonly used approximate method for analyzing tall buildings. It is frequently applied to
the analysis of building frames for determining wind stresses and the effects of lateral
loads. It is simple in application. The following assumptions were made in this method:

1. The building frame is divided into independent portals.

2. A point of inflection occurs at mid-span of each girder.
3. A point of inflection occurs at mid-height of each column.
4. The horizontal shear at a given story is distributed among the columns such
that each interior column resists twice as much as each exterior column. This
means that each exterior column corresponds to a single portal leg, while
each interior column serves two bents.

Figure 12.1 Four-Portal Frame

The total internal and external degree of indeterminacy of a building frame may
be determined by considering each story level to consist of individual portals. Each portal
is statically indeterminate to the third degree; hence, the total degree of indeterminacy is
three times the number of individual portals in the building frame. Even for the same
building frame, portal and cantilever methods differ in certain aspects.

Example:

By the Portal method, determine the approximate values of moment, shear and
axial force in each member of frame shown below. Then draw the shear and moment
diagrams.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Figure 12.2 Two-Story Rigid Frame with Wind Loads

Solution:

Upper Story:

1. Column shears:
Considering first the upper story, inflection points are assumed at mid-height
on each column. Obtain the shear in each column from a free body diagram (FBD) of the
structure above the hinge level. If the shear in the exterior column is V, then by taking
summation of horizontal forces, the unknown forces can be computed as follows:

Figure 12.3 FBD of Upper Portion of Cutting Plane Passed

on the Upper Story Showing Horizontal forces

∑Fx = 0: V+2V+V=20, V=5 kN, 2V=10 kN, (see figure above)

2. Girder shears:

Inflection points are also assumed at the center of beams GH and HK. The member
forces in the upper part of the frame can be evaluated from the free body diagram of the
parts shown in the figure below beginning with G or from K and working across. This can
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

be solved by taking ∑Fy = 0 at each joint. The resulting forces must check with the free
body diagram at the opposite end. The resulting forces are indicated on the diagram.

Figure 12.4 FBD of Upper Portion of Cutting Plane

Passed on the Upper Story Showing all Forces

3. Axial Forces:

Column axial force is applied along the axis of the column and is solved by
summing up vertical forces of the free body diagram at each joint. However, girder axial
force is determined by summing up forces along the horizontal considering the free body
diagrams of each joint.

Lower Story:

1. Column Shears:
Again, inflection points are assumed at mid-height of the lower columns and the
shear is distributed as in the upper story. Thus, in the lower story, the horizontal forces
can be computed using the following expression:
∑Fx = 0: V + 2V + V = 20 + 40 = 60, V = 15 kN, 2V = 30 kN

2. Girder Shears:
Assuming inflection points at mid-span of girders FE and ED, girder shears can be
computed by taking ∑Fy = 0 at each joint the same way with the upper story. The forces
in the of the lower story are obtained from the free body diagrams of the figure below.

3. Axial Forces:
Axial forces are applied along the axes of the columns and girders. Column axial
forces are obtained using the equation ∑Fy=0 of the free body diagrams at each joint.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Likewise, girder axial forces are obtained by the use of the equation ∑Fx=0 of the
free body diagrams at each joint.

Figure 11.5 FBD of Parts of Lower Story Showing All Forces

4. Column and Girder Moments:

At each joint, take ΣMC =0 considering the column shears multiplied by half the
length of the column. For girder moments, take ΣMG =0 at each joint considering the girder
shears multiplied by half the length of the girder.

Figure 12.6 Frame Analysis

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STRUCTURAL THEORY

5. Shear and Moment Diagrams:

The column and the shears obtained were considered in the shear diagram of each
story. Likewise, the column and girder moments solved were considered in the moment
diagrams in each story. The diagrams are shown below.

Figure 4.5 Shear and Moment Diagrams

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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Learning Activities:

Activity 1:
For the building frame shown, analyze them using the Portal method. Show
computations for the shears and moments at each joint of the frame. Draw the shear and
moment diagrams. Place the answers on the frame.

