Section-A

1. Answer any Four questions. Each question carries Two marks

1. What is Telnet?
Telnet is a network protocol used on the Internet or local area networks to provide text-based
communication between devices. It was widely used for remote login to computers and other
devices before the advent of more secure protocols like SSH (Secure Shell).

2. What is HTTP?
HTTP, or Hypertext Transfer Protocol, is an application protocol used for distributed,
collaborative, hypermedia information systems. It is the foundation of data communication for
the World Wide Web. When you enter a web address into your web browser, such as
"http://www.example.com", your browser sends an HTTP request to the server hosting the
website, and the server responds with the requested web page, along with any associated
resources such as images, scripts, or style sheets.

3. What is Web IR? Give an example.

Web Information Retrieval (Web IR) is the process of retrieving relevant information
from the vast amount of data available on the World Wide Web. It involves techniques
and algorithms for searching, ranking, and presenting web content to users based on their
information needs.

One example of Web IR in action is a search engine like Google. When you enter a query
into Google's search bar, it employs complex algorithms to sift through billions of web
pages and return a list of results that are most relevant to your query. These results are
ranked based on various factors, such as the content of the page, its popularity, and its
relevance to your search terms.

4. What is HTML?
HTML, or Hypertext Markup Language, is the standard markup language used to create and
design documents on the World Wide Web. It provides a structured format for presenting
content such as text, images, links, multimedia, and interactive elements like forms. HTML
documents are interpreted by web browsers to render web pages that users can view and
interact with.
 5. What is Django?
Django is a high-level Python web framework that enables rapid development of secure and
maintainable web applications. It follows the Model-View-Controller (MVC) architectural
pattern, but it's often referred to as an MTV framework (Model-Template-View) in Django
terminology.

6. What is Web Mining?

Web mining is the process of extracting useful information and knowledge from web data,
including web pages, web documents, web server logs, user behavior data, and other web-
related sources. It involves applying data mining techniques, machine learning algorithms, and
statistical analysis to discover patterns, trends, and insights from web data.

Section-B

II. Answer any Four questions. Each question carries Five marks

7. Differentiate between LAN, MAN and WAN.

LAN, MAN, and WAN are different types of computer networks that vary in terms of their
geographical coverage, size, and the number of interconnected devices. Here's a brief overview
of each:

1. LAN (Local Area Network):

o A LAN is a network that typically covers a small geographical area, such as a
single building, office, or campus.
o It connects devices like computers, printers, servers, and other peripherals within
the same physical location.
o LANs are characterized by high data transfer rates, low latency, and high security
since they are confined to a specific area under the control of a single
organization.
o Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and Token Ring are common technologies used in LANs.
2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):
o A MAN is a network that spans a larger geographical area than a LAN but is
smaller than a WAN, typically covering a city or a metropolitan area.
o It connects multiple LANs and other network devices across different locations
within the same city or metropolitan region.
 MANs are often used by organizations or service providers to interconnect their
o
offices, campuses, or data centers across a city for centralized management and
resource sharing.
o MANs typically use technologies like fiber-optic cables, Ethernet, and
SONET/SDH for high-speed data transmission.
3. WAN (Wide Area Network):
o A WAN is a network that covers a wide geographical area, such as a country,
continent, or even the entire globe.
o It connects multiple LANs, MANs, and other network devices across long
distances, often using public or leased telecommunication infrastructure.
o WANs are typically used by large organizations, internet service providers (ISPs),
and telecommunications companies to provide connectivity between
geographically dispersed locations.
o WANs are characterized by slower data transfer rates, higher latency, and lower
security compared to LANs and MANs due to the longer distances and reliance
on external networks.
o Technologies used in WANs include leased lines, MPLS (Multiprotocol Label
Switching), ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode), and the internet itself.

