Saint Louis College

City of San Fernando, La Union

PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
(PSYCH 111/111L)
COURSE FACILITATOR:
Dr. Jose J. Pangngay, RPm, RPsy, LPT

LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGICAL MEASUREMENT

BRIEF HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING AND
PROMINENT INDIVIDUALS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

A. ANCIENT ROOTS
• Chinese Civilization – testing was instituted as a means of selecting who, of the many applicants, would obtain
government jobs
• Greek Civilization – tests were used to measure intelligence and physical skills
• European Universities – these universities relied on formal exams in conferring degrees and honors

B. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
• Charles Darwin – believed that despite our similarities, no two humans are exactly alike. Some of these individual
differences are more “adaptive than others and these differences lead to more complex, intelligent organisms over
time.
• Francis Galton – he established the testing movement; introduced the anthropometric records of students;
pioneered the application of rating-scale and questionnaire method, and the free association technique; he also
pioneered the use of statistical methods for the analysis of psychological tests He used the Galton bar (visual
discrimination length) and Galton whistle (determining the highest audible pitch). Moreover, he also noted that
persons with mental retardation tend to have diminished ability to discriminate among heat, cold and pain.

C. EARLY EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGISTS

• Johan Friedrich Herbart – Mathematical models of the mind; father of pedagogy as an academic discipline; went
against Wundt
• Ernst Heinrich Weber – sensory thresholds; just noticeable differences (JND)
• Gustav Theodor Fechner – mathematics of sensory thresholds of experience; founder of psychophysics;
considered one of the founders of experimental psychology; Weber-Fechner Law first to relate sensation and
stimulus
• Wilhelm Wundt – considered one of the founders of Psychology; first to setup a psychology laboratory
• Edward Titchner – succeeded Wundt; brought Structuralism to America; his brain is still on display in the
psychology department at Cornell
• Guy Montrose Whipple – pioneer of human ability testing; conducted seminars that changed the field of
psychological testing
• Louis Leon Thurstone – large contributor of factor analysis; approach to measurement was termed as the law of
comparative judgment
D. THE STUDY OF MENTAL DEFICIENCY AND INTELLIGENCE TESTING
• Jean Esquirol – provided the first accurate description of mental retardation as an entity separate from insanity.
• Edouard Seguin – pioneered modern educational methods for teaching people who are mentally
retarded/intellectually disabled
• James McKeen Cattell – an American psychologist who coined the term “mental test”
• Alfred Binet – the father of IQ testing
• Lewis M. Terman – introduced the concept of IQ as determined by the mental age and chronological age
• Charles Spearman – introduced the two-factor theory of intelligence (General ability or “g” – required for
performance on mental tests of all kinds; and Special abilities or “s” – required for performance on mental test of
only one kind)
• Thurstone – Primary Mental Abilities
• David Wechsler – Wechsler Intelligence Tests (WISC, WAIS)
• Raymond Cattell – introduced the components of “g” (Fluid “g” – ability to see relationships as in analogies and
letter and number series, also known as the primary reasoning ability which decreases with age; and Crystallized
“g” – acquired knowledge and skills which increases with age)
• Guilford – theorized the “many factor intelligence theory” (6 types of operations X 5 types of contents X 6 types of
products = 180 elementary abilities)
• Vernon and Carroll – introduced the hierarchical approach in “g”
• Sternberg – introduced the “3 g’s” (Academic g, Practical g, and Creative g)
• Howard Gardner – conceptualized the multiple intelligences theory
• Henry Goddard – translated the Binet-Simon test into French

E. WORLD WAR I
• Robert Yerkes – pioneered the first group intelligence test known as the Army Alpha (for literate) and Army Beta
(for functionally illiterate)
• Arthur S. Otis – introduced multiple choice and other “objective” item type of tests
• Robert S. Woodworth – devised the Personal Data Sheet (known as the first personality test) which aimed to
identify soldiers who are at risk for shell shock

F. PERSONALITY TESTERS
• Herman Rorschach – slow rise of projective testing; Rorschach Inkblot Test
• Henry Murray & Christina Morgan – Thematic Apperception Test
• Early 1940’s – structure tests were being developed based on their better psychometric properties
• Raymond B. Cattell – 16 Personality Factors
• McCrae & Costa – Big 5 Personality Factors

G. PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING IN THE PHILIPPINES

• Virgilio Enriquez – Panukat ng Ugali at Pagkatao or PUP
• Aurora R. Palacio – Panukat ng Katalinuhang Pilipino or PKP
• Anadaisy Carlota – Panukat ng Pagkataong Pilipino or PPP
• Gregorio E.H. Del Pilar – Masaklaw na Panukad ng Loob or Mapa ng Loob
• Alfredo Lagmay – Philippine Thematic Apperception Test (PTAT)
 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING AND PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

A. OBJECTIVES OF PSYCHOMETRICS
1. To measure behavior (overt and covert)
2. To describe and predict behavior and personality (traits, states, personality types, attitudes, interests, values,
etc.)
3. To determine signs and symptoms of dysfunctionality (for case formulation, diagnosis, and basis for
intervention/plan for action)

B. PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING VS. PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

Psychological Testing Psychological Assessment
Objective Typically, to obtain some gauge, usually Typically to answer a referral question, solve a
numerical in nature, with regard to an ability problem, or arrive at a decision through the use
or attribute of tools of evaluation.
Focus How one person or group compares with The uniqueness of a given individual, group, or
others (nomothetic) situation (idiographic)
Process Testing may be individual or group in Assessment is typically individualized. In
nature. After test administration, the tester contrast to testing, assessment more typically
will typically add up “the number of correct focuses on how an individual processes rather
answers or the number of certain types of than simply the results of that processing.
responses… with little if any regard for the
how or mechanics of such content”
Role of Evaluator The tester is not the key to the process; The assessor is the key to the process of
practically speaking, one tester may be selecting tests and/or other tools of evaluation
substituted for another tester without as well as in drawing conclusions from the
appreciably affecting the evaluation. entire evaluation.
Skill of Evaluator Testing typically requires technician-like Assessment typically requires an educated
skills in terms of administering and scoring selection of tools of evaluation, skill in
a test as well as in interpreting a test result. evaluation, and thoughtful organization and
integration of data.
Outcome Typically, testing yields a test score or Typically, assessment entails a logical problem-
series of test scores. solving approach that brings to bear many
sources of data designed to shed light on a
referral question.
Duration Shorter, lasting from few minutes to few Longer, lasting from a few hours to a few days
hours or more
Sources of Data One person, the test taker only Often collateral sources, such as relatives or
teachers, are used in addition to the subject of
the assessment
Qualification for Knowledge of tests and testing procedures Knowledge of testing and other assessment
Use methods as well as of the specialty area
assessed (psychiatric disorders, job
requirements, etc.)
Cost Inexpensive, especially when group testing Very expensive, requires intensive use of highly
is done qualified professionals
C. ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING AND ASSESSMENT
1. Psychological traits and states exist.
• Trait - characteristic behaviors and feelings that are consistent and long lasting.
• State -temporary behaviors or feelings that depend on a person's situation and motives at a particular time
2. Psychological traits and states can be quantified and measured.
3. Test-related behavior predicts non-test-related behavior.
• Postdict- To estimate or suppose something which took place in past; to conjecture something that occurred
beforehand
• Predict - say or estimate that (a specified thing) will happen in the future or will be a consequence of
something
4. Tests and other measurement techniques have strengths and weaknesses.
5. Various sources of error are part of the assessment process.
• Error – long standing assumption that factors other than what a test attempts to measure will influence
performance on the test
• Error variance – the component of test score attributable to sources other than the trait or ability being
measured
6. Testing and assessment can be conducted in a fair and unbiased manner.
7. Testing and assessment benefit society.

D. PARTIES IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

1. Test Authors and Developer – create tests or other methods of assessment
2. Test Publishers – they publish, market, and sell tests, thus controlling their distribution
3. Test Reviewers – they prepare evaluative critiques of tests based on their technical and practical merits
4. Test Users – professionals such as clinicians, counselors, school psychologists, human resource personnel,
consumer psychologists, experimental psychologists, social psychologists, etc. that use these tests for
assessment
5. Test Sponsors – institutional boards or government agencies who contract test developers or publishers for a
various testing services
6. Test Takers – those who are taking the tests; those who are subject to assessment
7. Society at Large

E. REFERRAL SETTINGS FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

1. Psychiatric Setting
• Referral by a psychiatrist as administrator in a ward: Ward administrators must frequently make decisions
about problems such as suicide risk, admission/discharge, and the suitability of a wide variety of medical
procedures. While retaining ultimate decision-making responsibility, psychiatrists often use information from
other persons to help with decisions.
• Referral by a psychiatrist as a physician: referrals are mainly about appropriateness of the client for such
therapy, the strategies that are most likely to be effective, and the likely outcome of therapy. These
assessments are usually clear-cut and typically do not present many difficulties. Such evaluations can
elaborate on likely problems that may occur during the course of therapy, capacity for insight, diagnosis,
coping style, level of resistance, degree of functional impairment, and problem complexity
2. General Medical Setting
• Referrals in general medical setting typically revolves around physicians seeking to the help of
psychologists to determine presence of an underlying psychological disorder, possible emotional factors
associated with medical complaints, assessment for neuropsychological deficit, psychological treatment for
chronic pain, the treatment of chemical dependency, patient management, and case consultation
• Another area that has greatly increased in importance is the psychological assessment of a patient’s
neuropsychological status
• A physician might also request a psychologist to conduct a presurgical evaluation to assess the likelihood
of a serious stress reaction to surgery.
 • Pediatricians are often concerned with detecting early signs of serious psychological disorder, which may
have been brought to their attention by parents, other family members, or teachers. In such situations, the
psychologist’s evaluation should assess not only the patient’s current psychological condition but also the
contributing factors in his or her environment and should provide a prediction of the patient’s status during
the next few months or years.
3. Legal Context
• Psychologists are used most frequently in child custody cases, competency of a person to dispose of
property, juvenile commitment, comprehension of Miranda rights, potential for having given a false
confession, and personal injury suits in which the psychologist documents the nature and extent of the
litigant’s suffering or disability
• evaluating insanity and evaluating competency
• prediction of dangerousness
• classification of inmates in correctional settings
4. Academic/Educational Context
• Psychologists are frequently called on to assess children who are having difficulty, or may need special
placement, in the school system. The most important areas are evaluating the nature and extent of a child’s
learning difficulties, measuring intellectual strengths and weaknesses, assessing behavioral difficulties,
creating an educational plan, estimating a child’s responsiveness to intervention, and recommending
changes in a child’s program or placement
5. Psychological Clinic
• The most common ones are individuals who are self-referred and are seeking relief from psychological
turmoil.
• Two other situations in which psychological assessment may be warranted involve children who are
referred by their parents for school or behavioral problems and referrals from other decision makers.

