Samson, Christalyne Danielle P.

| BSECESEP-3B
COMMS 2: MODULATION AND CODING ▪ If the input message is non-electrical ( e.g. voice), it
must be converted by an input transducer to an
TECHIQUES electrical signal
▪ In the communication system, it converts the
❑ Bernard Sklar, “Digital Communications: Fundamental output of a source into an electrical signal that is
& Applications, 2nd Ed.” Prentice Hall International New suitable for processing;
Jersey , October 2005 Examples
❑ Frenzel, Louis E., Communication Electronics (2 nd ed.) ▪ Microphone – converts sound to electrical signal.
Singapore: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1995 ▪ Camera – converts image to electrical signal.
❑ Blake, Roy, Electronic Communication System (2 nd
ed.) Singapore: Thompson Learning Asia, 2008 TRANSMITTER
▪ Converts electrical signal to a form that is suitable
CHAPTER 1 – COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS for transmission through the transmission medium
What is Communication? or channel.
Transferring data reliably from one point to another Data ▪ Generally matching of signal to channel is done by
could be: voice, video, codes etc. It is important to receive modulation.
the same information that was sent from the transmitter. ▪ Modulation uses the information (message signal)
to vary the amplitude, frequency or phase of a
sinusoidal carrier, e.g. amplitude/frequency
LONG DISTANCE COMMUNICATION
modulation AM/FM.
o Communicating over long distances has been a ▪ The transmitter also filters and amplifies the signal
challenge throughout history. Man has been seeking ▪ Data form depends on the channel.
different ways of doing this since the beginning of time.
o The transmission of signals over a distance for the CHANNEL
purpose of communication began thousands of years ▪ Medium used to transfer signal from transmitter to
ago. receiver and can be wired (telephony)or wireless.
▪ While the signal is travelling through the channel
o Early methods of long-distance communication
(the medium) it is always attenuated (and the level
included runners to carry important messages, smoke
of attenuation increases with distance).
signals, chains of searchlights, drums, carrier pigeons,
▪ Also, the signal shape may be changed during the
the Pony Express and the telegraph. transmission i.e. become ‘distorted’.
▪ Physical limitation – finite bandwidth
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM ▪ Real life, maybe a microwave channel, fiber optics,
waveguides etc.
combination of circuits and devices put together to
accomplish a reliable transmission of information from one
NOISE
point to another.
▪ The signal is not only distorted by a channel, it is
also contaminated along the path by undesirable
Source Communication System Destination signals lumped
Sending Point Receiving Point
▪ Random and unpredictable signals from causes
external (such interference from signals
A typical communication system can be modeled as:
transmitted on nearby channels) and internal ( such
noise resulted from thermal motion of electrons in
conductors).

RECEIVER
▪ To recover the message signal contained in the
signal received from the channel (received signal).
▪ The received signal is a corrupted version of the
transmitted signal.
▪ Reconstructs a recognizable form of the original
SOURCE message signal.
▪ Produces an input message (voice, picture, ▪ Receiver filters signal and suppresses noise.
computer data etc). ▪ It reprocesses the received signal by undoing the
▪ There are many different types of sources and there signal modifications (demodulation) made at the
are different forms for messages. transmitter and the channel.
▪ In general, input messages
Discrete: Finite set of outcomes. “Digital ” OUTPUT TRANSDUCER
Continuous: Infinite set of outcomes. “Analog” ✓ The receiver output is fed to the output transducer,
which convert the electrical signals that are
INPUT TRANSDUCER received into a form that is suitable for the final
▪ A device that converts one form of energy into destination, e.g., speaker, monitor, etc.
another.
Page | 1
 Samson, Christalyne Danielle P. | BSECESEP-3B
TIME CONSTRAINTS
There are generally two sets of time restraints:

Real-Time: Real-time communication is instant, and data

must be sent and received simultaneously. An example of
this is the telephone network or two-way radio
communications.
COMMUNICATION MODES Time-Lapse: Data may be received at any time after having
• Characterizing the wireless systems: been sent. Examples include email, radio and TV
o Point to point radio systems broadcasts. The time of receipt is not important.
✓ Single transmitter with single receiver
✓ Use high gain antennas in fixed positions to CHAPTER 1.1 – INTRODUCTION
maximum received power and minimize
interference with other radios (nearby WHAT IS A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM?
frequencies). ▪ Communication systems are designed to transmit
information.
o Point to multipoint systems ▪ Communication systems Design concerns:
✓ Connect a central station to a large number of ✓ Selection of the information–bearing waveform;
possible receivers. ✓ Bandwidth and power of the waveform;
✓ Commercial AM and FM radio and broadcast TV ✓ Effect of system noise on the received information;
✓ Uses an antenna with broad beam to reach ✓ Cost of the system.
many listeners and viewers.
Information source:
o Multipoint to multipoint systems Analog Information Source:
✓ simultaneous communication between An analog information source
individual users (maybe not in fixed location). produces messages which are
✓ Generally, not connect two users directly, but defined on a continuum.
rely on a grid of base stations to provide desired o Microphone actuated by
interconnections between users. E.g. cellular speech or song.
telephone systems and WLAN. o TV camera scanning a
picturesque scene.
• Can also be characterize in terms of directionality of Digital Information Source:
communication: A digital information source
produces a finite set of
o Simplex System
possible messages.
Communication occurs in one direction, from
o Teleprinter, Morse key
transmitter (tx) to receiver (rx). E.g. broadcast TV, operator
radio, and paging systems. o Numerical output of a
computer, Keyboard, Binary
o Half Duplex System numbers, Hex numbers
Communication in two directions, but not
simultaneously. E.g. early mobile radios (walkie- Output A/D:
talkie) ..which rely on push to talk function with - The signal in desired format analog or digital at the
different intervals of transmitting and receiving. output.
- In digital communication the signal produced by this
o Full Duplex Systems source is converted into digital signal consists of 1’s
Simultaneous two-way transmission and and 0’s.
reception. E.g. cellular telephone and point to point
radio systems ✓ Require ‘duplexing’ techniques : 1. DIGITAL AND ANALOG SOURCES AND SYSTEM
using separate frequency bands for transmit and o A digital communication system transfers
receive, 2. users to transmit and receive in certain information from a digital source to the intended
predefined time intervals receiver (also called the sink).
o An analog communication system transfers
information from an analog source to the sink.

Page | 2
 Samson, Christalyne Danielle P. | BSECESEP-3B
o A digital waveform is defined as a function of time
that can have a discrete set of amplitude values.
o An Analog waveform is a function that has a
continuous range of values. Frequency
spectrum
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Relatively inexpensive digital • Generally, more
circuits may be used; bandwidth is
• Privacy is preserved by using data required than that
Squared
encryption; for analog
envelope
• Data from voice, video, and data systems; spectrum
sources may be merged and • Synchronization over whole
transmitted over a common digital is required. frequency
transmission system; range
• In long-distance systems, noise
dose not accumulate from repeater
to repeater. Data regeneration is DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
possible
Information signal is processed and represented by a
• Errors in detected data may be
sequence of discrete messages.
small, even when there is a large
amount of noise on the received
signal; ANALOG TV VERSUS DIGITAL TV
• Errors may often be corrected by ❑ Analog television transmits programming in a
the use of coding. continuous signal. This signal varies in amplitude,
depending on the information contained in the picture.
ANALOG COMMUNICATION It’s kind of how music was transcribed onto vinyl
- Information signal is continuously varying in records; the television signal goes up and down
amplitude and time. depending on what’s being broadcast.
- Modify some characteristic of a sinusoidal carrier ❑ This analog signal is transmitted on a particular radio
wave frequency, from the television station’s transmitting
- (e.g. amplitude, phase, frequency) antenna over the air to the receiving antenna connected
to your TV set. Each television station is assigned a
Sinusoidal Carrier Wave particular frequency that corresponds to its channel
o Sinusoidal carrier wave is a waveform modulated number. When you tune your TV to a given channel,
(modified) with an information bearing signal for the you’re actually choosing to receive transmissions on
purpose of conveying information. that particular frequency.
o The purpose of the carrier is usually either to
transmit the information through space as an ❑ The result is that analog transmissions typically
electromagnetic wave (like in radio produce a lower-quality picture than the original. The
communication), or to allow several carriers at picture isn’t quite as sharp, the background is
different frequencies to share a common physical sometimes grainy, and the sound suffers from noise and
transmission medium by frequency division a reduced frequency response.
multiplexing (like in a cable television system).
o The term originated in radio communication, where ❑ A Digital TV signal, on the other hand, transmits in
the carrier wave creates the radio waves which carry “packets” of compressed data. The data uses a
the information (modulation) through the air from combination of 1’s and 0’s, similar to your computer,
the transmitter to the receiver. The term is also used DVD player, and Internet. Because it uses this code,
for an unmodulated emission in the absence of any digital signals do not experience the same interference,
modulating signal. or signal loss, that analog TV signals do. That means you
enjoy a consistently clear picture, high-quality audio,
Bearing Signal and no static or snow. A Digital TV signal is also a more
efficient technology. A digital transmission requires less
bandwidth when compared to a similar Analog signal. In
fact, according to www.informit.com, four or more
A time-
digital channels use the same bandwidth as a single
domain
waveform analog channel. This allows a television station to
broadcast more channels and more HD channels over
the same airwaves, giving you more variety of
programming with better quality.