In summary, LANs are small-scale networks confined to a single location, MANs cover a larger
metropolitan area, and WANs span wide geographical areas, connecting multiple locations
across long distances. Each type of network serves different purposes and has its own
characteristics, technologies, and infrastructure requirements.

8. What are Web Applications? Write Characteristics of Web Applications.

Web applications are software applications that run on remote servers and are accessed by users
through a web browser over the internet or an intranet. Unlike traditional desktop applications,
which are installed locally on a user's device, web applications are accessed and used entirely
within a web browser, requiring only an internet connection.

Here are some characteristics of web applications:

Accessibility: Web applications can be accessed from anywhere with an internet

connection, allowing users to interact with them using various devices such as computers,
laptops, smartphones, and tablets.

Cross-platform compatibility: Web applications are platform-independent, meaning

they can run on different operating systems (e.g., Windows, macOS, Linux) and device
types without requiring separate versions for each platform.

Centralized updates and maintenance: Since web applications are hosted on remote
servers, updates and maintenance can be performed centrally by the application provider,
 ensuring that all users have access to the latest version without needing to install updates
manually.

Scalability: Web applications can easily scale to accommodate growing numbers of users
and increasing demands by adding more server resources or leveraging cloud computing
infrastructure.

Ease of deployment: Deploying web applications is relatively straightforward compared

to traditional desktop applications since users only need a web browser to access them,
eliminating the need for complex installation procedures.

Collaboration and sharing: Web applications facilitate collaboration and sharing among
users by allowing multiple users to access and interact with the same application
simultaneously, often in real-time.

Integration with other systems: Web applications can integrate with other web services,
APIs, and third-party platforms to extend their functionality, share data, and provide
seamless experiences across different applications.

Customization and personalization: Web applications can offer personalized

experiences by tailoring content, features, and settings to individual users based on their
preferences, behavior, and profile information.

Security: Web applications need robust security measures to protect sensitive data and
prevent unauthorized access, including encryption, authentication, authorization, and
secure communication protocols.

Offline capabilities: Some web applications offer offline capabilities through

technologies like service workers and local storage, allowing users to continue using
certain features even when they're not connected to the internet.

9. Differentiate Web 1.0 Vs Web 2.0.

Web 1.0 and Web 2.0 represent two different stages or eras in the evolution of the World Wide
Web, characterized by distinct features, technologies, and user experiences. Here's a comparison
between Web 1.0 and Web 2.0:

1. Static vs. Dynamic Content:

o Web 1.0: In the early days of the web (circa 1990s), websites were primarily static
and read-only. They consisted mainly of static HTML pages with limited
interactivity and user engagement. Content was created and published by website
owners, and users could only consume information passively.
 o Web 2.0: With the emergence of Web 2.0 in the mid-2000s, websites became
more dynamic and interactive. User-generated content and user participation
became central to the web experience. Websites incorporated features like social
networking, blogging platforms, wikis, and multimedia sharing, enabling users to
create, share, and interact with content in real-time.
2. Centralized vs. Decentralized Content Creation:
o Web 1.0: Content creation and publishing were primarily centralized, with
website owners and developers responsible for creating and updating content.
Users had limited opportunities to contribute or participate actively in content
creation.
o Web 2.0: Web 2.0 introduced a more decentralized approach to content creation,
where users could contribute, share, and collaborate on content. Social media
platforms, blogging sites, and wikis empowered users to create and publish their
content, fostering a culture of user-generated content and collaborative knowledge
sharing.
3. Top-down vs. Bottom-up Content Curation:
o Web 1.0: Content curation and organization were primarily top-down, with
website owners and developers deciding the structure and hierarchy of content on
their sites. Navigation was often hierarchical, with users navigating through static
pages via links and menus.
o Web 2.0: Web 2.0 introduced bottom-up content curation, with user-generated
tags, ratings, and recommendations shaping content discovery and organization.
Social bookmarking, tagging, and folksonomies enabled users to categorize and
organize content collaboratively, leading to more personalized and user-centric
browsing experiences.
4. Passive vs. Interactive User Experience:
o Web 1.0: The user experience on Web 1.0 was predominantly passive, with users
consuming content without much interaction or participation. Websites served as
one-way communication channels, delivering information to users without much
engagement.
o Web 2.0: Web 2.0 transformed the user experience into a more interactive and
participatory one. Users could interact with content, share opinions, comment on
posts, contribute to discussions, and connect with other users in real-time,
fostering a sense of community and social interaction.
5. Silent vs. Social Web:
o Web 1.0: The early web was often referred to as the "Silent Web" due to its lack
of social interaction and user engagement features. Websites were static and
isolated, with limited opportunities for social interaction or collaboration.
o Web 2.0: Web 2.0 ushered in the era of the "Social Web," where social
networking, online communities, and collaborative platforms became integral
parts of the web experience. Websites encouraged social interaction, user
participation, and content sharing, leading to the emergence of social media giants
like Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube.
 10. Mention the Differences Between Client Side and Server Side Scripting.