Activity 2:

Analyze the rigid frame shown with horizontal loads applied at the right portion of
the frame using Portal Method. Show the computations for shears and moments at each
joint of the frame. Draw the shear and moment diagrams. Sketch the deformed structure.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

UNIT 13

INFLUENCE LINES

This unit will discuss about the analysis of determinate structures subjected to
variable loads which is consists of determining the position of load or loads to obtain the
maximum value of a function.

An influence line (IL) is a curve the ordinate to which at any point equals the value
of some particular function due to a unit load acting at that point. It is a diagram showing
the variation of certain functions such as reactions, shear, moment, stress, or any other
function due to a unit load moving along a structure.

Learning Outcome:

At the end of this unit, the learners will be able to:

• Analyze plane structures using influence lines.

Pretest:

Have you wondered how a bridge will be designed considering that it is subjected
to moving loads? Looking at a bridge, will you be asking yourself whether it is really safe
to cross it? Outline the considerations that you will undertake in designing a bridge.
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Content:

Purposes of Influence Lines

1. To determine what position of live loads will lead to a maximum value of the
particular function for which an influence line has been constructed
2. To compute the value of that function with the loads so placed or for any loading.

Properties of Influence Lines:

1. The value of a function due to a single concentrated moving load equals the
magnitude of the load multiplied by the ordinate to the IL for that particular
function, the ordinate being measured where the load is placed.
2. The value of a function for several concentrated moving loads is obtained by
adding algebraically the separate effects of each load as determined by the
property above (1).
3. The maximum value of a function due to a uniformly distributed load equals the
load per unit length multiplied by the area of the IL under the uniform load.
4. The maximum value of a function due to a uniformly distributed moving load is
obtained by placing the load over all those portions of the structure where the
ordinates to the IL have the same sign as the function desired.

Influence Lines for Beams:

Example:
For the beam shown, draw the IL shear and moment at D. Determine the
maximum values of these functions due to a concentrated moving load of 5 kN, and a
uniform live load of 600 N/m.

Solution:
a. IL for the reactions: Due to a 1-N load.
15−𝑥
∑MB = 0: 10Ay = 1(15-x), Ay = 10
𝑥−5
∑MA = 0: 10By = -1(5-x), By = 10
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

At x = 0, Ay = 3/2 By = -1/2 At x = 9, Ay = 3/5, By = 2/5

x = 5, Ay = 1.0 By = 0 x = 15, Ay = 0, By = 1.0

b. IL for VD and MD:

If 1N load is at left of D: If 1N load is at right of D:

(Consider right portion, no load at DB) (Consider left portion, no load at CAD)
∑Fy = 0: VD = -By ∑Fy = 0: VD = Ay
∑MD = 0: MD = 6By ∑MD = 0: MD = 4Ay

c. Influence Diagram:

IL for Ay:

IL for By:

IL for VD:

IL for MD:

Influence Lines for Girders:

Live loads which are travelling along the stringers can transmit forces on the girders
through the floor beams at the panel points only. As a result, live load shear remains
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

constant at any cross-section within a given panel of the girder. The stringers act as end-
supported beams spanning between adjacent floor beams.

As a unit load moves from one panel point to another, the reactions of the stringer
in the loaded panel vary linearly with the position of the load, and any stress function in
the girder varies linearly also.
Therefore, the influence lines are straight lines between panel points for girders with end-
spported stringers.

Series of Concetrated live Loads:

For easy determination whether the moment has become larger or smaller, the
loads must be divided into three groups:
a. Those loads which were on the structure before the loads were moved and which
remain on the structure after the loads are moved.
b. Those loads which were on the structure before the loads were moved but which
have passed off the structure after the loads are moved.
c. Those loads which were not on the structure before the loads were moved but
which are on the structure after the loads are moved.
If the load P moves a distance d, and the slope of the IL is m, then the correspoding
change in moment is Pdm.