Page | 3
 Samson, Christalyne Danielle P. | BSECESEP-3B

EVOLUTION OF THE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM WITH AD CONVERSION

▪ Primitive Sign Language
▪ Smoke Signal/ Fire Signals
▪ Modern Telegraph
▪ Telephone Wireless Communication
▪ Satellite Communication

OTHER TERMINOLOGIES
1. CODECs
o At its simplest a transceiver CODEC
(coder/decoder) consists of an ADC (analogue to
digital converter) in the transmitter, which converts
an analogue signal into digital pulses, and a DAC
(digital to analogue converter) in the receiver, which
converts these digital pulses back into an analogue
signal.
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT o ADCs will generally consist of a sampling circuit, a
▪ Several studies of transmitted information quantizer and a pulse code modulator. The
1700s already started.
sampling circuit provides discrete voltage samples
▪ Telegraph of CLAUDE CHAPPE at France.
taken, at regular intervals of time, from the
▪ Century of so many inventions in terms of
analogue signal. The quantizer approximates these
electromagnetism.
1800s ▪ The modern fax machine or facsimile was voltages to the nearest one of an allowed set of
first developed by a Scottish man named voltage levels.
ALEXANDER BAIN o In the receiver’s DAC received binary voltages are
1837 Electrical Telegraph – Samuel F. Morse converted to quantized voltage levels by a PCM
▪ Also known as the 20th century. decoder which is then smoothed by a low pass filter
▪ First handheld cellular phone call was to reconstruct the original, analogue signal.
made on April 3, 1973 by Motorola engineer
1900s
Martin Cooper from 6th Avenue New York. 2. Source Encoder / Source Decoder
▪ Prototype mobile ‘shoe’ phone weighed 2.5 - converts the symbol sequence into a
lbs. binary sequence of 0’s & 1’s by
21st ▪ Current Encoder assigning code words.
Century - block coding method & convolution
coding method.
GROWTH FACTORS - converts the binary output of the
a) Computer Impact channel decoder into a symbol
b) Flexibility and Compatibility sequences.
Decoder
c) Improved Reliability - recovers the information bearing bits
d) Wide band channels from the coded binary stream, error
e) Integrated Solid State Technology detection and correction.

FUNCTIONAL BLOCKS OF A DIGITAL COMMUNICATION 3. Source Encoder

SYSTEMS o In digital communication we convert the signal from
source into digital signal. The point to remember is
we should like to use as few binary digits as
possible to represent the signal. In such a way this
efficient representation of the source output results
in little or no redundancy.
o Source Encoding or Data Compression: the
process of efficiently converting the output of
wither analog or digital source into a sequence of
binary digits.