F. APPROACHES IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

1. Nomothetic Approach - characterized by efforts to learn how a limited number of personality traits can be
applied to all people
2. Idiographic Approach - characterized by efforts to learn about each individual’s unique constellation of
personality traits, with no attempt to characterize each person according to any particular set of traits

G. MAKING INFERENCES AND DECISIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING AND ASSESSMENT

1. Base Rate - An index, usually expressed as a proportion, of the extent to which a particular trait, behavior,
characteristic, or attribute exists in a population
2. Hit Rate - The proportion of people a test or other measurement procedure accurately identifies as possessing
or exhibiting a particular trait, behavior, characteristic, or attribute
a. Specificity - percentage of occurrences that are correctly predicted
 b. Sensitivity - percentage of non-occurrences correctly predicted
3. Miss Rate - The proportion of people a test or other measurement procedure fails to identify accurately with
respect to the possession or exhibition of a trait, behavior, characteristic, or attribute; a "miss" in this context is
an inaccurate classification or prediction and can be classified as:
a. False Positive (Type I error) - an inaccurate prediction or classification indicating that a testtaker did
possess a trait or other attribute being measured when in reality the testtaker did not
b. False Negative (Type II error) - an inaccurate prediction of classification indicating that a testtaker did not
possess a trait or other attribute being measured when in reality the testtaker did

H. CROSS-CULTURAL TESTING
1. Parameters where cultures vary
– Language – Education
– Test Content – Speed (Tempo of Life)
2. Culture Free Tests
– An attempt to eliminate culture so nature can be isolated
– Impossible to develop such because culture is evident in its influence since birth or an individual
– The interaction between nature and nurture is cumulative and not relative
3. Culture Fair Tests
– These tests were developed because of the non-success of culture-free tests
– Nurture is not removed but parameters are common an fair to all
– Can be done using three approaches such as follows:
✓ Fair to all cultures ✓ Fair only to one culture
✓ Fair to some cultures
4. Culture Loadings
– The extent to which a test incorporates the vocabulary, concepts, traditions, knowledge, and feelings,
associated with particular culture
 Saint Louis College
City of San Fernando, La Union

PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
(PSYCH 111/111L)
COURSE FACILITATOR:
Dr. Jose J. Pangngay, RPm, RPsy, LPT

LESSON 2: LEGAL ISSUES AND ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

A. ETHICS
1. Ethics Defined
– The moral framework that guides and inspires the Professional
– An agreed-on set of morals, values, professional conduct and standards accepted by a community, group, or
culture
– A social, religious, or civil code of behavior considered correct, especially that of a particular group, profession,
or individual
2. Professional Ethics
– It is the core of every discipline
– Addresses professional conduct and ethical behavior, issues of confidentiality, ethical principles and
professional code of ethics, ethical decision-making
– Provide a mechanism for professional accountability
– Serve as a catalyst for improving practice
– Safeguard our clients
3. All professional ethics have relationships and dissimilarities, but all focus on:
– Protecting clients
– Professionals scope of competency
– No harm by acting responsibly and avoiding exploitation
– Protecting confidentiality and privacy
– Maintaining the integrity of the profession
4. Functions and Purposes of Ethical Codes
– Identify values for members of the organization to strive for as they perform their duties
– Set boundaries for both appropriate and inappropriate behavior
– Provide guidelines for practitioners facing difficult situations encountered in the course of work performance
– Communicate a framework for defining and monitoring relationship boundaries of all types
– Provide guidelines for day-to-day decision-making by all professionals along with the staff and volunteers in
the organization
– Protect integrity and reputation of the professional and/or individual members of an organization and the
organization itself
– Establish high standards of ethical and professional conduct within the culture of the organization
– Protect health and safety of clients, while promoting quality of services provided to them
– Enhance public safety
 5. Limitations of Ethical Codes
– Codes can lack clarity
– A code can conflict with another code, personal values, organizational practice, or local laws and regulations
– Codes are usually reactive rather than proactive
– A code may not be adaptable to another cultural setting
6. Ethical Values
– Basic beliefs that an individual think to be true
– The bases on which an individual makes a decision regarding good or bad, right or wrong, most important or
least important
– Cultural, guiding social behavior
– Organizational, guiding business or other professional behavior
7. Universal Ethical Values
– Autonomy: Enhance freedom of personal identity
– Obedience: Obey legal and ethically permissible directives
– Conscientious Refusal: Disobey illegal or unethical directives
– Beneficence: Help others
– Gratitude: “Giving back,” or passing good along to others
– Competence: Be knowledgeable and skilled
– Justice: Be fair, distribute by merit
– Stewardship: Use resources judiciously
– Honesty and Candor: Tell the truth
– Fidelity: Don’t break promises
– Loyalty: Don’t abandon
– Diligence: Work hard
– Discretion: Respect confidentiality and privacy
– Self-improvement: Be the best that you can be
– Non-maleficence: Don’t hurt anyone
– Restitution: Make amends to persons injured
– Self-interest: Protect yourself
8. Law and Ethics
– Law presents minimum standards of behavior in a professional field
– Ethics provides the ideal for use in decision-making

B. LEGAL BASES OF THE PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE OF PSYCHOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES

1. Republic Act No. 10029: The Psychology Act of 2009
• The Practice of Psychology:
i. Psychological Interventions: psychological counseling, psychotherapy, psychological support,
coaching, psychological debriefing, group processes and all other psychological interventions that
involve the application of psychological principles to improve psychological functioning of individuals,
families, groups and organizations
ii. Psychological Assessment: gathering and integration of psychology-related data for the purpose of
making a psychological evaluation, accomplished through a variety of tools, including individual tests,
projective tests, clinical interviews and other psychological assessment tools, for the purpose of
assessing diverse psychological functions including cognitive abilities, aptitudes, personality
characteristics, attitudes, values, interests, emotions and motivations, among others, in support of
psychological counseling, psychotherapy and other psychological interventions
iii. Psychological Programs: development, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of
psychological treatment for individuals and/or groups.

2. Professional Regulatory Board of Psychology Resolution No. 11, series of 2017: Adoption and Promulgation of the
Code of Ethics and Professional Standards for Psychology Practitioners in the Philippines
• Ethical Principles
 i. Respect for Dignity of Persons and Peoples
– Respect for the unique worth and inherent dignity of all human beings;
– Respect for the diversity among persons and peoples;
– Respect for the customs and beliefs of cultures.
ii. Competent caring for the well-being of persons and peoples
– Maximizing benefits, minimizing potential harm, and offering or correcting harm.
– Application of knowledge and skills that are appropriate for the nature of a situation as well as
social and cultural context.
– Adequate self-knowledge of how one’s values, experiences, culture, and social context might
influence one’s actions and interpretations.
– Active concern for the well-being of individuals, families, groups, and communities;
– Taking care to do no harm to individuals, families, groups, and communities;
– Developing and maintaining competence.
iii. Integrity
– Integrity is based on honesty, and on truthful, open and accurate communications.
– Maximizing impartiality and minimizing biases
– It includes recognizing, monitoring, and managing potential biases, multiple relationships, and
other conflicts of interest that could result in harm and exploitation of persons and peoples.
– Avoiding incomplete disclosure of information unless complete disclosure is culturally
inappropriate, or violates confidentiality, or carries the potential to do various harm to individuals,
families, groups, or communities
– Not exploiting persons or peoples for personal, professional, or financial gain
– Complete openness and disclosure of information must be balanced with other ethical
considerations, including the need to protect the safety or confidentiality of persons and peoples,
and the need to respect cultural expectations.
– Avoiding conflicts of interest and declaring them when they cannot be avoided or are inappropriate
to avoid.
iv. Professional and Scientific responsibilities to society
– We shall undertake continuing education and training to ensure our services continue to be
relevant and applicable.
– Generate researches
• General Ethical Standards and Procedures
i. Resolving Ethical Issues iv. Confidentiality
ii. Standards of Professional v. Advertisement and Public
Competence Statements
iii. Human Relations vi. Records and Fees
• Ethical Standards and Procedures in Specific Functions
v. Assessment vii. Education and Training
vi. Therapy viii. Research
3. Professional Regulatory Board of Psychology Resolution No. 12, series of 2017: Endorsement, Adoption and
Ratification of the International Declaration of Core Competences in Professional Psychology as Part of the IRR
Governing the Practice of Psychology and Psychometrics in the Philippines

C. COMMON ETHICAL ISSUES AND DEBATES

1. When to break confidentiality?
2. Release of psychological reports to the public
3. Golden rule in assessing and diagnosing public figures
4. Multiple relationships
5. Acceptance of gifts
6. Dehumanization
7. Divided Loyalties
8. Labelling and Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
D. ETHICAL STANDARDS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
1. Responsibilities of Test Publishers
– The publisher is expected to release tests of high quality
– The publisher is expected to market product in a responsible manner
– The publisher restrict distributions of test only to person with proper qualification
2. Publication and Marketing Issues
– The most important guideline is to guard against premature release of a test
– The test authors should strive for a balanced presentation of their instruments and refrain from one-sided
presentation of information
3. Competence of Test Purchasers
4. Responsibilities of Test Users
– Best interest of clients
– Informed Consent
✓ Must be presented in a clear and understandable manner to both the student & parent.
✓ Reason for the test administration.
✓ tests and evaluations procedures to be used.
✓ How assessment scores will be used.
✓ Who will have access to the results.
✓ Written informed consent must be obtained from the student’s parents, guardian or the student (if he or
she has already reached ‘legal’ age).
– Human Relations
– Avoiding Harassments
– Duty to Warn
– Confidentiality
– Expertise of Test Users
– Obsolete Tests and The Standard of Care
– Consideration of Individual Differences
5. Appropriate Assessment Tool Selection
– Criteria for test selection
✓ It must be relevant to the problem
✓ Appropriate for the patient/client
✓ Familiar to the examiner
✓ Adaptable to the time available
✓ Valid and reliable
– Need for battery testing
✓ No single test proves to yield a diagnosis in all cases, or to be in all cases correct in the diagnosis it
indicates.
✓ Psychological maladjustment whether mild or severe may encroach any or several of the functions
tapped by the tests, leaving other functions absolutely or relatively unimpaired.
– What test users should do?
✓ First define the purpose for testing and the population to be tested. Then, select a test for that purpose
and that population based on a thorough review of the available information and materials.
✓ Investigate potentially useful sources of information, in addition to test scores, to corroborate the
information provided by tests.
✓ Read the materials provided by test developers and avoid using tests for which unclear or incomplete
information is provided.
✓ Become familiar with how and when the test was developed and tried out.
✓ Read independent evaluations of a test and of possible alternative measures. Look for evidence required
in supporting the claims of test developers.
✓ Examine specimen sets, disclosed tests or samples of questions, directions, answer sheets, manuals,
and score reports before selecting a test.
 ✓ Ascertain whether the test content and norm group(s) or comparison group(s) is appropriate for the
intended test takers.
✓ Select and use only those tests for which the skills needed to administer the test and interpret scores
correctly are available.
6. Test Administration, Scoring and Interpretation
– Basic principles
✓ To ensure fair testing, the tester must become thoroughly familiar with the test. Even a simple test usually
presents one or more stumbling blocks which can be anticipated if the tester studies the manual in
advance or even takes time to take the test himself before administering.
✓ The tester must maintain an impartial and scientific attitude. The tester must be keenly interested with
the persons they test, and desire to see them do well. It is the duty of the tester to obtain from each
subject the best record he can produce.
✓ Establishing and maintaining rapport is necessary if the subject is to do well. That is, the subject must
feel that he wants to cooperate with the tester. Poor rapport is evident by the presence of inattention
during directions, giving up before time is up, restlessness or finding fault with the test.
✓ In case of individual testing, where each question is given orally, unintended help can be given by facial
expression or words of encouragement. Thereon, taking test is always concerned to know how well he
is doing and watches the examiner for indications of his success. The examiner must maintain a
completely unrevealing expression, while at the same time silently assuring the subject of his interest in
what he says or do.
✓ In individual testing, the tester observes the subject’s performance with care. He notes the time to
complete each task and any errors, he watches for any unusual method of approaching the task.
Observation and note taking must be done in a subtle and unobtrusive manner so as not to indirectly or
directly affect the subject’s performance of the task
– General Procedures/Guidelines
✓ Conditions of testing
• Physical Condition. The physical condition where the test is given may affect the test scores. If the
ventilation and lighting are poor, the subject will be handicapped.
• Condition of the Person. Sate of the person affects the results, if the test is given when he is fatigued,
when his mind is concerned with other problems, or when he is emotionally disturbed, results will not
be a fair sample of his behavior.
• Test Condition. The testing condition can often be improved by spacing the tests to avoid cumulative
fatigue. Test questionnaires, answer sheets and other testing materials needed must always be in
good condition so as not to hinder good performance.
• Condition of the Day. Time of the day may influence scores, but is rarely important. Alert subjects
are more likely to give their best than subjects who are tired and dispirited. Equally good results can
be produced at any hour, however, if the subjects want to do well.
✓ Control of the group
• Group tests are given only to those reasonably and cooperative subjects who expects to do as the
tester requests. Group testing then, is a venue for a problem in command.
• Directions should be given simply, clearly and singly. The subjects must have a chance to ask
questions whenever they are necessary but the examiner attempts to anticipate all reasonable
questions by full directions.
• Effective control may be combined with good rapport if the examiner is friendly, avoid an antagonistic,
overbearing or fault attitude.
• The goal of the tester is to obtain useful information about people; that is to elicit good information
from the results of the test. There is no value adhering rigidly to a testing schedule if the schedule
will not give true information. Common sense is the only safe guide in exceptional situations.
✓ Directions of the subject
• The most important responsibility of the test administrator is giving directions.
 • It is imperative that the tester gives the directions exactly as provided in the manual. If the tester
understands the importance of this responsibility, it is simple to follow the printed directions, reading
them word for word, adding nothing and changing nothing.
✓ Judgments left to the examiner
• The competent examiner must possess a high degree of judgment, intelligence, sensitivity to the
reactions of others, and professionalism, as well as knowledge with regards to scientific methods
and experience in the use of psychometric techniques.
• No degree of mechanical perfection of the test themselves can ever take the place of good judgment
and psychological insight of the examiner.
✓ Guessing
• It is against the rules for the tester to give supplementary advices; he must retreat to such formula
as “Use your judgment.” (But the tester is not to give his group an advantage by telling them this
trade secret.)
• The person taking the test is usually wise to guess freely. (But the tester is not to give his group an
advantage by telling them this trade secret.)
• From the point of view of the tester, the tendency to guess is an unstandardized aspect of the testing
situation which interferes with accurate measurement.
• The systematic advantage of the guesser is eliminated if the test manual directs everyone to guess
but guessing introduces large chances of errors. Statistical comparison of “do not guess” instruction
and “do guess” instruction show that with the latter, the test has slightly lesser predictive value.
• The most widely accepted practice now is to educate students that wild guessing is to their
disadvantage, but to encourage them to respond when they can make an informed judgment as to
the most reasonable answer even if they are uncertain.
• The motivation most helpful to valid testing is a desire on the part of the subject that the score be
valid. Ideally the subject becomes a partner in testing himself. The subject must place himself on a
scale, and unless he cares about the result he cannot be measured accurately.
• The desirability of preparing the subject for the test by appropriate advance information is
increasingly recognized. This information increases the person’s confidence and reduces standard
test anxiety that they might otherwise have.
– Scoring
✓ Hand scoring
✓ Machine scoring