Client-side scripting and server-side scripting are two different approaches to processing and
executing code in web development. Here are the key differences between them:

1. Execution Location:
o Client-side Scripting: Client-side scripts are executed on the user's web browser
(client-side). The code is downloaded along with the web page and executed by
the browser on the user's device.
o Server-side Scripting: Server-side scripts are executed on the web server. The
code is processed on the server before the web page is sent to the client's browser.
2. Visibility of Source Code:
o Client-side Scripting: The source code of client-side scripts is visible to users
since it is downloaded to their browsers. Users can view and potentially modify
the code using browser developer tools.
o Server-side Scripting: The source code of server-side scripts is not visible to
users since it is processed on the server. Users only see the output generated by
the server, such as HTML, CSS, or JavaScript code.
3. Performance:
o Client-side Scripting: Client-side scripts rely on the user's device and browser
capabilities for execution. Performance can vary depending on the user's device,
browser, and network connection.
o Server-side Scripting: Server-side scripts rely on the performance of the web
server. Since processing occurs on the server, performance is generally consistent
across different client devices.
4. Security:
o Client-side Scripting: Client-side scripts can pose security risks such as Cross-
Site Scripting (XSS) attacks, where malicious scripts are injected into web pages
and executed on users' browsers.
o Server-side Scripting: Server-side scripts are less vulnerable to XSS attacks
since the code is processed on the server and the output is sanitized before being
sent to the client's browser. However, server-side scripts can still be vulnerable to
other types of security threats, such as SQL injection attacks.
5. Interactivity:
o Client-side Scripting: Client-side scripts enable dynamic and interactive user
experiences without requiring page reloads. They can respond to user actions in
real-time, such as form submissions, button clicks, and mouse movements.
o Server-side Scripting: Server-side scripts can also create dynamic web pages,
but they typically require page reloads to update content or respond to user
actions since processing occurs on the server.
6. Dependency on Client Resources:
o Client-side Scripting: Client-side scripts depend on the resources and capabilities
of the user's device and browser. They may not work correctly or have degraded
performance on older browsers or devices with limited processing power.
 o Server-side Scripting: Server-side scripts are executed on the web server, so they
are not affected by variations in client resources. They are generally more reliable
and consistent across different client environments.

11. Explain the features of PHP.

PHP (Hypertext Preprocessor) is a popular server-side scripting language used primarily for web
development. It powers millions of websites and web applications worldwide. Here are some key
features of PHP:

1. Open Source: PHP is an open-source programming language, which means it is freely

available for anyone to use, modify, and distribute. Its open-source nature has contributed
to its widespread adoption and the growth of a large and active community of developers.
2. Cross-Platform Compatibility: PHP is compatible with various operating systems,
including Windows, macOS, Linux, and Unix. It can run on most web servers, including
Apache, Nginx, Microsoft IIS, and more.
3. Server-Side Scripting: PHP is primarily used for server-side scripting, meaning that
PHP code is executed on the server before the resulting HTML is sent to the client's web
browser. This enables dynamic generation of web content and allows websites to interact
with databases, process forms, and perform other server-side tasks.
4. Integration with HTML: PHP is embedded within HTML, allowing developers to mix
PHP code seamlessly with HTML markup. This makes it easy to generate dynamic web
pages by embedding PHP code directly within HTML files.
5. Extensive Library Support: PHP has a vast ecosystem of libraries, frameworks, and
extensions that provide additional functionality and features for web development.
Popular PHP frameworks include Laravel, Symfony, CodeIgniter, and Zend Framework,
which streamline the development process and promote best practices.
6. Database Support: PHP offers built-in support for interacting with databases, including
MySQL, PostgreSQL, SQLite, Oracle, and Microsoft SQL Server. Developers can use
PHP's database extensions and functions to connect to databases, execute queries, fetch
data, and perform database operations within their web applications.
7. Security Features: PHP includes various security features and functions to help
developers write secure code and protect against common security vulnerabilities such as
SQL injection, cross-site scripting (XSS), and cross-site request forgery (CSRF). Best
practices for PHP security include input validation, output sanitization, parameterized
queries, and using secure coding practices.
8. Scalability: PHP is highly scalable and can handle a wide range of web applications,
from small personal websites to large-scale enterprise systems. It can be deployed in
various server configurations, including shared hosting, dedicated servers, cloud hosting,
and containerized environments.
9. Community Support: PHP has a large and active community of developers,
contributors, and enthusiasts who contribute to its development, documentation, and
 ecosystem. The PHP community provides support, resources, tutorials, and forums for
developers to learn, collaborate, and share knowledge.

12. Explain Key-Value Model and Column Store Databases with examples.

The Key-Value Model and Column Store Databases are two different approaches to organizing
and storing data in databases, each with its own advantages and use cases.

1. Key-Value Model:

In a Key-Value Model, data is stored as a collection of key-value pairs, where each key is unique
and corresponds to a specific value. This model is simple and efficient for storing and retrieving
data, especially when the data access patterns are straightforward.

Features of Key-Value Model:

 Simplicity: Key-Value stores are simple and easy to understand, consisting of a set of
key-value pairs.
 Flexibility: Keys and values can be of any data type, allowing for flexibility in storing
different types of data.
 High Performance: Key-Value stores are optimized for fast reads and writes, making
them suitable for high-performance applications.
 Scalability: Key-Value stores can scale horizontally by adding more nodes to the cluster,
making them suitable for large-scale distributed systems.
 Use Cases: Key-Value stores are commonly used for caching, session management, user
profiles, and other applications where fast access to data is essential.

Example: Redis

Redis is an open-source, in-memory Key-Value store that supports various data types such as
strings, hashes, lists, sets, and sorted sets. It is commonly used for caching, real-time analytics,
message queuing, and other applications requiring fast data access.

sql
Copy code
SET name "John"
GET name // Returns "John"

2. Column Store Databases:

In a Column Store Database, data is stored and organized by columns rather than rows. Each
column contains values for a specific attribute or field across multiple rows. This columnar
storage format offers advantages such as better compression, faster query performance, and
improved analytics capabilities compared to traditional row-based databases.
Features of Column Store Databases:

 Compression: Columnar storage enables efficient compression techniques, reducing

storage requirements and improving performance.
 Query Performance: Columnar databases excel at analytical queries that involve
aggregations, filtering, and scanning large datasets.
 Data Compression: Data is stored in a column-wise fashion, allowing for better data
compression and reduced disk I/O operations.
 Analytics: Columnar databases are well-suited for analytical workloads, such as data
warehousing, business intelligence, and reporting.
 Use Cases: Columnar databases are commonly used in data warehousing, OLAP (Online
Analytical Processing), and data analytics applications.