Example:

Using the moment chart and the structure below, determine the maximum moment at
point C of the girder due to the live loading corresponding to the moment chart.

Figure 13.1 Moment Chart (above) & Girder AF (below)

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STRUCTURAL THEORY
Solution:

a. Panel AB: (or any panel of the girder AF)

∑MB = 0: 10PA = 1(10-x), PA = (10-x)/10
∑MA = 0: 10PB = 1(x), PB = x/10

b. Girder AF: (place panel AB only as shown)

∑MF = 0: 50RA = 50PA + 40P2
50−𝑥
RA = 50
𝑋
∑MA = 0: 50RF = 10PB, RF = 50

c. Influence line for MC:

Unit load placed at left of C: Unit load is transferred at right of C:

(consider right portion, no load at CF) (consider left portion, no load at AC)
∑MC = 0: MC = 30RF ∑MC = 0: MC = 20RA
= 30(x/30) = 20(50-x)/50
at x=20: MC = 12 at x=20: MC = 12

IL for MC:

d. The entire system of loads will be moved to the left until load 2 is at C. The solution
below will show how the moment at C will be increased or decreased by this change in
the position of the loads.
Move the loads to the left: (use the formula Pdm)

Load 1 at section; move up load 2: Increase in M: (+M) Decrease in M: (-M)

Load group 1: (loads 1-5) 80(10)(2/5) = 320 10(10)(3/5) = 60

Load group 2: none 0 0
Load group 3: (load 6) 20(5)(2/5) = 40 0.0
360 60
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

Load 2 at section; move up load 3:

Load group 1: (all loads) 100(5)(2/5) = 200 30(5)(3/5) = 90

Load group 2: none
Load group 3: none

Load 3 at section; move up load 4:

Load group 1: (all loads) 80(5)(2/5) = 160 40(5)(3/5) = 120

Load group 2: none
Load group 3: none

Load 4 at section, move up load 5:

Load group 1: (load 2-7) 60(10)(2/5) = 240 60(10)(3/5) = 360

Load group 2: (load 1)
Load group 3: none

Since 240 < 360, moving up load 5 will cause a decrease in the moment at C.
Hence, the maximum moment at C will occur with load 4 at C.

e. Solve for the maximum moment at C:

Figure 13.2 Influence Line with Position of Loads to Obtain Maximum M C

By ratio and proportion, solve for the values of y:

y1 = 6, y2 = 9, y3 = 12, y4 = 8, y5 = 6, y6 = 4
Max. MC = 20(6) + 20(9) + 20(12) + 20(8) + 20(6) + 20(4) = 900 k.ft. ans.

Learning Activity:

Activity:
For the girder shown below, draw the influence lines for shear in panel CD and
the bending moment at point D. Then, a) determine the moment of point D due to the live
load group and a uniformly distributed load of 50N/m if the system of loads will be moved
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STRUCTURAL THEORY

to the right, b) determine the moment at E if the loads will be moved from the right to the
left using the same loads.

Influence Lines for Statically Indeterminate Structures:

Influence line is a diagram that shows the variation for a particular force/moment at
specific location in a structure as a unit load moves across the entire structure. For
statically determinate structures, influence lines are straight while for statically
indeterminate structures, influence lines are usually curved.
The influence lines for statically indeterminate structures are obtained by the static
equilibrium method or by the kinematic method, as was the case for determinate
structures. The distinguishing feature between the graphs of the influence lines for
determinate and indeterminate structures is that the former contains straight lines while
the later consists of curves. Thus, the construction of influence lines for indeterminate
structures requires computation of many more ordinates than necessary in the case of
determinate structures. The analysis and constructions of the influence lines using the
equilibrium and kinematic methods are discussed below.