E. RIGHTS OF TEST TAKERS

1. Be treated with courtesy, respect, and impartiality, regardless of your age, disability, ethnicity, gender, national
origin, religion, sexual orientation or other personal characteristics
2. Be tested with measures that meet professional standards and that are appropriate, given the manner in which the
test results will be used
3. Receive information regarding their test results
4. Least stigmatizing label
5. Informed Consent
 Saint Louis College
City of San Fernando, La Union

PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
(PSYCH 111/111L)
COURSE FACILITATOR:
Dr. Jose J. Pangngay, RPm, RPsy, LPT
LESSON 3: PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES AND TOOLS
I. TECHNIQUES IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
1. Traditional Clinical Assessment Modality
Step 1: Referral: Deciding what is being assessed
Step 2: Determining the goals for assessment
Step 3: Collecting standards for making decisions
Step 4: Collecting assessment data
Step 5: Making decisions and judgments
Step 6: Communicating results
2. Tele-Assessment
a. TECHNICIAN ASSISTED:
– Location: Exr is remote; Ct located in clinic with faci OR Ct is at home with faci
– Restrictions to Test Selection: Minimal
– Travel Requirements: Faci and/or Ct; Exr if remote site
– Social Distancing?: No
– Client Demands: Minimal
– Tech cost to clinician: Yes
– PPE and other Health requirements: Yes
b. HYBRID:
– Location: Exr and Ct in clinic but in separate rooms or barriers
– Restrictions to Test Selection: Some
– Travel Requirements: Exr and Ct
– Social Distancing?: Yes
– Client Demands: Some
– Tech cost to clinician: No
– PPE and other Health requirements: Yes
c. MODIFIED F2F:
– Location: Exr and Ct in clinic for specific tests; Remote for other procedures
– Restrictions to Test Selection: Minimal
– Travel Requirements: Exr and Ct
– Social Distancing?: Yes (if with barriers)
– Client Demands: Some
– Tech cost to clinician: No
– PPE and other Health requirements: None
d. DIRECT-TO-HOME:
 – Location: Exr and Ct are both remote
– Restrictions to Test Selection: Most
– Travel Requirements: None
– Social Distancing?: Yes
– Client Demands: Significant
– Tech cost to clinician: No
– PPE and other Health requirements: None

J. INTERVIEW AS A PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT TOOL

A. Interviews as assessment tools
– a tool of assessment in which information is gathered through direct, reciprocal communication.
– Has three types (structured, unstructured and semi-structured).
– Kanfer and Grimm (1977) interviewing model
✓ Behavioral deficiencies,
✓ Behavioral excesses,
✓ Inappropriate environmental stimulus control,
✓ Inappropriate self-generated stimulus, and
✓ Problem reinforcement contingencies.
– “BASIC ID” Clinical Interview Model (Lazarus, 1973, 2005)
✓ Behavior
✓ Affect
✓ Sensation
✓ Imagery
✓ Cognition
✓ Interpersonal Relations
✓ Drugs (need for pharmacological intervention)
– In clinical assessment, interviews are used to:
✓ To arrive at a diagnosis
✓ To pinpoint areas that must be addressed in psychotherapy
✓ To determine whether an individual will harm himself or others
✓ To be used to solidify the therapeutic contract
B. Checklist for an assessment interview
C. Interview Tactics
Numerous interview tactics and types of statements have been proposed and studied. These include the
clarification statement, verbatim playback, probing, confrontation, understanding, active listening, reflection,
feedback, summary statement, random probing, self-disclosure, perception checking, use of concrete
examples, and therapeutic double binds. Additional relevant topics are the importance of eye contact,
self-disclosure, active listening, and touch.
D. Preliminaries in an Interview
During the initial phase of the interview, practitioners need to ensure that they deal adequately with the next
seven issues:
• Organize the physical characteristics of the interview situation so that the room looks lived in but not
untidy; utilize optimal lighting; and arrange seating so that the interviewer and client are neither too
close nor too far and so that eye level is approximately equal.
• Introduce themselves and indicate how they prefer to be addressed (Doctor, first name, etc.) and clarify
how the client prefers to be addressed.
• State the purpose of the interview, check the client’s understanding of the process, and clarify any
discrepancies between these two understandings.
• Explain how the information derived from the interview will be used.
• Describe the confidential nature of the information, the limits of confidentiality, and special issues
related to confidentiality (e.g., how the information might be obtained and used by the legal system).
Further, explain that the client has the right not to discuss any information he or she does not wish to
disclose. If the information will be sent to other persons, obtain a signed release of information.
• Explain the role and activities they would like the client to engage in, the instruments that are likely to
be used in the assessment, and the total likely length of time required. In some circumstances, this may
be formalized into a written contract
• Make sure that any fee arrangements have been clarified, including the hourly rate, total estimated
cost, the amount the client versus a third party is likely to need to pay, and the interval between billing
and the expected payment.
E. Mental Status Evaluation
F. Frequently Used Structured Interviews by Categories
1. Assessment of clinical disorders
• Schedule of Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (SADS) and Schedule of
• Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children (K-SADS)
• Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS) and Diagnostic Interview for Children (DISC)
• Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (SCID)
• Diagnostic Interview for Children and Adolescents (DICA)
2. Assessment of personality disorders
• Structured Interview for DSM-IV Personality Disorders (SIDP)
• Personality Disorder Examination (PDE)
• Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R Personality Disorders (SCID–II)
3. Focused structured interviews
• Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule (ADIS)
• Diagnostic Interview for Borderlines (DIB)
• Psychopathy Checklist (PCL)
• Structured Interview for DSM-IV-Dissociative Disorders (SCID-D)
• Structured Interview of Reported Symptoms (SIRS)
• Psychosocial Pain Inventory (PSPI)
• Comprehensive Drinker Profile (CDP)
• Eating Disorder Examination (EDE)
• Structured Interview of Sleep Disorders (SIS-D)
• Substance Use Disorders Diagnostic Schedule (SUDDS)
K. DOCUMENTS AS PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT TOOLS
a. Portfolio Assessment
i. a type of work sample is used as an assessment tool
ii. sample of one’s ability and accomplishments
iii. most often used in hiring decisions
b. Case-History Data
– records, transcripts, and other accounts in any media that preserve archival information, official and
informal accounts, and other data and items relevant to the assessee
– individual’s past and current adjustment as well as on the events and circumstances that may have
contributed to any changes in adjustment.
– Used also to pinpoint areas that must be addressed in psychotherapy
– neuropsychological functioning prior to the occurrence of a trauma or other event that results in a deficit
– insight into a student’s current academic or behavioral standing.
– also useful in making judgments concerning future class placements

L. BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT AND OBSERVATION AS A PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT TOOL

A. What is behavioral assessment?
– monitoring the actions of other or oneself by visual or electronic means while recording qualitative
and/or quantitative information regarding those actions, typically for diagnostic or related purposes and
either to design intervention or to measure the outcome of an intervention.
– Emphasizes on what a person does in situations rather than on inferences about what attributes he has
more “globally”
B. There are various approaches that can be employed such as:
1. Behavior Observation and Self-Monitoring
a. Narrative Recording: requires that the observer simply make note of behaviors of interest. There is
little quantification, and the observations can vary in the degree of inferences made.
b. Interval Recording: A clinician may choose to record whether selected behaviors occur within
predetermined intervals. Usually, the intervals vary from 5 to 30 seconds and may be based either
on set schedules for each observation period or may be selected randomly. Interval recording is
most appropriately used for measurement of overt behaviors with moderate frequencies (e.g., once
every 5–20 seconds) and when these behaviors do not have any clear beginning or end.
 c. Event Recording: The basic design of event recording systems is to note the behavior’s frequency,
duration, and intensity and to record the behavior on such devices as a checklist, golf counter,
personal digital assistant (PDA), and now even a smartphone. Although the main emphasis is on
quantifying the frequency of responding, its duration also can be measured with a timer. The
intensity of the behavior can be noted by simply specifying whether it was slight, moderate, or
strong.

d. Ratings Recording
2. Self-Report/Rating Scales
3. Analogue Studies: research investigation in which one or more variables are similar or analogous to the
real variable that the investigator wishes to examine. This definition is admittedly very broad, and the
term analogue study has been used in various ways. It has been used, for example, to describe
research conducted with white rats when the experimenter really wishes to learn about humans. It has
been used to describe research conducted with full-time students when the experimenter really wishes
to learn about people employed full-time in business settings. It has been used to describe research on
aggression defined as the laboratory administration of electric shock when the experimenter really
wishes to learn about real-world aggression outside the laboratory.
4. Situational Analysis Measure: procedure that allows for observation and evaluation of an individual
under a standard set of circumstances. A situational performance measure typically involves
performance of some specific task under actual or simulated conditions. The road test you took to
obtain your driver’s license was a situational performance measure that involved an evaluation of your
driving skills in a real car on a real road in real traffic. On the other hand, situational performance
measures used to assess the skills of prospective space-traveling astronauts are done in rocket
simulators in laboratories firmly planted on Mother Earth.
5. Role Play: acting an improvised or partially improvised part in a simulated situation, can be used in
teaching, therapy, and assessment.
6. Psychophysiological Methods: The search for clues to understanding and predicting human behavior
has led researchers to the study of physiological indices such as heart rate and blood pressure. These
and other indices are known to be influenced by psychological factors—hence the term
psychophysiological to describe these variables as well as the methods used to study them. Whether
these methods are properly regarded as behavioral in nature is debatable. Still, these techniques do
tend to be associated with behaviorally oriented clinicians and researchers.
7. Unobtrusive measures: type of measure quite different from any we have discussed so far is the
nonreactive or unobtrusive variety (Webb et al., 1966). In many instances, an unobtrusive measure is a
telling physical trace or record. In one study, it was garbage—literally (Cote et al., 1985). Because of
their nature, unobtrusive measures do not necessarily require the presence or cooperation of
respondents when measurements are being conducted.
C. There are some errors that may potentially occur due to behavioral observations such as:
• Reactivity – Being evaluated increases performance; also called as Hawthorne Effect
• Drift – moving away from what one has learned going to idiosyncratic definitions of behavior; this
suggests that observers should be retrained in a point of time.
• Contrast Effect – A behavioral rating may be excessively positive (or negative) because a prior rating
was excessively negative (or positive)
M. PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AS PSYCHOLOGOLICAL ASSESSMENT TOOLS
Psychological Tests – a standardized measuring device or procedure used to describe the ability, knowledge, skills
or attitude of the individual
• Measurement – the process of quantifying the amount or number of a particular occurrence of event,
situation, phenomenon, object or person
• Assessment – the process of synthesizing the results of measurement with reference to some norms and
standards
• Evaluation – the process of judging the worth of any occurrence of event, situation, phenomenon, object or
person which concludes with a particular decision

A. Three-Tier System of Psychological Tests

1. Level A
– Tests or aids that can adequately be administered, scored, and interpreted with the aid of the manual and a
general orientation to the kind of institution or organization in which one is working (for instance, achievement
or proficiency tests).
– these tests are those that can be administered, scored and interpreted by responsible non-psychologist who
have carefully read the manual and are familiar with the overall purpose of testing. Educational achievement
tests fall into this category.
– A limited range of instruments, such as educational achievement tests, that can be administered, scored, and
interpreted without specialized training, by following the instructions in their manuals.
2. Level B
– Tests or aids that require some technical knowledge of test construction and use and of supporting
psychological and educational fields such as statistics, individual differences, psychology of adjustment,
personnel psychology, and guidance (e.g., aptitude tests and adjustment inventories applicable to normal
populations).
– these tests require technical knowledge of test construction and use of appropriate advanced coursework in
psychology and related courses
– Tools that call for some specialized training in test construction, test use, and in the area in which the
instruments will be applied, such as aptitude tests and personality inventories applicable to normal
populations.
3. Level C
– Tests and aids that require substantial understanding of testing and supporting psychological fields together
with supervised experience in the use of these devices (for instance, projective tests, individual mental tests).
– these tests require an advanced degree in Psychology or License as Psychologist and advanced
training/supervised experience in a particular test
– Instruments that require extensive familiarity with testing and assessment principles, as well as with the
psychological fields to which the instruments pertain, such as individual intelligence tests and projective
techniques.