Page | 4
 Samson, Christalyne Danielle P. | BSECESEP-3B
medium (e.g. one optical fiber, one satellite
4. Source Decoder transponder or one piece of coaxial cable).
o At the end, if an analog signal is desired then source o Several different types of multiple accessing are
decoder tries to decode the sequence from the currently in use, each type having its own
knowledge of the encoding algorithm. And which advantages and disadvantages. The multiple
results in the approximate replica of the input at the accessing problem is essentially one of efficient
transmitter end. and equitable sharing of the limited resource
represented by the transmission medium.
5. Multiplexer
o In digital communications, multiplexing to 9. Signal Transmission
accommodate several simultaneous o The communications path from transmitter to
transmissions, usually means time division receiver may use lines or free space.
multiplexing (TDM). o Examples of the former are wire pairs, coaxial
cables and optical fibers.
6. Demultiplexers
o A Demultiplexers split the received composite bit 10. Line Transmission
stream back into its component PCM signals. ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGES
✓ Path loss is ✓ Laying cables in the ground or
7. Digital Modulator and Demodulator modest. constructing overhead is
a. MODEMs(modulators/demodulators) ✓ Path expensive.
- change digital pulse streams so that they can characteristics ✓ Planning permission may be
be transmitted over a given physical medium, (e.g. attenuation needed for underground cables
at a given rate, in a specified or allocated and distortion) and overhead wires.
are usually ✓ A physical connection to the
frequency band.
stable and network is required for each
- Typically, the modulator shapes, or filters, the
relatively easy to subscriber
pulses to restrict their bandwidth. The input to compensate for. ✓ Mobile communications cannot
a modulator is thus a baseband signal, while be provided.
the output is often a bandpass waveform. ✓ Networks cannot easily be
- Modulator – accepts the bit stream as its added to or subtracted from
input and converts it into an electrical
waveform suitable for transmission. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
- Demodulator – reversible process of o The useful bandwidths of lines, which determine the
modulation (the extraction of message from maximum information transmission rate they can carry
the information bearing waveform). are often determined by their attenuation
characteristics.
b. Digital Modulator o Twisted wire pairs, for example, are normally limited to
- The digital modulator maps the binary (line coded PCM) data rates of 2Mbit/s.
sequences into signal wave forms, for o Coaxial cables generally carry 140 or 155 Mbit/s PCM
example if we represent 1 by sin x and 0 by cos signals but can handle rates several times greater.
x then we will transmit sin x for 1 and cos x for o Optical fibers have very large bandwidth potential but
0. may be limited to a fraction of this by factors such as the
- Represent the data in a form to make it spectral characteristics of optical sources and
compatible with the channel. dispersion effects. Nevertheless, optical fiber PCM bit
- Carrier signal “high frequency signal” (sin x or rates of Gbit/s are possible.
cos x)
Important Notes:
c. Digital Demodulator The table below are summarizes the nominal frequency
- The digital demodulator processes the range of selected types of line and typical repeater (used to
channel corrupted transmitted waveform and compensate for attenuation) spacing:
reduces the waveform to the sequence of Freq. Range Repeater Spacing
numbers that represents estimates of the Overhead Line 0 - 160Hz 40 km
transmitted data symbols. Twisted Pairs 0 – 1MHz 2 km
- Removes the carrier signal and reverse the Coaxial Cables 0 – 500 MHz 1 – 9 km
process of the Modulator Optical Fibers λ = 1610 – 810nm 100s of km

8. Multiple Accessing
o Multiple accessing refers to those techniques,
and/or rules, which allow more than one
transceiver pair to share a common transmission