Static Equilibrium Method

To construct the influence line for the reaction at the prop of the cantilever beam
shown in Figure 13.1, first determine the degree of indeterminacy of the structure. For the
propped cantilever, the degree of indeterminacy is one, as the beam has four reactions
 135

STRUCTURAL THEORY

(three at the fixed end and one at the prop). Thus, the propped cantilever has one reaction
more than the three equations of equilibrium. Considering the reaction at the prop as the
redundant and removing it from the system provides the primary structure. Next step is
to apply a unit load at various distances x from the fixed support and at the position where
the redundant was removed. Then, compute the deflections at these points on the beam
using any method. The redundant By at the prop can be determined using the following
compatibility equation:
𝛿𝐵𝑥
δBX + δBBBy = 0, By = - 𝛿𝐵𝐵

where: δBX = deflection at B due to the unit load at any arbitrary point on the primary
structure at a distance x from the fixed support.
δBB = deflection at B due to the unit value of the redundant (i.e., By = 1).
 136

References:

Gillesania, D.I., (2003). Structural Engineering and Construction (3th ed). DIT Gillesania
Hibbeler, R.C., (2012). Structural Analysis (9th ed.). PrenticeHall.
Rajan, S.D., (2001). Introduction to Structural Analysis. Prentice Hall
Besavilla, V.I., (2009). Simplified Structural Design. VIB Publisher
Kassimali, A., (2000). Structural Analysis (2nd ed). Brooks/Cole Publishing Company
Pytel, A. Singer, F.L., (2000). Strength of Materials (4th ed.). Harper & Row, Publishers
Utku, S., Norris, C.H., Wilbur, J.B., (1991). Elementary Structural Analysis (4th ed).
McGraw-Hill, Inc.
https://languages.oup.com/google-dictionary-en/
https://www.engineering.unsw.edu.au/civil-engineering/structural-engineering
definition/assumptions
https://www.quora.com/What-does-the-term-yielding-of-a-material-refer-in-civil-
engineering
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigid_frame#:~:text=In%20structural%20engineering%2C%
20a%20rigid%2C%20shear%2C%20and%20axial%20loads.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_analysis
 137

Glossary:

Assumptions- are statements that the design team will not spend time or effort in
verifying, they are considered true and not tested and the testing of
those assumptions is usually out of scope of the project.
Concentrated load- is a force applied at a single point on a beam or structure

Displacement- is the motion of an object relative to a reference frame, then the object's
position changes. This change in position is known as displacement.

Engineering analysis- proceeds by separating the engineering design into the

mechanisms of operation or failure, analyzing or estimating each component of the
operation or failure mechanism in isolation, and re-combining the components
according to basic physical principles and natural laws.

Modulus of elasticity-measure of the elastic force of a substance expressed as the

ratio of the stress applied to the substance to the accompanying distortion or strain.

Moving load- In structural dynamics this is the load that changes in time the place to
which is applied.

Rigid- is a solid body in which deformation is zero or so small it can be neglected. The
distance between any two given points on a rigid body remains constant in time regardless
of external forces exerted on it.

Rigid frame- is the load-resisting skeleton constructed with straigh t or curved

members interconnected by mostly rigid connections, which resist movements
induced at the joints of members. Its members can take bending moment, shear,
and axial loads.

Strain- is the deformation or displacement of material that results from an applied stress.

Stress- is the force applied to a material, divided by the material's cross-sectional area.
σ = stress (N/m2, Pa) F = force (N) A0 = original cross-sectional area (m2)

Structural analysis- is the calculation of the response of the structure to the design
loads and imposed deformations that it will be required to resist during its lifetime.

Uniformly distributed load- is a load that is distributed or spread across the whole region
of an element such as a beam or slab whose magnitude remains uniform throughout the
whole element or span.