B. General Types of Psychological Tests According to Variable Measured

1. Ability Tests
- Assess what a person can do
- Includes Intelligence Tests, Achievement Tests and Aptitude Tests
- Best conditions are provided to elicit a person’s full capacity or maximum performance
- There are right and wrong answers
- Objective of motivation: for the examinee to do his best
2. Tests of Typical Performance
- Assess what a person usually does
- Includes personality tests, interest/attitude/values inventories
- Typical performance can still manifest itself even in conditions not deemed as best
- There are no right or wrong answers
 - Objective of motivation: for the examinee to answer questions honestly

C. Specific Types of Psychological Tests

1. Intelligence Test
– measures general potential
– Assumption: fewer assumptions about specific prior learning experiences
– Validation process: Content Validity and Construct Validity
2. Aptitude Test
– Measures an individual’s potential for learning a specific task, ability or skill
– Assumption: No assumptions about specific prior learning experiences
– Validation process: Content validity and Predictive Validity
3. Achievement Test
– This test provides a measure for the amount, rate and level of learning, success or accomplishment,
strengths/weaknesses in a particular subject or task
– Assumption: Assumes prior relatively standardized educational learning experiences
– Validation process: Content validity
4. Personality Test
– measures traits, qualities, attitudes or behaviors that determine a person’s individuality
– can measure overt or covert dispositions and levels of adjustment as well
– can be measured idiographically (unique characteristics) or nomothetically (common characteristics)
– has three construction strategies namely: theory-guided inventories, factor-analytically derived inventories,
criterion-keyed inventories
5. Interest Inventory
– Measures an individual’s performance for certain activities or topics and thereby help determine occupational
choice or make career decisions
– Measure the direction and strength of interest
– Assumption: Interests though unstable, have a certain stability or else it cannot be measured
– Stability is said to start at 17 years old
– Broad lines of interests are more stable while specific lines of interests are more unstable, they can change a
lot.
6. Attitude Inventory
– Direct observation on how a person behaves in relation to certain things
– Reliabilities are good but not as high as those of tests of ability
– Attitude measures have not generally correlated very highly with actual behavior
– Specific behaviors, however, can be predicted from measures of attitude toward the specific behavior
7. Values Inventory
– Purports to measure generalized and dominant interests
– Validity is extremely difficult to determine by statistical methods
– The only observable criterion is overt behavior
– Employed less frequently than interest in vocational counseling and career decision-making
8. Diagnostic Test
– This test can uncover and focus attention on weaknesses of individuals for remedial purposes
9. Power Test
– Requires an examinee to exhibit the extent or depth of his understanding or skill
– Test with varying level of difficulty
10. Speed Test
– Requires the examinee to complete as many items as possible
– Contains items of uniform and generally simple level of difficulty
11. Creativity Test
– A test which assesses an individual’s ability to produce new/original ideas, insights or artistic creations that
are accepted as being social, aesthetic or scientific value
– Can assess the person’s capacity to find unusual or unexpected solutions for vaguely defined problems
12. Neuropsychological Test
– Measures cognitive, sensory, perceptual and motor performance to determine the extent, locus and
behavioral consequences of brain damage, given to persons with known or suspected brain dysfunction
13. Objective Test
– Standardized test
– Administered individually or in groups
– Objectively scored
– There are limited number of responses
– Uses norms
– There is a high level of reliability and validity
– Examples: Personality Inventories, Group Intelligence Test
14. Projective Test
– Test with ambiguous stimuli which measures wishes, intrapsychic conflicts, dreams and unconscious motives
– Projective tests allow the examinee to respond to vague stimuli with their own impressions
– Assumption is that the examinee will project his unconscious needs, motives, and conflicts onto the neutral
stimulus
– Administered individually and scored subjectively
– Have 5 types/techniques: Completion Technique, Expressive Technique, Association Technique,
Construction Technique, Choice or Ordering Technique
– With low levels of reliability and validity
– Examples: Rorschach Inkblot Test, TAT, HTP, SSCT, DAP
15. Norm-Referenced Test – raw scores are converted to standard scores
16. Criterion-Referenced Test – raw scores are referenced to specific cut-off scores
***Clinical Differences Between Projective Tests and Psychometric (Objective) Tests
Point of Comparison/Difference Projective Test Psychometric Test
Definiteness of Task Allows variation in responses and Subjects are judged in very much
recall more individualized response the same basis
pattern
Response Choice vs. Constructed The subject gives whatever response It can be more objectively scored
Response seems fitting within the range allowed and does not depend on fluency or
by the test direction expressive skills
Response vs. Product Watches the subject at work from a It concerns itself with the tangible
general direction product of performance
Analysis of Results Gross score could still be Formal scoring plays large part in
supplemented by investigation of the scoring the test
individual’s reaction and opinion

Makes analysis of individual Measured in standard norms

response
Emphasis on Critical Validation The tester is satisfied in comparing The tester accompanies every
impression based on one procedure numerical score with a warning
with impression gained from another regarding the error of the
measurement and every prediction
with an index that shows how likely
it is to come true

D. Criteria For Evaluating a Psychological Test

1. Theoretical Orientation
o Do you adequately understand the theoretical construct the test is supposed to be measuring?
o Do the test items correspond to the theoretical description of the construct?
2. Practical Considerations
o If reading is required by the examinee, does his or her ability match the level required by the test?
 o How appropriate is the length of the test?
3. Standardization
o Is the population to be tested similar to the population the test was standardized on?
o Was the size of the standardization sample adequate?
o Have specialized subgroup norms been established?
o How adequately do the instructions permit standardized administration?
4. Reliability
o Are reliability estimates sufficiently high (generally around .90 for clinical decision making and around .70
for research purposes)?
o What implications do the relative stability of the trait, the method of estimating reliability, and the test
format have on reliability?
5. Validity
o What criteria and procedures were used to validate the test?
o Will the test produce accurate measurements in the context and for the purpose for which you would like
to use it?

E. Basic Principles in the Use of Psychological Tests

1. Tests are samples of behavior
2. Tests do not reveal traits or capacities directly
3. Psychological maladjustments selectively and differentially affect the test scores
4. The psychometric and projective approaches, although indistinguishable, are mutually complementary

F. Uses of Psychological Test

1. Classification – assigning a person to one category rather than the other
a. Placement – refers to sorting of persons into different programs appropriate to their needs/skills (example: a
university mathematics placement exam is given to students to determine if they should enroll in calculus, in
algebra or in a remedial course)
b. Screening – refers to quick and simple tests/procedures to identify persons who might have special
characteristics or needs (example: identifying children with exceptional thinking and the top 10% will be
singled out for a more comprehensive testing)
c. Certification – determining whether a person has at least the minimum proficiency in some discipline/activity
(example: right to practice medicine after passing the medical board exam; right to drive a car)
d. Selection – example: provision of an opportunity to attend a university; opportunity to gain employment in a
company or in a government
2. Aptitude Testing
a. Low Selection ratio b. Low Success ratio
3. Diagnosis and Treatment Planning – diagnosis conveys information about strengths, weaknesses, etiology and
best choices for treatment (example: IQ tests are absolutely essential in diagnosing intellectual disability)
4. Self-Knowledge – psychological tests also supply a potent source of self-knowledge and in some cases, the
feedback a person receives from psychological tests is so self-affirming that it can change the entire course of a
person’s life.
5. Program Evaluation – another use of psychological tests is the systematic evaluation of educational and social
programs (they are designed to provide services which improve social conditions and community life)
a. Diagnostic Evaluation – refers to evaluation conducted before instruction.
b. Formative Evaluation – refers to evaluation conducted during or after instruction.
c. Summative Evaluation – refers to evaluation conducted at the end of a unit or a specified period of time.
6. Research – psychological tests also play a major role in both the applied and the theoretical branches of
behavioral researches
 Saint Louis College
City of San Fernando, La Union

PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
(PSYCH 111/111L)
COURSE FACILITATOR:
Dr. Jose J. Pangngay, RPm, RPsy, LPT

LESSON 4: PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES

STATISTICS REFRESHER
A. SCALES OF MEASUREMENT
1. Primary Scales of Measurement
a. Nominal: a non-parametric measure that is also called categorical variable, simple classification. We do not
need to count to distinguish one item from another.
Example: Sex (Male and Female); Nationality (Filipino, Japanese, Korean); Color (Blue, Red and Yellow)
b. Ordinal: a non-parametric scale wherein cases are ranked or ordered; they represent position in a group where
the order matters but not the difference between the values.
Example: 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th; Pain threshold in a scale of 1 – 10, 10 being the highest
c. Interval: a parametric scale wherein this scale use intervals equal in amount measurement where the difference
between two values is meaningful. Moreover, the values have fixed unit and magnitude.
Example: Speed of a car (70KpH); Temperature (Fahrenheit and Celsius only)
d. Ratio: a parametric scale wherein this scale is similar to interval but include a true zero point and relative
proportions on the scale make sense.
Example: Height and Weight
2. Comparative Scales of Measurement
a. Paired Comparison: a comparative technique in which a respondent is presented with two objects at a time and
asked to select one object according to some criterion. The data obtained are in ordinal nature.
Example: Pairing the different brands of cold drink with one another please put a check mark in the box
corresponding to your preference.
Brand Coke Pepsi Sprite Limca
Coke
Pepsi ✓ ✓
Sprite ✓
Limca ✓ ✓ ✓
No. of Times Preferred 3 1 2 0
b. Rank Order: respondents are presented with several items simultaneously and asked to rank them in order of
priority. This is an ordinal scale that describes the favoured and unfavoured objects, but does not reveal the
distance between the objects. The resultant data in rank order is ordinal data. This yields a better result when
comparisons are required between the given objects. The major disadvantage of this technique is that only ordinal
data can be generated.
 Example: Rank the following brands of cold drinks you like most and assign it a number 1. Then find the second
most preferred brand and assign it a number 2. Continue this procedure until you have ranked all the brands of
cold drinks in order of preference. Also remember that no two brands should receive the same rank order.
Brand Rank
Coke 1
Pepsi 3
Sprite 2
Limca 4
c. Constant Sum: respondents are asked to allocate a constant sum of units such as points, rupees or chips among
a set of stimulus objects with respect to some criterion. For example, you may wish to determine how important
the attributes of price, fragrance, packaging, cleaning power and lather of a detergent are to consumers.
Respondents might be asked to divide a constant sum to indicate the relative importance of the attributes. The
advantage of this technique is saving time. However, the main disadvantages of are the respondent may allocate
more or fewer points than those specified. The second problem is respondents might be confused.
Example: Between attributes of detergent, please allocate 100 points among the attributes so that your allocation
reflects the relative importance you attach to each attribute. The more points an attribute receives, the more
important the attribute is. If an attribute is not at all important, assign it zero points. If an attribute is twice as
important as some other attribute, it should receive twice as many points.
Attribute Number of Points
Price 50
Fragrance 05
Packaging 10
Cleaning power 30
Lather 05
Total Points 100

d. Q-Sort Technique: This is a comparative scale that uses a rank order procedure to sort objects based on similarity
with respect to some criterion. The important characteristic of this methodology is that it is more important to
make comparisons among different responses of a respondent than the responses between different
respondents. Therefore, it is a comparative method of scaling rather than an absolute rating scale. In this method
the respondent is given statements in a large number for describing the characteristics of a product or a large
number of brands of products.
Example: The bag given to you contain pictures of 90 magazines. Please choose 10 magazines you prefer most,
20 magazines you like, 30 magazines which you are neutral (neither like nor dislike), 20 magazines you dislike
and 10 magazines you prefer least.
Prefer Most Like Neutral Dislike Prefer Least
(10) (20) (30) (20) (10)

3. Non-Comparative Scales of Measurement

a. Continuous Rating Scales: the respondent’s rate the objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position on a
continuous line that runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to the other.
Example: How would you rate the TV advertisement as a guide for buying?