Page | 5
 Samson, Christalyne Danielle P. | BSECESEP-3B
DATA TRANSMISSION RATE TRANSMITTER
o Communication systems send information ▪ The transmitter carrier circuit converts the processed
electronically over communication channels. base band signal into a frequency band that is
o Data of a digital format “binary numbers”. appropriate for the transmission medium of the
o For a binary transmission system, each sample (level) channel.
has to map into n-bit binary word. ▪ The signal-processing block is used for more efficient
o It is apparent that 8 levels require three binary digits, or transmission.
bits; 16 levels require four bits; and 256 levels require Examples:
eight bits. In general 2n levels require n bits or number of o In an analog system, the signal processor may be an
bits. analog low pass filter to restrict the bandwidth of
m(t).
o In a hybrid system, the signal processor may be an
analog-to-digital converter (ADC) to produce digital
signals that represent samples of the analog input
signal.

CHANNEL
o The maximum rate at which data can be transmitted
▪ represents the path in which signals travel from
over a given communication channel, is referred to as
transmitter to receiver.
the channel capacity.
▪ Very general classification of channels are:
o Data rate: The rate in bits per second (bps) at which data
o Wire: Twisted-pair telephone line, coaxial cable,
can be communicated.
waveguide, and fiber-optic cables.
𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝐷𝑎𝑡𝑎 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = × o Wireless: Air vacuum, and seawater.
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
▪ In general, the channel medium attenuates the signal so
o Where:
that the delivered information deteriorated from that of
- Data rate = the transmission rate in bits per second.
the source. The channel noise may arise from natural
- Sample/ second = sample rate, f.
electrical disturbances or from artificial sources.
- Bits/ sample = number of bits in the sample.
o Data rate also known as bit rat.
RECEIVER
ENCODING AND DECODING FOR DIGITAL COMMUNICATION ▪ takes the corrupted signal at the channel output and
o Coding involves adding extra (redundant) bits to data converts it to be a base band signal that can be handled
to reduce or correct errors at the output of the by the receiver’s base band processor.
receiver. ▪ The base band processor cleans up this signal and
o The disadvantage of these extra bits is to increase the delivers an estimate of the source information m(t) to
data rate and the bandwidth of the encoded signal. the communication system output.
▪ In digital systems, the measure of signal deterioration is
usually taken to be the probability of bit error P(e) – also
called Bit Error Rate (BER) of the delivered data m(t).
▪ In analog systems, the performance measure is usually
taken to be the Signal-tonoise Ratio (SNR) at the
receiver output.

DIGITAL VERSUS ANALOG COMMUNICATION

Analog Communication
All communication systems contain three main sub
Analog systems have an alphabet which is unaccountably
systems:
infinite. Draw their waveforms from a continuum, infinite
1. Transmitter 2. Channel 3. Receiver
number of possible wave shapes
- Performance : SNR, percent distortion.
- Example: Analog Amplitude Modulation (AM)

Page | 6
 Samson, Christalyne Danielle P. | BSECESEP-3B
❑ Facilitates data and source code data compression
In the past most signals were generated, transmitted and and more reliable data processing
received in analogue form i.e. as a sine wave or as a more ❑ Error correction/detection & Performance monitor
complex signal which could be made up from a series of ability
sine wave. Disadvantages of Digital Communications
DISADVANTAGES ❑ Increased bandwidth/ Larger transmission bandwidth
✓ It is inflexible, in that to make any changes to the ❑ Need for time synchronization
system all of the changes have to be made in hardware. - Synchronization is crucial.
This becomes more difficult and expensive as the system
❑ Topological restricted multiplexing
grows in size.
✓ It is prone to noise and distortion. ❑ Incompatibilities with analog facilities
✓ Control and manipulation of signals is difficult ❑ Heavy signal processing

Digital Communication WHAT MAKES A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM GOOD

Digital systems transmit signals from a discrete alphabet. We can measure the “GOODNESS” of a communication
Computer deal in ‘1s’ and ‘0s’. system in many ways:

1. How close is the estimate to the original signal m(t)

o Better estimate = higher quality transmission
o Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) for analog m(t)
o Bit Error Rate (BER) for digital m(t)