Yielding- is that state where the structure is no longer elastic and can't regain its original
dimensions after the load is released and after the yield point the strain continues to
develop at a faster rate with less stress in the structure.
 138

Rubrics:

PROBLEM-SOLVING RUBRIC

Criteria Exemplary Good Needs

Improvement
Applying 4-5 2-3 0-1
previous
knowledge
Integration Effectively applies Applies limited Unable to make
of previous knowledge to amount of prior connection to
knowledge current problem. knowledge to previous
Integrates with new current problem. knowledge.
information to assist Does not Unwilling to review
problem solving process. consistently use summaries of prior
information knowledge for
effectively. useful information.
Sharing Team members all work Some exchange of Each team member
previous together to gain information and must teach him/her
knowledge knowledge and apply and discussion occurs, self. No sharing of
synthesize information. All but team members knowledge among
listen respectfully to the do not work team.
opinions of others. consistently to
address each one’s
needs or
understanding.
 139

Answer Key:

Unit 1:
Learning Activity:
A. 3. Frame B:
a. With r = 6 and ec = 3, the frame is internally unstable. The
frame is statically determinate externally since r = 3 + ec.
b. Alternate method: fi = 6, nr = 4, r = 6. Since r + fi = 3nr,
6+6 = 3(4), then the beam is statically determinate externally.
B. 1. RA = 4.62 N, Bx = 3.23 N→, By = 12.70 N↑
2. D.I.= (r+m)-2j = (6+15)-2(7) = 1o, degree of determinacy

Unit 2:
Pretest:
1. Ax = 200 kN→, Dx = 200 kN←, Ay = 150 kN↑

Unit 3:
Pretest:
1. A plane truss is one in which all members and joints lie within a two-
dimensional plane, while a space truss has members and joints that extend
into three dimensions. Top beams in a truss are called top chords and are
in compression, the bottom beams are called bottom chords, and are in
tension.

Learning Activity:
1. At A: AE= 8.08kN, T AF= 10.74kN, C
At D: DE= 7.49kN, C DH= 19.39kN, C
At C: CH= 8.60kN, T CG= 6.47kN, C
At E: VE = 1.50kN, down EH= 2.34kN, T
2. At A: AB= 57.58kN, C AE= 105.58kN, T
AC= 82.03kN, C AD= 41.03kN, T
At B: BC= 37.48kN, T BE= 22.51kN, T,
VB =37.48kN ↑
 140

At E: VE = 68.74kN, ↓. HEz= 63.75kN↓

ED=68.74kN, C
At D: VD= 31.27kN, ↓ HDx= 50kN←.
DC=18.76kN, C
At C: VC= 62.52kN, ↑ HCz= 56.26kN↓

Unit 4:
Pretest:
1. An arch is a compression member which can take bending moments and
shears. However, if it is parabolic no bending moments and shears will
develop and the loading uniformly distributed. A cable, on the other hand,
can take only tension like a suspension bridge having a cable and a
stiffening girder.

Learning Activity:
2. A. Difference in elevation = 48m
b. Vertical distance, yBC=y2 – c = 480-474.962=5.038m
c. Horizontal distance, xAB = 222.421+69.116=291.537m
Unit 5:
Learning Activity:
1. bh = 4.40kN T, cg = 1.71kN C, ch = 13.76kN C
mj = 83.29kN C, nk = 64.54kN T, mk = 7.05kN C
bf = 3.61kN C, be= 5.42kN C, ce = 5.08kN T

Unit 6:
Learning Activity:
1. ge = 75.188kN C, dh = 75.188kN T, gh = 33.75kN C
ik = 75.188kN T, fj = 75.188kN C , de = 5.75kN T
fk = 30.75kN C, ig = 16.75kN T
 141

Unit 7:
Castigliano’s Second Theorem
Learning Activity:
1. ΘC = 0.3640 ΔB = 12.19mm
2. ΔH =14mm
3. ΔH = 0.2476mm at E

Virtual Work Method

Learning Activity:
1. ΘC = 0.350 ΔA = 11.22mm ΔD = 25.09mm
2. θF = 1122.5kN.m2/EI ΔV = 4437.5kN.m3/EI (at A)
ΔH = 1519.17kN.m3/EI (at F)
3. ΔV = 12.11mm, ΔH = 1.92mm →

Unit 8:

Pretest: 1. continuous, two, fixed, cantilever, ends, one

Learning Activity:
a. Beam is internally stable with r = 5>3. Since i e = r-3 = 5-3=2, it is statically
indeterminate externally with a 2o of external indeterminacy.
b. Beam is internally unstable with r = 4 and e c =2. It is statically unstable
externally since r<3+ec, since BC is not restrained against movement in the
horizontal direction. Alternate method: From r + fi = 3nr, 4+1< 3(2), so it is
unstable externally.
c. Structure is internally unstable with r=6 and ec=3. Since r = 3 + ec, 6=3+3,
so it is determinate externally. Alternate method: From r+f i=3nr, 6+6=3(4),
then, it is statically determinate externally.
d. Beam is internally unstable with r=5 and ec =2. Since r=3+ec, then it is
statically determinate externally.
e. Frame is internally unstable with r=4 and ec =1. It is statically determinate
externally since r = 3+ec. Alternative method: From r + fi = 3nr, 4+2=3(2),
then it is determinate externally.
 142

f. Frame is internally unstable with r=6 and ec = 3. Since r=3+ec, it is statically

determinate externally. Alternate method: From: r+fi =3nr, 6+6=3(4), so it is
statically determinate externally.

Unit 9:
Learning Activity:
1. M1 = -50, M2 = 80.2742, M3 = -480.9596, M4 = -582.6035kN.m
90.139
At the overhang: y = - m, up.
𝐸𝐼

2. M1 = - 11.6538, M2 = -14.0257, M3 = -7.2863, M4 = -7.6069 kN.m

Unit 10:
Learning Activity:
1. MA(left) = 10 kN.m, MAB = -10 kN.m, MBA = -89.776 kN.m,
MBC = 89.775 kN.m MCB = 20 kN.m, MC(right) = -20 kN.m

Unit 11:

Learning Activity:
1. MB = -7.84 kN.m, R1= 4.69 kN, R2 = 32.69 kN, R3= 19.75 kN
2. MB = -3.75 kN.m, R1= -14.44 kN R2= 32.69 kN, R3= 19.75 kN
3. MAB = 2.697 kN.m, MBA = 5.394 kN.m MBC = -5.394 kN.m
MCB = 40.972 kN.m, MCD = 3.553 kN.m MDC = 0
MCE = -44.525 kN.m, MEC = 58.738 kN.m

Unit 12:
Learning Activity:
1. By Portal Method:
MA = 200 ccw, MB = 400 ccw, MC = 400 ccw, MD = 200 ccw
VA = 85kN↓ VB = 14.167↑ VC = 0.83↑ VD = 70↑

By Cantilever Method:
MA = 189.15kN.m, ccw, MB = 476.49kN.m, ccw,
MC = 410.59kN.m, ccw, MD = 123.25kN.m, ccw
VA = 65.75kN ↓ VB = 14.17↓
VC = 24.66kN ↑ VD = 65.75kN ↑
 143

Unit 13:
Learning Activity:
1. Max. MD= 415+ 4(16)(50)/2 = 2015N.m with Load 4 at D.
2. Max. ME= 315+ 3(16)(50)/2 = 1515N.m with Load 6 at E
 144

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About the Author:

Of course, life is not just a bed of roses. Challenges and hardships are an integral
element of life. Being born from poor parents did not hinder her to seek education away
from home. It was a great blessing to be an academic scholar at Mindanao State
University, Marawi City, where she had acquired the degree in civil engineering.

She had come to believe that two main factors determine success. Firstly, a
person’s determination and will to succeed. That’s her very weapons in obstructing
hindrances in taking the board examination in order to gain success, and in obtaining her
master’s degree. Equally important is the support of people especially relatives around
you. Being determined to succeed does not mean alienting everyone and stepping other
individuals in order to achieve your goal. This principle had moulded her into the person
she is right now.

Fortunately, she was blessed with an only daughter who is very supportive and
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The most challenging task she ever have is probably writing modules. Even though
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