Strongly Strongly
Agree 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Disagree
b. Itemized Rating Scale: itemized rating scale is a scale having numbers or brief descriptions associated with each
category. The categories are ordered in terms of scale position and the respondents are required to select one
of the limited numbers of categories that best describes the product, brand, company or product attribute being
rated. Itemized rating scales are widely used in marketing research. This can take the graphic, verbal or numerical
form.
 c. Likert Scale: the respondents indicate their own attitudes by checking how strongly they agree or disagree with
carefully worded statements that range from very positive to very negative towards the attitudinal object.
Respondents generally choose from five alternatives (say stronglay agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree,
disagree, strongly disagree). A likert scale may include a number of items or statements. Disadvantage of Likert
scale is that it takes longer time to complete that other itemized rating scales because respondents have to read
each statement. Despite the above disadvantages, this scale has several to advantages. It is easy to construct,
administer and use.
Example: I believe that ecological questions are the most important issues facing human beings today.
1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
Disagree
d. Semantic Differential Scale: This is a seven-point rating scale with end points associated with bipolar labels (such
as good and bad, complex and simple) that have semantic meaning. It can be used to find whether a respondent
has a positive or negative attitude towards an object. It has been widely used in comparing brands and company
images. It has also been used to develop advertising and promotion strategies and in a new product development
study.
Example: Please indicate you attitude towards work using the scale below:
Attitude towards work
Boring : : : : : : : Interesting
Unnecessary : : : : : : : Necessary
e. Staple Scale: The staple scale was originally developed to measure the direction and intensity of an attitude
simultaneously. Modern versions of the staple scale place a single adjective as a substitute for the semantic
differential when it is difficult to create pairs of bipolar adjectives. The modified staple scale places a single
adjective in the center of an even number of numerical values.
Example: Select a plus number for words that you think describe personnel banking of a bank accurately. The
more accurately you think the word describes the bank, the larger the plus number you should choose. Select a
minus number for words you think do not describe the bank accurately. The less accurate you think the word
describes the bank, the larger the minus number you should choose.

+3 +3
+2 +2
+1 +1
Friendly Personnel Competitive Loan Rates
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3

B. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
1. Frequency Distributions – distribution of scores by frequency with which they occur
2. Measures of Central Tendency – a statistic that indicates the average or midmost score between the extreme scores
in a distribution
ΣX Σ(fX)
a. Mean – formula: ̅ X = N (for ungrouped distribution) ̅
X = N (for grouped distribution)
b. Median – the middle score in a distribution
c. Mode – frequently occurring score in a distribution
***Appropriate use of central tendency measure according to type of data being used:
Type of Data Measure
Nominal Data Mode
Ordinal Data Median
Interval / Ratio Data (Normal) Mean
Interval / Ratio Data (Skewed) Median
3. Measures of Variability – a statistic that describe the amount of variation in a distribution
a. Range – the difference between the highest and the lowest scores
b. Interquartile range – the difference between Q1 and Q3
c. Semi-Interquartile range – interquartile range divided by 2
d. Standard Deviation – the square root of the averaged squared deviations about the mean
4. Measures of Location
a. Percentiles – an expression of the percentage of people whose score on a test or measure falls below a particular
raw score
Number of students beaten
Formula for Percentile = Total number of students x 100
b. Quartiles – one of the three dividing points between the four quarters of a distribution, each typically labelled Q1,
Q2 and Q3
c. Deciles – divided to 10 parts
5. Skewness - a measure of the asymmetry of the probability distribution of a real-valued random variable about its
mean

a. Positive skew
– relatively few scores fall at the positive end
– reflects a very difficult type of test
b. Negative skew
– relatively few scores fall at the negative end
– reflects a very easy type of test
6. Kurtosis - the sharpness of the peak of a frequency-distribution curve.

C. THE NORMAL CURVE AND STANDARD SCORES

 ̅
X−X
1. “z” Scores – Mean of 0, SD of 1 (Formula: SD )
2. T scores – Mean of 50, SD of 10 (Formula: z-score X 10 + 50)
3. Stanines – Mean of 5, SD of 2 (Formula: z-score X 2 + 5)
4. Sten – Mean of 5.5, SD of 2 (Formula: z-score X 2 + 5.5)
5. IQ scores – Mean of 100, SD of 15
6. CEEB scores – Mean of 500, SD of 100

D. INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
1. Parametric vs. Non-Parametric Tests
Parametric Test Non-Parametric Test
Requirements • Normal Distribution • Normal Distribution is not required
• Homogenous Variance • Homogenous Variance is not required
• Interval or Ratio Data • Nominal or Ordinal Data
Common Statistical • Pearson’s Correlation • Spearman’s Correlation
Tools • Independent Measures t-test • Mann-Whitney U test
• One-way, independent-measures • Kruskal-Wallis H test
ANOVA
• Paired t-test • Wilcoxon Signed-Rank test
• One-way, repeated-measures • Friedman’s test
ANOVA

2. Measures of Correlation
a. Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation – parametric test for interval data
b. Spearman Rho’s Correlation – non-parametric test for ordinal data
c. Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance – non-parametric test for ordinal data
d. Phi Coefficient – non-parametric test for dichotomous nominal data
e. Lambda – non-parametric test for 2 groups (dependent and independent variable) of nominal data
***Correlation Ranges:
1.00 : Perfect relationship
0.75 – 0.99 : Very strong relationship
0.50 – 0.74 : Strong relationship
0.25 – 0.49 : Weak relationship
0.01 – 0.24 : Very weak relationship
0.00 : No relationship
3. Measures of Prediction
a. Biserial Correlation – predictive test for artificially dichotomized and categorical data as criterion with continuous
data as predictors
b. Point-Biserial Correlation – predictive test for genuinely dichotomized and categorical data as criterion with
continuous data as predictors
c. Tetrachoric Correlation – predictive test for dichotomous data with categorical data as criterion and categorical
data as predictors
d. Logistic Regression – a predictive test which involves one criterion that is nominal in nature with only one
predictor that is continuous
e. Multinomial Regression – a predictive test which involves one criterion that is nominal in nature with two or
more predictor that is continuous
f. Simple Linear Regression – a predictive test which involves one criterion that is continuous in nature with only
one predictor that is continuous
g. Multiple Linear Regression – a predictive test which involves one criterion that is continuous in nature with more
than one continuous predictor
 h. Ordinal Regression – a predictive test which involves a criterion that is ordinal in nature with more than one
predictors that are continuous in
3. Chi-Square Test
a. Goodness of Fit – used to measure differences and involves nominal data and only one variable with 2 or more
categories
b. Test of Independence – used to measure correlation and involves nominal data and two variables with two or
more categories
4. Comparison of Two Groups
a. Paired t-test – a parametric test for paired groups with normal distribution
b. Unpaired t-test – a parametric test for unpaired groups with normal distribution
c. Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test – a non-parametric test for paired groups with non-normal distribution
d. Mann-Whitney U test – a non-parametric test for unpaired groups with non-normal distribution
5. Comparison of Three or More Groups
a. Repeated measures ANOVA – a parametric test for matched groups with normal distribution
b. One-way/Two-Way ANOVA – a parametric test for unmatched groups with normal distribution
c. Friedman F test – a non-parametric test for matched groups with non-normal distribution
d. Kruskal-Wallis H test – a non-parametric test for unmatched groups with non-normal distribution
6. Factor Analysis
a. Principal Component Factor Analysis
b. Common Factor Analysis
o Exploratory Factor Analysis
o Confirmatory Factor Analysis

PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF A GOOD TEST

A. RELIABILITY – the stability or consistency of the measurement

1. Goals of Reliability
a. Estimate errors in psychological measurement
b. Devise techniques to improve testing so errors are reduced
2. Sources of Measurement Error
Source of Error Type of Test Prone to Each Error Appropriate Measures Used to Estimate
Source Error
Inter-scorer differences Tests scored with a degree of Scorer reliability
and Interpretation subjectivity
Time Sampling Error Tests of relatively stable traits or Test-Retest Reliability (rtt), a.k.a. Stability
behavior Coefficient
Content Sampling Error Tests for which consistency of Alternate-form reliability (a.k.a. coefficient
results, as a whole, is required of equivalence) or split-half reliability
(a.k.a. coefficient of internal consistency)
Inter-item Inconsistency Tests that require inter-item Split-half reliability or more stringent
consistency internal consistency measures, such as
KR-20 or Cronbach Alpha
Inter-item Inconsistency Tests that require inter-item Internal consistency measures and
and Content consistency and homogeneity additional evidence of homogeneity
Heterogeneity combined
Time and Content Tests that require stability and Delayed alternate-form reliability
Sampling error consistency of result, as a whole
combined
3. Types of Reliability
a. Test-Retest Reliability
– compare the scores of individuals who have been measured twice by the instrument
– this is not applicable for tests involving reasoning and ingenuity
– longer interval will result to lower correlation coefficient while shorter interval will result to higher correlation
– the ideal time interval for test-retest reliability is 2-4 weeks
– source of error variance is time sampling
– utilizes Pearson r or Spearman rho
b. Parallel-Forms/Alternate Forms Reliability
– same persons are tested with one form on the first occasion and with another equivalent form on the second
– the administration of the second, equivalent form either takes place immediately or fairly soon.
– the two forms should be truly paralleled, independently constructed tests designed to meet the same
specifications, contain the same number of items, have items which are expressed in the same form, have
items that cover the same type of content, have items with the same range of difficulty, and have the same
instructions, time limits, illustrative examples, format and all other aspects of the test
– has the most universal applicability
– for delayed alternate forms, the source of error variance is time sampling and content sampling
– utilizes Pearson r or Spearman rho
c. Split-Half Reliability
– Two scores are obtained for each person by dividing the test into equivalent halves (odd-even split or top-
bottom split)
– The reliability of the test is directly related to the length of the test
– The source of error variance is content sampling
– Utilizes the Spearman-Brown Formula
d. Other Measures of Internal Consistency/Inter-Item Reliability – source of error variance is content sampling
and content heterogeneity
– KR-20 – for dichotomous items with varying level of difficulty
– KR-21 – for dichotomous items with uniform level of difficulty
– Cronbach Alpha/Coefficient Alpha – for non-dichotomous items (likert or other multiple choice)
– Average Proportional Distance – focuses on the degree of difference that exists between item scores.
e. Inter-Rater/Inter-Observer Reliability
– Degree of agreement between raters on a measure
– Source of error variance is inter-scorer differences
– Often utilizes Cohen’s Kappa statistic and Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance
4. Reliability Ranges
–1 : perfect reliability (may indicate redundancy and homogeneity)
– ≥ 0.9 : excellent reliability (minimum acceptability for clinical diagnoses)
– ≥ 0.8 < 0.9 : good reliability,
– ≥ 0.7 < 0.8 : acceptable reliability (minimum acceptability for psychometric tests),
– ≥ 0.6 < 0.7 : questionable reliability (but is still acceptable for research purposes),
– ≥ 0.5 < 0.6 : poor reliability,
– < 0.5 : unacceptable reliability,
–0 : no reliability.
5. Standard Error of Measurement
– an index of the amount of inconsistency or the amount of expected error in an individual’s score
– the higher the reliability of the test, the lower the SEM
• Error – long standing assumption that factors other than what a test attempts to measure will influence
performance on the test
• Error Variance – the component of test score attributable to sources other than the trait or ability being
measured
• Trait Error – are those sources of errors that reside within an individual taking the test (such as, I didn’t
study enough, I felt bad that missed blind date, I forgot to set the alarm, excuses)
 • Method Error– are those sources of errors that reside in the testing situation (such as lousy test
instructions, too-warm room, or missing pages).
• Confidence Interval – a range or band of test scores that is likely to contain the true score
• Standard error of the difference – a statistical measure that can aid a test user in determining how
large a difference should be before it is considered statistically significant
6. Factors Affecting Test Reliability
a. Test Format e. Test Scoring
b. Test Difficulty f. Test Economy
c. Test Objectivity g. Test Adequacy
d. Test Administration
7. What to do about low reliability?
– Increase the number of items
– Use factor analysis and item analysis
– Use the correction of attenuation formula – a formula that is being used to determine the exact correlation
between two variables if the test is deemed affected by error
B. VALIDITY – a judgment or estimate of how well a test measures what it purports to measure in a particular test
1. Types of Validity
a. Face Validity
– the least stringent type of validity, whether a test looks valid to test users, examiners and examinees
– Examples:
✓ An IQ test containing items which measure memory, mathematical ability, verbal reasoning and
abstract reasoning has a good face validity.
✓ An IQ test containing items which measure depression and anxiety has a bad face validity.
✓ A self-esteem rating scale which has items like “I know I can do what other people can do.” and “I
usually feel that I would fail on a task.” has a good face validity.
✓ Inkblot test have low face validity because test takers question whether the test really measures
personality.
b. Content Validity
– Definitions and concepts
✓ whether the test covers the behavior domain to be measured which is built through the choice of
appropriate content areas, questions, tasks and items
✓ It is concerned with the extent to which the test is representative of a defined body of content
consisting of topics and processes.
✓ Content validation is not done by statistical analysis but by the inspection of items. A panel of experts
can review the test items and rate them in terms of how closely they match the objective or domain
specification.
✓ This considers the adequacy of representation of the conceptual domain the test is designed to
cover.
✓ If the test items adequately represent the domain of possible items for a variable, then the test has
adequate content validity.
✓ Determination of content validity is often made by expert judgment.
– Examples:
✓ Educational Content Valid Test – syllabus is covered in the test; usually follows the table of
specification of the test. (Table of specification – a blueprint of the test in terms of number of items per
difficulty, topic importance, or taxonomy)
✓ Employment Content Valid Test – appropriate job-related skills are included in the test. Reflects the
job specification of the test.
✓ Clinical Content Valid Test – symptoms of the disorder are all covered in the test. Reflects the
diagnostic criteria for a test.
– Issues arising from lack of content validity:
✓ Construct underrepresentation-Failure to capture important components of a construct (e.g. An
English test which only contains vocabulary items but no grammar items will have a poor content validity.)
 ✓ Construct-irrelevant variance-Happens when scores are influenced by factors irrelevant to the
construct (e.g. test anxiety, reading speed, reading comprehension, illness)
c. Criterion-Related Validity
– What is a criterion?
✓ standard against which a test or a test score is evaluated.
✓ A criterion can be a test score, psychiatric diagnosis, training cost, index of absenteeism, amount of
time.
✓ Characteristics of a criterion:
• Relevant
• Valid and Reliable
• Uncontaminated: Criterion contamination occurs if the criterion based on predictor measures; the
criterion used is a criterion of what is supposed to be the criterion
– Criterion-Related Validity Defined:
✓ indicates the test effectiveness in estimating an individual’s behavior in a particular situation
✓ Tells how well a test corresponds with a particular criterion.
✓ A judgment of how adequately a test score can be used to infer an individual’s most probable
standing on some measure of interest.
– Types of Criterion-Related Validity:
✓ Concurrent Validity – the extent to which test scores may be used to estimate an individual’s present
standing on a criterion
✓ Predictive – the scores on a test can predict future behavior or scores on another test taken in the
future
✓ Incremental Validity – this type of validity is related to predictive validity wherein it is defined as the
degree to which an additional predictor explains something about the criterion measure that is not
explained by predictors already in use
d. Construct Validity
– What is a construct?
✓ An informed scientific idea developed or hypothesized to describe or explain a behavior; something
built by mental synthesis.
✓ Unobservable, presupposed traits; something that the researcher thought to have either high or low
correlation with other variables
– Construct Validity defined
✓ A test designed to measure a construct must estimate the existence of an inferred, underlying
characteristic based on a limited sample of behavior
✓ Established through a series of activities in which a researcher simultaneously defines some
construct and develops instrumentation to measure it.
✓ A judgment about the appropriateness of inferences drawn from test scores regarding individual
standings on a variable called construct.
✓ Required when no criterion or universe of content is accepted as entirely adequate to define the
quality being measured.
✓ Assembling evidence about what a test means.
✓ Series of statistical analysis that one variable is a separate variable.
✓ A test has a good construct validity if there is an existing psychological theory which can support
what the test items are measuring.
✓ Establishing construct validity involves both logical analysis and empirical data. (Example: In
measuring aggression, you have to check all past research and theories to see how the researchers
measure that variable/construct)
✓ Construct validity is like proving a theory through evidences and statistical analysis.
– Evidences of Construct Validity
✓ Test is homogenous, measuring a single construct.
• Subtest scores are correlated to the total test score.
 • Coefficient alpha may be used as homogeneity evidence.
• Spearman Rho can be used to correlate an item to another item.
• Pearson or point biserial can be used to correlate an item to the total test score. (item-total
correlation)
✓ Test score increases or decreases as a function of age, passage of time, or experimental
manipulation.
• Some variable/construct are expected to change with age.
✓ Pretest, posttest differences
• Difference of scores from pretest and posttest of a defined construct after careful manipulation would
provide validity
✓ Test scores differ from groups.
• Also called a method of contrasted group
• T-test can be used to test the difference of groups.
✓ Test scores correlate with scores on other test in accordance to what is predicted.
• Discriminant Validation
o Convergent Validity – a test correlates highly with other variables with which it should correlate
(example: Extraversion which is highly correlated sociability)
o Divergent Validity – a test does not correlate significantly with variables from which it should
differ (example: Optimism which is negatively correlated with Pessimism)
• Factor Analysis – a retained statistical technique for analyzing the interrelationships of behavior data
o Principal Components Analysis – a method of data reduction
o Common Factor Analysis – items do not make a factor, the factor should predict scores on the
item and is classified into two (Exploratory Factor Analysis for summarizing data and
Confirmatory Factor Analysis for generalization of factors)
• Cross-Validation - Revalidation of the test to a criterion based on another group different from the
original group from which the test was validated
o Validity Shrinkage – decrease in validity after cross validation.
o Co-validation – validation of more than one test from the same group.
o Co-norming – norming more than one test from the same group
2. Test Bias
– This is a factor inherent in a test that systematically prevents accurate, impartial measurement
✓ Rating Error – a judgment resulting from the intentional or unintentional misuse of rating scales
• Severity Error/Strictness Error – less than accurate rating or error in evaluation due to the rater’s
tendency to be overly critical
• Leniency Error/Generosity Error – a rating error that occurs as a result of a rater’s tendency to be too
forgiving and insufficiently critical
• Central Tendency Error – a type of rating error wherein the rater exhibits a general reluctance to issue
ratings at either a positive or negative extreme and so all or most ratings cluster in the middle of the
rating continuum
• Proximity Error – rating error committed due to proximity/similarity of the traits being rated
• Primacy Effect – “first impression” affects the rating
• Contrast Effect – the prior subject of assessment affects the latter subject of assessment
• Recency Effect – tendency to rate a person based from recent recollections about that person
• Halo Effect – a type of rating error wherein the rater views the object of the rating with extreme favour
and tends to bestow ratings inflated in a positive direction
• Impression Management
• Acquiescence
• Non-acquiescence
• Faking-Good
• Faking-Bad
 3. Test Fairness
– This is the extent to which a test is used in an impartial, just and equitable way
4. Factors Influencing Test Validity
a. Appropriateness of the test e. Test Construction factors
b. Directions/Instructions f. Length of Test
c. Reading Comprehension Level g. Arrangement of Items
d. Item Difficulty h. Patterns of Answer

C. NORMS – designed as reference for evaluating or interpreting individual test scores

1. Basic Concepts
a. Norm - Behavior that is usual or typical for members of a group.
b. Norms - Reference scores against which an individual’s scores are compared.
c. Norming - Process of establishing test norms.
d. Norman - Test developer who will use the norms.
2. Establishing Norms
a. Target Population
b. Normative Sample
c. Norm Group
- Size - Ethnicity
- Geographical Location - Age Group
- Socioeconomic Level
3. Types of Norms
a. Developmental Norms
– Mental Age – Intelligence Quotient
* Basal Age – Grade Equivalent Norms
* Ceiling Age – Ordinal Scales
* Partial Credits
b. Within Group Norms
– Percentiles – Standard Scores
c. Relativity Norms
– National Norms
– Co-norms
– Local Norms
– Subgroup Norms
 Saint Louis College
City of San Fernando, La Union

PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
(PSYCH 111/111L)
COURSE FACILITATOR:
Dr. Jose J. Pangngay, RPm, RPsy, LPT

LESSON 5: TEST UTILITY

UTILITY- usefulness or practical value of testing derived from scores on the test to make better decisions

FACTORS THAT AFFECT A TEST’S UTILITY

1. Psychometric Soundness
• Reliability and validity of a test
• Costs
• Gives us the practical value of both the scores (reliability and validity)
2. They tell us whether decisions are cost-effective
3. A valid test is not always a useful test
-especially if test takers do not follow test directions

Costs - disadvantages, losses, or expenses in both economic and noneconomic terms

- purchasing of tests
Ex. using a less expensive and therefore less stringent application process

Benefits
Profits, gains, advantages
Ex.) more stringent hiring policy- more productive employees
Ex.) maintaining successful and academic environment of university

Utility Analysis
-a family of techniques that entail a cost-benefit analysis designed to yield information relevant to a division about
the usefulness and/or practical value of a tool of assessment. Utility analysis: An illustration What’s the companies
goal?
• Limit the cost of selection o Don’t use FERT
• Ensure that qualified candidates are not rejected o Set a cut score that yields the lowest false negative
rate
• Ensure that all candidates selected will prove to be qualified o Lowest dales positive rate
• Ensure, to the extent possible, that qualified candidates will be selected and unqualified candidates will
be rejected o False positives are no better or worse than false negatives o Highest hit rate and lowest miss
rate

HOW IS A UTILITY ANALYSIS CONDUCTED?

 -objective: dictate what sort of information will be required as well as the specific methods to be used
1. Expectancy Data
- Likelihood that individuals who score within a given range on the predictor will perform successfully on the
criterion - used to measure costs vs. benefits
- the higher a worker’s score is on this new test, the greater the probability that the worker will be judged
successful.
2. Taylor Russell Tables
- Increase in base rate of successful performance that is associated with a particular level of criterion-related
validity - inclusion of a particular test in the selection system will improve selection
- use of a particular test who will be successful at their jobs, given different combinations of three variables: the
test’s validity, the selection ratio used, and the base rate
* selection ratio- numerical value that reflects the relationship between the number of people to be hired and the
number of people available to be hired
*base rate- percentage of people hired under the existing system for a particular position
Limitation of Taylor Russel:
1. relationship between the predictor (the test) and the criterion (rating of performance
on the job) must be linear Ex.) written application- group interview-personal interview etc.
2. difficulty of identifying a criterion score that separates “successful” from
“unsuccessful” employees

Compensatory model of selection: assumption is made that high scores on one attribute can compensate for low scores
on another attribute

METHODS FOR SETTING CUT OFF SCORES

1. The Angoff Method

- setting fixed cut scores can be applied to personnel selection tasks as well as to questions regarding the
presence or absence of a particular trait, attribute, or ability
- regarding how test takers who have at least minimal competence for the position should answer test items
correctly - the judgments of the experts are averaged to yield cut scores for the test.

2. The Known Groups Method

- collection of data on the predictor of interest from groups known to possess and not to possess trait, attribute, or
ability
- Cut score based on which test best discriminates the two groups performance resulted in a different cutoff score
- Ex. performance of two contrasting groups: (1) students who successfully completed college-level math, and (2)
students who failed college-level math.