Example: Apache Cassandra

Apache Cassandra is a distributed, column-oriented NoSQL database designed for high

availability, scalability, and fault tolerance. It is optimized for write-heavy workloads and is
commonly used in distributed systems, IoT (Internet of Things), and real-time analytics
applications.

sql
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CREATE TABLE users (
user_id UUID PRIMARY KEY,
name TEXT,
age INT,
email TEXT
);

INSERT INTO users (user_id, name, age, email) VALUES (uuid(), 'John', 30,
'[email protected]');

In summary, the Key-Value Model and Column Store Databases are two different approaches to
storing and organizing data, each with its own strengths and use cases. Key-Value stores are
simple, flexible, and optimized for fast access to data, while Column Store Databases excel at
analytical queries and data warehousing applications.

Section-C

III. Answer Any Four questions. Each question carries Eight marks

13. What is FTP? Explain types of Connections and modes in FTP.

FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. It is a standard network protocol used for transferring files
between a client and a server on a computer network, typically the internet. FTP operates on the
client-server model, where a client initiates a connection to a server to perform file transfer
operations.

Types of Connections in FTP:

1. Active Mode (PORT):

o In active mode, the FTP client initiates a connection to the server's port 21 (the
default FTP port) for control commands.
o When data transfer is required (e.g., downloading or uploading files), the server
initiates a new connection back to the client's data port (usually a port number
greater than 1024) for the actual data transfer.
o Active mode requires the client to open a port and listen for incoming data
connections from the server. This can sometimes cause issues with firewalls and
NAT (Network Address Translation) devices, especially for clients behind
firewalls or on private networks.
2. Passive Mode (PASV):
o In passive mode, the FTP client establishes a control connection to the server's
port 21, similar to active mode.
o However, when data transfer is required, the server provides the client with a port
number (usually a port number greater than 1024) on which the client can initiate
a data connection for the actual data transfer.
o Passive mode is often used in situations where the client is behind a firewall or
NAT device that may block incoming connections initiated by the server.

Modes in FTP:

1. ASCII Mode:
o In ASCII mode, files are transferred as text, and the FTP server performs text
mode translation (e.g., newline conversion) during file transfer.
o ASCII mode is suitable for transferring text files, such as HTML, CSS, and source
code files, where line endings need to be converted between different platforms
(e.g., Windows, Unix).
2. Binary Mode:
o In binary mode, files are transferred as raw binary data without any translation or
modification.
o Binary mode is suitable for transferring binary files, such as images, executables,
audio files, and compressed archives, where preserving the exact binary content is
essential.
3. Image Mode (Obsolete):
o Image mode was used in older FTP implementations and is equivalent to binary
mode. It is rarely used today, and binary mode is typically used instead.

FTP is widely used for uploading, downloading, and managing files on remote servers, websites,
and file repositories. It provides a simple and reliable means of transferring files over a network,
although it lacks built-in encryption for securing data during transit. SFTP (SSH File Transfer
Protocol) and FTPS (FTP over SSL/TLS) are more secure alternatives to FTP, providing
encryption and authentication mechanisms to protect data transfer.

14. Explain different types of HTTP Connections.

HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) connections can be classified into different types based on
how they are established and maintained between a client and a server. Here are the main types
of HTTP connections:

1. Non-Persistent (HTTP/1.0):
o In a non-persistent connection, also known as a "short-lived" connection, each
HTTP request/response pair is sent over a separate TCP connection.
o After receiving a response from the server, the client closes the connection, and if
additional resources are needed, it opens a new connection for each subsequent
request.
o Non-persistent connections are simple and easy to implement but can result in
increased latency and overhead due to the overhead of establishing and tearing
down TCP connections for each request/response pair.
2. Persistent (HTTP/1.1):
o In a persistent connection, also known as a "keep-alive" connection, multiple
HTTP requests and responses can be sent and received over a single TCP
connection.
o After sending an HTTP request, the client keeps the connection open and waits
for additional responses from the server. The server can then send multiple
responses over the same connection, reducing the overhead of establishing new
connections for each request.
o Persistent connections help reduce latency and improve performance, especially
for websites with many resources (e.g., images, stylesheets, scripts) that require
multiple HTTP requests.
o HTTP/1.1 introduced persistent connections as the default behavior, and most
modern web browsers and servers support them.
3. Pipelining (HTTP/1.1):
o Pipelining is an optimization technique for persistent connections that allows the
client to send multiple HTTP requests without waiting for the corresponding
responses.
o Instead of sending one request at a time and waiting for each response before
sending the next request, the client sends multiple requests back-to-back over the
same connection.
o Pipelining can reduce the impact of latency on performance by overlapping
request and response transmission, allowing the server to process requests more
efficiently.
 oHowever, pipelining has limitations and can lead to head-of-line blocking issues,
especially if responses are received out of order or if the server does not support
pipelining.
4. Multiplexed (HTTP/2 and later):
o Multiplexing is a feature introduced in HTTP/2 that allows multiple HTTP
requests and responses to be interleaved over a single TCP connection.
o Instead of maintaining separate connections for each request/response pair or
using pipelining, HTTP/2 uses a single connection for all communication between
the client and server.
o Multiplexing improves performance and reduces latency by eliminating the need
for multiple TCP connections and allowing concurrent transmission of multiple
requests and responses.
o HTTP/2 also introduces other features such as header compression, server push,
and prioritization to further optimize performance and efficiency.

These different types of HTTP connections offer varying levels of performance, efficiency, and
complexity, depending on the specific requirements and capabilities of the client, server, and
network environment. HTTP/2 is the latest version of the HTTP protocol and is designed to
address many of the limitations and inefficiencies of earlier versions, such as HTTP/1.0 and
HTTP/1.1.

15. Explain Web Information Retrieval Architecture (Search Engine Architecture).

Web Information Retrieval Architecture, also known as Search Engine Architecture, refers to the
system design and components of a search engine that enables it to retrieve and present relevant
information in response to user queries on the World Wide Web. A typical search engine
architecture consists of several key components that work together to crawl, index, rank, and
serve web pages to users. Here's an overview of the components and their functions:

1. Crawler (Spider or Bot):

o The crawler is responsible for traversing the web and discovering web pages to be
indexed. It starts by fetching a set of seed URLs and then follows links from those
pages to discover new URLs.
o The crawler retrieves the content of web pages, extracts metadata such as URL,
title, and links, and stores this information in a repository for further processing.
o The crawler operates based on predefined rules and policies, such as the
maximum depth of crawling, crawl frequency, and politeness to avoid
overloading web servers.
2. Indexer:
o The indexer is responsible for building an index of web pages based on the
content and metadata extracted by the crawler. It processes the crawled
documents and creates a searchable index database.
o The indexer analyzes the textual content of web pages, extracts keywords, and
builds an inverted index that maps each term to the documents containing it.
 o The index database enables efficient retrieval of relevant documents in response
to user queries, using techniques such as tokenization, stemming, and ranking
algorithms.
3. Ranking Algorithm:
o The ranking algorithm determines the relevance and importance of web pages
based on various factors such as keyword frequency, location, and proximity, link
analysis, and user behavior signals.
o Popular ranking algorithms include PageRank (used by Google), TF-IDF (Term
Frequency-Inverse Document Frequency), BM25, and machine learning-based
algorithms.
o The ranking algorithm assigns a relevance score to each document in the index,
which is used to order search results and present the most relevant pages to users.
4. Query Processor:
o The query processor receives user queries entered into the search engine's
interface and translates them into search queries that can be executed against the
index database.
o It analyzes the query terms, applies query expansion and normalization
techniques, and retrieves relevant documents from the index.
o The query processor may also perform additional processing tasks such as spell
checking, synonym resolution, and entity recognition to improve search accuracy.
5. Search Interface:
o The search interface provides a user-friendly interface for users to enter search
queries and interact with search results.
o It presents search results in a structured format, such as a list of titles and
snippets, and may include features such as faceted search, filtering, and
pagination.
o The search interface may also incorporate additional functionality such as
autocomplete suggestions, related searches, and personalized recommendations.
6. Web Server and Frontend:
o The web server hosts the search engine's backend components and serves HTTP
requests from users' web browsers.
o The frontend of the search engine is responsible for rendering the search interface
in users' browsers and handling user interactions.
o It communicates with the backend components to retrieve search results and
update the interface dynamically based on user actions.