2. How much power is required to transmit s(t)?

Therefore, communication between computers is a matter o Lower power = longer battery life, less interference
of transferring digital sequences between machines.
3. How much bandwidth B is required to transmit s(t)?
- Signals represent digits.
o Less B means more users can share the channel
- Performance: Probability of error
o Exception: Spread Spectrum -- users use same B.
- Example: Binary digital communication systems.
ADVANTAGES 4. How much information is transmitted?
✓ Normally large-scale digital systems are software o In analog systems information is related to B of
controlled so that it is possible to make changes to the m(t).
system in software and remotely.
o In digital systems information is expressed in
✓ It is less prone to noise or distortion, a ‘1’ remains a ‘1’
bits/sec.
and will not be mistaken for a ‘0’, unless there is an
extreme level of distortion. TYPES OF ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
✓ If noise or distortion does occur, methods exist to
Technology that links the world
determine that this has happened, and if appropriate to
WIRED WIRELESS
correct the error which has occurred.
Coaxial Microwave
✓ It is relatively easy to manipulate signals
Cable Satellite
Cellular
WHY DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS?
PATH LOSS FACTOR
Ease of ✓ Pulses “0, 1”
▪ Path loss is the loss of power in the transmitted signal.
regeneration ✓ Easy to use repeaters
✓ Better noise handling when using ▪ Causes of path loss
repeaters that repeats the original - Dispersion which causes power to spread out in all
Noise immunity signal. directions from transmitter.
✓ Easy to differentiate between the - Objects such as buildings, trees, streetlights, snow,
values “either 0 or 1 rain.
Ease of ✓ Less errors ▪ Amplifiers can be used in path to boost the signal =>
Transmission ✓ Faster and Better Productivity repeaters
Ease of ✓ Transmitting several signals
multiplexing simultaneously PATH LOSS CALCULATION
Use of modern Path loss (PL, magnitude) is defined as:
✓ Less cost
technology 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝑊
Ease of Encryption ✓ Security and privacy guarantee 𝑃𝐿, 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 =
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝑊
Better encryption ✓ Can not be done in analog
algorithms communication Path loss (PL, dB) is defined as:
OTHER REASONS: PL, dB = Transmitted power, dBm – Received power, dBm
❑ Increased demand for data transmission.
❑ Integration of transmission and switching
❑ Possibility of channel coding
Page | 7
 Samson, Christalyne Danielle P. | BSECESEP-3B

POWER CALCULATION
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔 [𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑚𝑊)] P (mW) P(dBm)
0.01 -20
dB is unit of path loss. For example, 0.1 -10
if Pt = 10 dBm; path loss = 30 dB => 1 0
Pr = 10 dBm – 30 dB = -20 dBm 10 10
100 20

INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB
▪ MATLAB is widely used to design and simulate
Communication Systems
▪ Matlab is program-based solution
o Ideal for programming complex system formulae
o Equation solving and optimization
▪ Simulink is graphic based solution
o Ideal for simulation of system models
o System block-based approach gives visual
perspective
o New blocks can be created from Matlab
programs

BASIC MATLAB COMMAND SYMBOL

1. Mathematical Symbols
Addition +
Subtraction -
Multiplication *
Division /
Exponent ^
Transpose of vector or matrix ‘

2. Logical symbols
And &
Or |
Greater than (or equal) > (>=)
Less than (or equal) < (<=)

3. Vector command
>> t=0:0.1:0.8
t = [0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8]
generates the vector t from 0 to 0.8 in steps of 0.1

4. To generate a function 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑡)𝑡 2

t = 0,2 sec., use the following commands:
>> t = 0:0.1:2
>> y = cos(2*t).*t.^2
Note: the “.” symbol after vector commands

COMMUNICATION SYSTEM EQUIPMENT

o Sources are used to generate communication signals
from the transmitter.
o Measurement devices are used to monitor and
record communication signals at both transmitter and
receiver.
o Radio Frequency Integrated Circuits are complete
communication systems built on chips- also called as
System on Chips (SOCs).

Page | 8