3. IRT-Based Method
- based on test taker’s performance across all items on a test Some portion of test items must be correct in
order to pass the test
1. Item-mapping method: arrangement of items in a histogram, with each column in the histogram containing
items deemed to be of equivalent value
- difficulty level is set as the cut score
- involves several rounds of judgments in which experts may receive feedback regarding how their ratings
compare to ratings made by other experts. Ex. licensing exam
2. Book-Mark method
- begins with the training of experts with regard to the minimal knowledge, skills, and/or abilities that test
takers should possess in order to “pass.
- Subsequent to this training, the experts are given a book of items, with one item printed per page, such that
items are arranged in an ascending order of difficulty.
 - Then, an expert places a bookmark to mark the divide which separate test takers who have acquired
minimal knowledge, skills, or abilities and those that have not. Bookmarks serve as cut score -
decided upon by the test developers.
Problems include training of experts, possible floor and ceiling effects, and the optimal length of item booklets

Other Methods
method of predictive- setting cut scores which took into account the number of positions to be filled, projections regarding
the
likelihood of offer acceptance, and the distribution of applicant scores.
-discriminant analysis- family of statistical techniques used to shed light on the relationship between certain variables
(scores on battery of tests) and two or more naturally occurring groups as persons judged to be successful at a job and
persons judged unsuccessful at a job
 Saint Louis College
City of San Fernando, La Union

PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
(PSYCH 111/111L)
COURSE FACILITATOR:
Dr. Jose J. Pangngay, RPm, RPsy, LPT

LESSON 6: TEST DEVELOPMENT

A. PSYCHOMETRIC THEORIES
1. Observed Score Approach
o Classical Test Theory: The first, and still one of the most
influential, of the measurement theories in psychology. Note
that the generic CTT statement, X = T + E, is axiomatic to
other psychometric theories such as IRT and Rasch.
o Generalizability Theory: emerged in the 1970s and may best
be viewed as an extension of CTT because it is often used to
decompose the E in X = T + E into different facets or sources
(e.g., error resulting from items selected, raters used, gender
of test administrator or examinee). Note that in unpacking the
error, E, one implicitly redefines the true score, T.
2. Latent Variable Approach
o Factor-Analytic Theory: Factor-analytic theory is the oldest of
the latent variable theories, dating back to its first formal
introduction in the early 1900s by Charles Spearman. Over
the past century, factor-analytic theory has changed from
being a descriptive psychometric approach characterized by
a variety of principal components–based computational tools
to an elaborated statistical modeling strategy that has a
variety of model estimation methods and fit statistics. The
move to considering factor-analytic theory within a statistical
modeling framework and in a likelihood theory framework for
model estimation and testing resulted in great advances from
the 1960s to 1990s. The statistical formalization of factor-
analytic theory has resulted in confirmatory modeling
strategies and, most recently, a blend of confirmatory and
exploratory approaches, referred to as exploratory structural
equation modeling
o Item-Response Theory: IRT emerged in the 1960s but, given
the need for very large sample sizes in parametric IRT, only
Measurement and Assessment Framework gained some popularity in psychology beginning in the
(APA, 2013) 1990s. IRT focuses on the range of latent ability (theta) and
the characteristics of items at various points along the
 continuum of this ability. That is, for example, whereas CTT
produces only a single estimate of reliability and standard
error of measurement for a test, IRT has the advantage of
producing these estimates across the range of the latent
variable measured by a test.
o Rasch Theory: Rasch theory can be mathematically
characterized as IRT with only one item parameter, item
difficulty. That is, one can think of Rasch theory as being a
special case of three-parameter IRT, wherein the item
discrimination and lower asymptote (sometimes called the
guessing parameter) are fixed parameters and hence not
estimated for the test at hand. One way of characterizing
Rasch theory is that it has a guessing parameter of zero and
an item discrimination parameter value of 1 for all items.
Although mathematically correct, this description of Rasch
theory does not capture the important philosophic orientation
that comes with Rasch theory. In particular, Rasch theory
often carries with it a belief that the model holds precedence
over the data so that respondents or items are discarded until
a Rasch model fits the remaining data..
o Mixed-Models: statistical interconnection among CTT, factor-
analytic theory, and IRT under the rubric of latent variable
modeling.

B. APPROACHES IN TEST DEVELOPMENT

1. Rational-Theoretical Approach: researcher uses either theory or an intuitive, commonsense approach to
developing items for a test, is the most commonly used approach. In this case, expert opinion (i.e., of the
researcher, a group of experts, a theory) forms the basis for the development and selection of items
2. Factor-Analytic Approach: items are selected on the basis of whether they load on a factor, and a statistical rule
forms the basis for the development and selection of items.
3. Empirical Criterion-Keyed Approach: items are selected if they can discriminate the group of interest from a
control group, is not frequently used today in the development of measures.
4. Projective Approach: the basic idea behind a projective test is to use ambiguous stimuli (e.g., inkblots, pictures)
or have individuals create their own drawing (e.g., draw a person), and they will project their own concerns,
fears, attitudes, and beliefs onto their interpretation or drawing

C. STANDARDIZATION
1. When to decide to standardize a test?
a. No test exists for a particular purpose
b. The existing tests for a certain purpose are not adequate for one reason or the another
2. Basic Premises of standardization
– The independent variable is the individual being tested
– The dependent variable is his behavior
– Behavior = person x situation
– In psychological testing, we make sure that it is the person factor that will ‘stand out’ and the situation
factor is controlled
– Control of extraneous variables = standardization
3. What should be standardized?
a. Test Conditions
– There should be uniformity in the testing conditions
– Physical condition
– Motivational condition
 b. Test Administration Procedure
– There should be uniformity in the instructions and administration proper. Test administration includes
carefully following standard procedures so that the test is used in the manner specified by the test
developers. The test administrator should ensure that test takers work within conditions that maximize
opportunity for optimum performance. As appropriate, test takers, parents, and organizations should be
involved in the various aspects of the testing process
– Sensitivity to Disabilities: try to help the disable subject overcome his disadvantage, such as increasing
voice volume or refer to other available tests
– Desirable Procedures of Group Testing: Be care for time, clarity, physical condition (illumination,
temperature, humidity, writing surface and noise), and guess.
c. Scoring
– There should be a consistent mechanism and procedure in scoring. Accurate measurement necessitates
adequate procedures for scoring the responses of test takers. Scoring procedures should be audited as
necessary to ensure consistency and accuracy of application.
d. Interpretation
– There should be common interpretations among similar results. Many factors can impact the valid and
useful interpretations of test scores. These can be grouped into several categories including psychometric,
test taker, and contextual, as well as others.
i. Psychometric Factors: Factors such as the reliability, norms, standard error of measurement, and validity
of the instrument are important when interpreting test results. Responsible test use considers these basic
concepts and how each impacts the scores and hence the interpretation of the test results.
ii. Test Taker Factors: Factors such as the test taker’s group membership and how that membership may
impact the results of the test is a critical factor in the interpretation of test results. Specifically, the test
user should evaluate how the test taker’s gender, age, ethnicity, race, socioeconomic status, marital
status, and so forth, impact on the individual’s results.
iii. Contextual Factors: The relationship of the test to the instructional program, opportunity to learn, quality
of the educational program, work and home environment, and other factors that would assist in
understanding the test results are useful in interpreting test results. For example, if the test does not align
to curriculum standards and how those standards are taught in the classroom, the test results may not
provide useful information.
4. Tasks of test developers to ensure uniformity of procedures in test administration:
– Prepare a test manual containing the ff:
i. Materials needed (test booklets & answer sheets)
ii. Time limits
iii. Oral instructions
iv. Demonstrations/examples
v. Ways of handling querries of examinees
5. Tasks of examiners/test users/psychometricians
– Ensure that test user qualifications are strictly met (training in selection, administration, scoring and
interpretation of tests as well as the required license)
– Advance preparations
i. Familiarity with the test/s iv. Preparation of test materials
ii. Familiarity with the testing procedure v. Orient proctors (for group testing)
iii. Familiarity with the instructions
6. Standardization sample
– A random sample of the test takers used to evaluate the performance of others
– Considered a representative sample if the sample consists of individuals that are similar to the group to be
tested

D. OBJECTIVITY
1. Time-Limit Tasks – every examinee gets the same amount of time for a given task
2. Work-Limit Tasks – every examinee has to perform the same amount of work
 3. Issue of Guessing

E. STAGES IN TEST DEVELOPMENT

1. Test Conceptualization – in creating a test plan, specify the following:
– Objective of the Test
– Clear definition of variables/constructs to be measured
– Target Population/Clientele
– Test Constraints and Conditions
– Content Specifications (Topics, Skills, Abilities)
– Scaling Method
✓ Comparative scaling
✓ Non-comparative scaling
– Test Format
✓ Stimulus (Interrogative, Declarative, Blanks, etc.)
✓ Mechanism of Response (Structured vs. Free)
✓ Multiple Choice
• more answer options (4-5) reduce the chance of guessing that an item is correct
• many items can aid in student comparison and reduce ambiguity, increase reliability
• Easy to score
• measures narrow facets of performance
• reading time increased with more options
• transparent clues (e.g., verb tenses or letter uses “a” or “an”) may encourage guessing
• difficult to write four or five reasonable choices
• takes more time to write questions
• test takers can get some correct answers by guessing
✓ True or False
• Ideally a true/false question should be constructed so that an incorrect response indicates something
about the student's misunderstanding of the learning objective.
• This may be a difficult task, especially when constructing a true statement
2. Test Construction – be mindful of the following test construction guidelines:
– Deal with only one central thought in each item.
– Be precise.
– Be brief.
– Avoid awkward wordings or dangling constructs.
– Avoid irrelevant information.
– Present items in a positive language
– Avoid double negatives
– Avoid terms like “all” and “none”
3. Test Tryout
4. Item Analysis (Factor Analysis for Typical-Performance Tests)
5. Test Revision

F. ITEM ANALYSIS
– Measures and evaluates the quality and appropriateness of test questions
– How well the items could measure ability/trait
1. Classical Test Theory
– Analyses are the easiest and the most widely used form of analyses
– Often called the “true-score model” which involves the true score formula:
𝑋𝑡𝑒 = 𝑟𝑥𝑥 (𝑋 − 𝑋̅) + 𝑋̅
Where:
𝑋𝑡𝑒 = True Score
 𝑟𝑥𝑥 = Correlation Coefficient
𝑋 = Raw Score
𝑋̅ = Mean Score
– Assumes that a person’s test score is comprised of their “true score” plus some measurement error (X = T +
e)
2. Item-Response Theory (Latent Trait Theory)
– Sometimes referred to as “modern psychometrics”
– Latent trait models aim to look beyond that at the underlying traits which are producing the test performance
– Employs the following statistics
a. Item difficulty
– The proportion of examinees who got the item correctly
– The higher the item mean, the easier the item is for the group; the lower the item mean, the more
difficult the item is for the group
Nu + Nl
– Formula: = N
where: Nu = number of students from the upper group who answered the item correctly
Nl = number of students from the lower group who answered the item correctly
N = total number of examinees
– 0.00-0.20 : Very Difficult : Unacceptable
– 0.21-0.40 : Difficult : Acceptable
– 0.41-0.60 : Moderate : Highly Acceptable
– 0.61-0.80 : Easy : Acceptable
– 0.81-1.00 : Very Easy : Unacceptable

b. Item discrimination
– measure of how well an item is able to distinguish between examinees who are knowledgeable and
not
– how well is each item related to the trait
– The discrimination index range is between -1.00 to +1.00
– The closer the index to +1, the more effectively the item distinguishes between the two groups of
examinees
– The acceptable index is 0.30 and above
Nu − Nl
– Formula: = 1
N
2
where: Nu = number of students from the upper group who answered the item correctly
Nl = number of students from the lower group who answered the item correctly
N = total number of examinees
– 0.40-above : Very Good Item : Highly Acceptable
– 0.30-0.39 : Good Item : Acceptable
– 0.20-0.29 : Reasonably Good Item : For Revision
– 0.10-0.19 : Difficult Item : Unacceptable
– Below 0.19 : Very Difficult Item : Unacceptable
c. Item reliability index - the higher the index, the greater the test’s internal consistency
d. Item validity index - the higher the index, the greater the test’s criterion-related validity
e. Distracter Analysis
– All of the incorrect options, or distractors, should be equally distracting
– preferably, each distracter should be equally selected by a greater proportion of the lower scorers
than of the top group
f. Overall Evaluation of Test Items
DIFFICULTY LEVEL DISCRIMINATIVE POWER ITEM EVALUATION
Highly Acceptable Highly Acceptable Very Good Item
DIFFICULTY LEVEL DISCRIMINATIVE POWER ITEM EVALUATION
Highly Acceptable/ Acceptable Acceptable Good Item
Highly Acceptable/ Acceptable Unacceptable Revise the Item
Unacceptable Highly Acceptable/ Acceptable Discard the Item
Unacceptable Unacceptable Discard the Item
 Saint Louis College
City of San Fernando, La Union

PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
(PSYCH 111/111L)
COURSE FACILITATOR:
Dr. Jose J. Pangngay, RPm, RPsy, LPT

LESSON 11: PSYCHOLOGICAL REPORT WRITING

What is a Psychological Test Report?

Psychological report is an abstract of a sample of behavior of a patient or a client derived from results of
psychological tests. A vary brief sample of one’s behavior.