Overall, the architecture of a search engine is complex and involves multiple components
working together to crawl, index, rank, and serve web pages to users in response to their queries.
Optimization of each component is essential for improving search relevance, efficiency, and user
experience.

16. What are the different levels of CSS? Explain with an example.

CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) has three levels of styling: Inline, Internal, and External.
 1. Inline CSS:
o Inline CSS is applied directly to an individual HTML element using the "style"
attribute.
o Inline styles have the highest specificity, meaning they override any styles defined
in external or internal CSS.
o Inline styles are useful for applying quick styling to specific elements but are
generally considered less maintainable and harder to manage than external or
internal styles.
o Example:

html
Copy code
<p style="color: red; font-size: 16px;">This is a paragraph with inline
styling.</p>

2. Internal CSS:
o Internal CSS is defined within the "style" element in the HTML document's head
section.
o Internal styles apply to the entire document or specific elements within the
document.
o Internal styles have medium specificity, meaning they override external styles but
are overridden by inline styles.
o Internal styles are useful for styling specific elements across multiple pages of a
website without repeating the styles in each HTML file.
o Example:

html
Copy code
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0">
<title>Internal CSS Example</title>
<style>
p {
color: blue;
font-size: 18px;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<p>This is a paragraph with internal styling.</p>
</body>
</html>

3. External CSS:
o External CSS is defined in a separate CSS file and linked to the HTML document
using the "link" element.
 o External styles apply to the entire document or specific elements within the
document.
o External styles have the lowest specificity and are overridden by inline and
internal styles.
o External stylesheets are reusable across multiple HTML files, making them ideal
for maintaining consistent styles across a website.
o Example:

HTML file (index.html):

html
Copy code
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0">
<title>External CSS Example</title>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="styles.css">
</head>
<body>
<p>This is a paragraph with external styling.</p>
</body>
</html>

CSS file (styles.css):

css
Copy code
p {
color: green;
font-size: 20px;
}

In this example, the paragraph element is styled differently using each level of CSS. The inline
style overrides both the internal and external styles, while the internal style overrides the external
style. External styles are linked to the HTML document via a separate CSS file, providing a
clean and maintainable way to manage styles across multiple pages.

17. Explain the Model-View-Controller Architecture of Ruby on Rails .

The Model-View-Controller (MVC) architecture is a software design pattern commonly used in

web development to separate the application's logic into three interconnected components:
Model, View, and Controller. Ruby on Rails, a popular web framework for building web
applications using the Ruby programming language, follows the MVC architecture. Here's an
overview of each component in the Ruby on Rails MVC architecture:

1. Model:
 o The Model represents the application's data and business logic. It interacts with
the database to perform CRUD (Create, Read, Update, Delete) operations on data.
o In Ruby on Rails, each model typically corresponds to a database table and
encapsulates the behavior and attributes of the data stored in that table.
o Models define relationships between different types of data using associations
such as belongs_to, has_many, has_one, and has_and_belongs_to_many.
o Models are responsible for validating data, enforcing business rules, and
performing database operations such as querying, saving, updating, and deleting
records.
2. View:
oThe View represents the presentation layer of the application, responsible for
displaying data to users and handling user interactions.
o In Ruby on Rails, views are typically implemented using HTML templates with
embedded Ruby code (ERB) to dynamically generate content based on data
passed from the controller.
o Views render the user interface (UI) elements such as HTML markup, forms,
links, images, and other UI components based on the data provided by the
controller and model.
o Views are kept as lightweight as possible and should contain minimal logic, with
most of the presentation logic handled in the controller or helper methods.
3. Controller:
o The Controller serves as the intermediary between the model and view
components, handling user requests, processing input data, and determining the
appropriate response.
o In Ruby on Rails, controllers are Ruby classes that inherit from the
ApplicationController class and contain action methods corresponding to different
HTTP request types (e.g., GET, POST, PUT, DELETE).
o Controllers receive requests from the web server, interact with the model to
retrieve or manipulate data, and then pass the processed data to the view for
rendering.
o Controllers also handle routing, which maps incoming requests to the appropriate
controller action based on the URL structure defined in the routes.rb file.

The MVC architecture in Ruby on Rails promotes separation of concerns, modularization, and
maintainability of code by dividing the application into distinct components with specific
responsibilities. This separation allows developers to work on different parts of the application
independently, making it easier to manage complexity and maintain code quality. Additionally,
the conventions and conventions provided by Ruby on Rails framework help streamline the
development process and encourage best practices in web application development.

18. Explain the Contextual IR Framework.

The Contextual Information Retrieval (IR) Framework is a conceptual model used in Information
Retrieval systems to enhance the relevance of search results by considering the context in which
a search query is made. Unlike traditional IR systems, which primarily rely on the textual
similarity between queries and documents, contextual IR systems incorporate additional factors
such as user context, task context, and situational context to improve search accuracy and user
satisfaction.

The Contextual IR Framework comprises several key components:

1. User Context:
o User context refers to information about the user's preferences, behavior, and
characteristics that can influence their information needs and search behavior.
o User context may include factors such as user profile, location, device, search
history, browsing history, social connections, and demographic information.
o By considering the user's context, contextual IR systems can personalize search
results and tailor them to the user's specific interests and preferences.
2. Task Context:
o Task context refers to the specific task or goal that the user is trying to accomplish
with their search query.
o Task context may include factors such as the user's intent, the type of information
sought, the stage of the information-seeking process, and the domain or topic of
interest.
o By understanding the user's task context, contextual IR systems can provide more
relevant and targeted search results that align with the user's goals and objectives.
3. Situational Context:
o Situational context refers to the external factors and environmental conditions
surrounding the search query, such as time, location, device, and social context.
o Situational context may include factors such as the time of day, the user's physical
location, the device being used for the search, and the presence of other people or
events.
o By considering situational context, contextual IR systems can adapt search results
and presentation to better suit the user's current situation and environment.
4. Contextual Features:
o Contextual features are the specific attributes or indicators of user, task, and
situational context that are used to inform the retrieval and ranking of search
results.
o Contextual features may include user preferences, search history, location-based
information, temporal factors, social signals, and device characteristics.
o Contextual features are extracted from various sources, such as user profiles, log
data, sensor data, and external APIs, and used to customize and personalize search
results for individual users.
5. Adaptation Mechanisms:
o Adaptation mechanisms are the algorithms and techniques used to integrate
contextual information into the retrieval and ranking process.
o Adaptation mechanisms may include relevance feedback, collaborative filtering,
content-based filtering, machine learning, and personalization algorithms.
 o These mechanisms analyze contextual features and use them to adjust the ranking
of search results, re-rank search results based on user feedback, and recommend
relevant content to users.

Overall, the Contextual IR Framework provides a holistic approach to information retrieval by

considering not only the textual relevance of documents but also the broader context in which
search queries are made. By incorporating user, task, and situational context into the retrieval
process, contextual IR systems can deliver more personalized, relevant, and useful search results
tailored to the individual needs and preferences of users.