A psychological test report reflects a process that starts with a referral source. A psychological testing referral is usually
made when a specific problem appears in a person’s behavior. Such behavior or experiential symptoms call attention to the
fact that something disturbing has happened and a personality conflict or disorder has appeared. The behavioral difficulty
that the person displays is usually the point at which a psychologist may be called upon to utilize psychodiagnostic expertise
to clarify and localize the underlying cause of the problem.

Since the referral source can originate from different professional areas and levels of expertise, the psychologist needs
to keep in mind that the final report must be written in a manner that is understandable to the person who will be reading it.
The problem of the patient may be critical, and the referral person helping with the problem must be able to utilize the
psychologist’s input. Thus, the psychologist responsible for the testing and report must always respond to the needs of the
patient as well as to the needs of the particular referral source.

In addition, a psychological test report is a communication. Therefore, it must be written in a way that corresponds to
the reader’s level of understanding and training. The report must meet the criteria of clarity, meaningfulness, and
synthesis.

Clarity of the Report

• The report should be written in specific language. The writing should be coherent and free of statements that are
uncommunicative because they are too general.
• Since the data to be presented can be extensive and elaborate, students and professionals alike may feel
overwhelmed with the task of clarifying and ordering this material. This hurdle frequently leads to reliance on a style
that does not facilitate clearly communicated ideas.
• Clarity requires understanding and appreciation of the reader’s concerns, which is then transformed into presentation
of the report. The writer of the report must be considerate and help the reader by presenting digestible material. One
way of doing this is to use shorter rather than longer sentences.
• The raw data of the protocol reflects a complex and mysterious world.
 The test report turns the mystery of data and symptoms into a recognizable form that has been constructed out of clear
rather than diffuse statements.
• Logical progression of ideas is instrumental in making the report a meaningful communication between tester and
referrer.
• In writing a psychological report about our patients, it is important to remember that we are dealing with real people
whose problems need to be meaningfully understood.

Meaningfulness of the Report

• The report is a meaningful communication if the reader finds that it is clear and understands it. Understanding occurs
when the level of discourse and use of language is based upon the level that the particular referrer can utilize.
• The goal of the report as a vehicle of communication is always to transform mystery or confusion into meaningfulness.
Consequently, the words and ideas must be clear at whatever level the report is written. The use of jargon and
generalization are handicaps to clarifying precise ideas.
• It is essential to keep a sharp focus on the subject’s specific problem. By detailing the exact factors involved in the
person’s functioning, a portrait that has a clear meaning will be developed. The uniqueness of the person being
tested emerges in the synthesis of the report.

Synthesis of the Final Report

• A relevant synthesis or integration of a report means that the initial behavior or experiential problem of the patient
has been given a context that serves as a sort of map in which the relevant details of the problem can be made visible
and related to each other.
• The fundamental details revealed during testing and interview are encapsulated into large concepts, which are then
organized in relation to one another. This integration demonstrates that a presenting problem is only part of a larger
system that includes all aspects and levels of personality, which are not immediately evident, understood only from
the presenting symptoms.
• Synthesis in a report reveals the meaning of the presenting symptoms and provides information as well as guidelines
in the management and treatment of the overall problem.
• The report is a communication about the logic of a specific personality. Aspects of personality are logically related,
and thus the structure of the report must form a relevant synthesis; that is the parts of the report will reflect different
aspects of the same personality.

Why a Psychological Report may be requested?

Referral to a psychologist for psychodiagnostic testing represents a profound moment in the process of help. This
referral becomes a pivotal event in the life of the person who displays the symptoms as well as to those intimately related to
the person.

Context of Referral

The reason for the referral is the symptomatic behavior that the subject displays. This may be acting-out behavior in
school, at home, or on the job; grossly bizarre behavior; or behavior reflecting anxiety conditions. The point is that either the
problematic behavior may be causing personal difficulty, or its effects may be disturbing a larger system such as the
classroom, family, or workplace. The psychologist must constantly focus on the nature and extent of the tension that is
involved in the symptom. Thus a psychological report is requested so that relevant information can be marshaled. This
information leads to the implementation of therapeutic helping procedures of further diagnostic measures.

GENERAL GUIDELINES IN PSYCHOLOGICAL REPORT WRITING

• STYLE
The style or “flavor” of a report will be influenced primarily by the training and orientation of the psychologist. Ownby
(1987) stresses that the most important style to use in report writing is what he refers to as a “professional style.” This is
 characterized by short words that are of common usage and that have precise meanings. The paragraphs should be
short and should focus on a single concept. Similar concepts should be located close to one another in the report. The
result should be a report that combines accuracy, clarity, integration, and readability.

• DECIDING WHAT TO INCLUDE

The general purpose is to provide information that will be most helpful in meeting the needs of the client. Within this
context, the clinician must strike a balance between providing too much information and providing too little. As a general
rule, information should only be included if it serves to increase the understanding of the client. The basic guidelines for
deciding what to include in a report relate to the needs of the referral setting, background of the readers, purpose of
testing, relative usefulness of the information, and whether the information describes unique characteristics of the person.

Once these general guidelines have been taken into account, the next step is to focus on and organize the information
derived from the tests. A further general rule is that information should focus on the client’s unique method of
psychological functioning. A reader is not concerned so much with how the client is similar to the average person as in
what ways he or she is different.

A common error is psychological reports is the inclusion of generalized statements that are so vague they could apply to
the majority of the population.

• TERMINOLOGY
Several arguments have been made in determining whether to use technical or nontechnical language in psychological
reports. It might be urged that technical terminology is precise and economical, increase the credibility of the writer, and
can communicate concepts that are impossible to convey through nontechnical language. However, a number of potential
difficulties are often encouraged with the use of technical language.

One of the most frequent problems involves the varying backgrounds and levels of the person reading the report and
even among readers who have the proper background to understand technical terms; many prefer a more straightforward
presentation. In addition, technical terms also run in danger of becoming nominalisms in which, by merely naming the
phenomenon, persons develop an illusory sense of understanding more than is actually the case.

• CONTENT OVERLOAD
There are no specific rules to follow in determining how much information to include in a report. A general guideline is to
estimate how much information a reader can realistically be expected to assimilate. If too many details are given, the
information may begin to become poorly defined and vague, and therefore, lack impact or usefulness. The psychologist
should focus on and discuss only those areas that are most relevant to the purpose of the report.

• FEEDBACK
During the earlier days of psychological assessment, examiners often kept the results of psychological assessments
carefully concealed from the client. There was often an underlying belief that the results were too complex and mysterious
for the client to adequately understand. In contrast, current practices are to provide the client with clear, direct, and
accurate feedback regarding the results of an evaluation.

LEVELS OF INTERPRETATION IN PSYCHOLOGICAL REPORT WRITING

Level 1

There is minimal amount of any sort of interpretation. The information gathered is as simply and directly related to the outcome
decision as possible and there is minimal concern with intervening processes. Data are primarily treated in a sampling or
correlating way, never as “signs” for there is no concern with underlying constructs to explain why “input” and “output” events
are related. Little or no skilled clinical data collection or interpretation is needed. (E.g. large scale selection testing - people
are given a validated aptitude test and jobs are offered to those above a critical score and denied to those who fall below it.)
Level 2

Clinician can deductively arrive at decisions as to the further needs and treatment of the patient

Two kinds:

1. Descriptive generalizations: From the particular behaviors observed, we generalize to more inclusive, although still
largely behavioral and descriptive categories. Thus, they note, a clinician might observe instances of slow bodily
movements and excessive delays in answering questions and from this infer that the patient is “retarded motorically.”
With the further discovery that the patient eats and sleeps poorly, cries easily, reports a constant sense of futility and
discouragement and shows characteristic test behaviors, the generalization is now broadened as
“depressed.”

2. Hypothetical Construct: Assumption of an inner state which goes logically beyond description of visible behavior.
Such constructs imply causal conditions, related personality traits and behaviors and allow prediction of future events.
It is the movement from description to construction which is the sense of clinical interpretation.

Level 3

Goal is to develop a coherent and inclusive theory of the individual life (theory of the person-situation) or a working image of
the patient. The clinician attempts a full-scale exploration of the individual’s personality, psychosocial situation and
developmental history; in all, the various facets of the individual which were earlier described in the outline of the case
study. At the fullest, the output would be a psycho-biography of a sort that would make clear what the patient is, how he
came to be, how he might act under specific conditions and how he might change, particularly in terms of available clinical
interventions.

SOURCES OF ERROR IN PSYCHOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION

1. Information-overload
• Too much material, making the clinician overwhelmed
• Studies have been shown that clinical judges typically use less information than is available to them
• The need is to gather optimal, rather than maximal, amount of information of a sort digestible by the particular
clinician
• Obviously, familiarity with the tests involved, type of patient, referral questions and the like figure in deciding how
much of what kind of material is collected and how extensible it can be interpreted
• Too much information – can get confused
2. Schematization
• All humans have a limited capacity to process information and to form concepts
• Consequently, the resulting picture is of the individual is schematized and simplified, perhaps catering to one or
a few salient and dramatic and often, pathological, characteristics
• The resulting interpretations are too organized and consistent and the person emerges as a two-dimensional
creature
• The clinical interpreter has to be able to tolerate complexity and deal at one time with more data than he can
comfortably handle
3. Insufficient internal evidence for interpretation
• Ideally, interpretations should emerge as evidence converges from many sources, such as different responses
and scores of the same tests, responses of different tests, self-report, observation, etc.
• Particularly for interpretations at higher levels, supportive evidence is required
• Results from lack of tests, lack of responses
• Information between you and the client
 4. Insufficient external verification of interpretation
• Too often clinicians interpret assessment material and report on the patients without further checking on the
accuracy of their statements
• Information between you and the relevant others
• Verify statements made by patients
5. Overinterpretation
• “Wild analysis”
• Temptation to over-interpret assessment material in pursuit of a dramatic or encompassing formulation
• Deep interpretations, seeking for unconscious motives and nuclear conflicts or those which attempt genetic
reconstruction of the personality are always to be made cautiously and only on the basis of convincing evidence
• Interpreting symbols in terms of fixed meanings is a cheap and usually inaccurate attempt at psychoanalytic
interpretation
• At all times, the skillful clinician should be able to indicate the relationship between the interrupted hypothetical
variable and its referents to overt behavior
6. Lack of individualization
• It is perfectly possible to make correct statements which are entirely worthless because they could as well apply
to anyone under most conditions
• “Aunt Fanny syndrome”/”PT Barnum Effect”
• What makes the person unique (e.g., both patients are anxious – how does one patient manifest his anxiety)
7. Lack of integration
• Human personality is organized and integrated usually in hierarchical system
• It is of central importance to understand which facets of the personality are most central and which are peripheral,
which needs subserve others and how defensive, coping and ego functions are organized, if understanding of
the personality is to be achieved
• Over-cautiousness, insufficient knowledge or a lack of a theoretical framework are sometimes revealed in
contradictory interpretations made side by side
• On the face of it, someone cannot be called both domineering and submissive
8. Overpathologizing
• Always highlights the negative not the positive aspect of behavior
• Emphasizes the weakness rather than the strengths of a person
• A Balance between the positive and negative must be the goal
• Sandwich method (positive-negative-positive) is a recommended approach
9. Over-psychologizing
• Giving of interpretation when there is none (e.g., scratching of hands – anxious, itchy)
• Avoid generalized interpretations of overt behaviors
• Must probe into the meaning/motivations behind observed behaviors

WHAT A PSYCHOLOGICAL REPORT CONSIDER OR INCLUDE:

1) INDUSTRIAL
a) Identifying Information
b) Test Results
c) Skills and Abilities
d) Personality Profile
e) Summary/Recommendations

2) CLINICAL
a) personal Information
b) Referral question
c) Test administered
d) Behavioral observation (Test and Interview)
 e) Test results and interpretation
f) Summary formulation
g) Diagnostic Impression
h) Recommendation

Here are some principles of value in writing an individualized psychological report:

1) Avoid mentioning general characteristics, which could describe almost anyone, unless the particular importance in
the given case is made clear.
2) Describe the particular attributes of the individual fully, using as distinctive terms as possible.
3) Simple listing of characteristics is not helpful; tell how they are related and organized in the personality.
4) Information should be organized developmentally with respect to the time line of the individual life.
5) Many of the problems of poor reports, such as vague generalizations, overqualification, clinging to the immediate
data, stating the obvious and describing stereotypes are understandable but undesirable reactions to uncertainty.
6) Validate statements with actual behavioral responses.
7) Avoid, if possible, the use of qualities such as “It appears”, “tends to”, etc. for these convey the psychologist’s
uncertainties or indecisions.
8) Avoid using technical terms. Present them using layman’s language.