University of Lucknow, Lucknow - 226021 What is SQL?

• SQL stands
for Structured Query Language. It is used for storing and managing
data in Relational Database Management System (RDBMS). • It is a
standard language for Relational DatabaseSystem. It enables a user to
create, read, updateand delete relational databases and tables. • All
the RDBMS like MySQL, Informix, Oracle, MSAccess and SQL Server use
SQL as their standarddatabase language. • SQL allows users to query
the database in a number of ways, using English-like statements. •
SQL stands for Structured Query Language. It is used for storing and
managing data in Relational Database Management System (RDBMS). • It
is a standard language for Relational DatabaseSystem. It enables a
user to create, read, updateand delete relational databases and
tables. • All the RDBMS like MySQL, Informix, Oracle, MSAccess and
SQL Server use SQL as their standarddatabase language. • SQL allows
users to query the database in a number of ways, using English-like
statements. What are the SQL? SQL follows the following rules: •
Structure query language is not case sensitive. Generally, keywords
of SQL are written in uppercase. • Statements of SQL are dependent on
text lines. We can use a single SQL statement on one or multiple text
line. • Using the SQL statements, you can perform most of the actions
in a database. • SQL depends on tuple relational calculus and
relational algebra. SQL follows the following rules: • Structure
query language is not case sensitive. Generally, keywords of SQL are
written in uppercase. • Statements of SQL are dependent on text lines.
We can use a single SQL statement on one or multiple text line. •
Using the SQL statements, you can perform most of the actions in a
database. • SQL depends on tuple relational calculus and relational
algebra. What is SQL Process? • When an SQL command is executing for
any RDBMS, then the system figure out the best way to carry out the
request and the SQL engine determines that howto interpret the task.
• In the process, various components are included. These components
can be optimization Engine, Queryengine, Query dispatcher, classic,
etc. • All the non-SQL queries are handled by the classic query
engine, but SQL query engine won't handle logical files. • When an
SQL command is executing for any RDBMS, then the system figure out
the best way to carry out the request and the SQL engine determines
that howto interpret the task. • In the process, various components
are included. These components can be optimization Engine,
Queryengine, Query dispatcher, classic, etc. • All the non-SQL
queries are handled by the classic query engine, but SQL query engine
won't handle logical files. What is SQL Process? What is Advantages
of SQL? • High speed • No coding needed • Well defined standards •
Portability • Interactive language • Multiple data view • High speed
• No coding needed • Well defined standards • Portability •
Interactive language • Multiple data view What is SQL Datatype? • SQL
Datatype is used to define the values that a column can contain. •
Every column is required to have a name and datatype in the database
table. SQL Commands • SQL commands are instructions. It is used
tocommunicate with the database. It is also usedtoperform specific
tasks, functions, and queries of data. • SQL can perform various
tasks like create a table, adddata to tables, drop the table, modify
the table, setpermission for users. • SQL commands are instructions.
It is used tocommunicate with the database. It is also usedtoperform
specific tasks, functions, and queries of data. • SQL can perform
various tasks like create a table, adddata to tables, drop the table,
modify the table, setpermission for users. Types of SQL Commands •
There are five types of SQL commands: DDL, DML, DCL, TCL, and DQL.
Data Definition Language (DDL) • DDL changes the structure of the
table like creating atable, deleting a table, altering a table, etc.
• All the command of DDL are auto-committed that means it permanently
save all the changes in the database. • Here are some commands that
come under DDL: CREATE ALTER DROP TRUNCATE • DDL changes
the structure of the table like creating atable, deleting a table,
altering a table, etc. • All the command of DDL are auto-committed
that means it permanently save all the changes in the database. •
Here are some commands that come under DDL: CREATE ALTER
DROP TRUNCATE Data Definition Language (DDL)- CREATECREATE It is
used to create a new table in the database. Syntax: REATE TABLE
TABLE_NAME (COLUMN_NAME DATATYPES[,....]); Example: CREATE TABLE
EMPLOYEE(Name VARCHAR2(20), Email VARCHAR2(100), DOB DATE); CREATE It
is used to create a new table in the database. Syntax: REATE TABLE
TABLE_NAME (COLUMN_NAME DATATYPES[,....]); Example: CREATE TABLE
EMPLOYEE(Name VARCHAR2(20), Email VARCHAR2(100), DOB DATE); Data
Definition Language (DDL)- DropDrop: It is used to delete both the
structure and recordstored in the table. Syntax: DROP TABLE ; Example:
DROP TABLE EMPLOYEE; Drop: It is used to delete both the structure
and recordstored in the table. Syntax: DROP TABLE ; Example: DROP
TABLE EMPLOYEE; Data Definition Language (DDL)- ALTERALTER: It is
used to alter the structure of the database. This changecould be
either to modify the characteristics of an existing attribute or
probably to add a new attribute. Syntax: ALTER TABLE table_name ADD
column_name COLUMN-definition; ALTER TABLE MODIFY(COLUMN
DEFINITION....); Example: ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS ADD(ADDRESS
VARCHAR2(20)); ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS MODIFY (NAME VARCHAR2(20));
ALTER: It is used to alter the structure of the database. This
changecould be either to modify the characteristics of an existing
attribute or probably to add a new attribute. Syntax: ALTER TABLE
table_name ADD column_name COLUMN-definition; ALTER TABLE
MODIFY(COLUMN DEFINITION....); Example: ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS
ADD(ADDRESS VARCHAR2(20)); ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS MODIFY (NAME
VARCHAR2(20)); Data Definition Language (DDL)- TRUNCATETRUNCATE: It
is used to delete all the rows from the table and freethe space
containing the table. Syntax: TRUNCATE TABLE table_name; Example:
TRUNCATE TABLE EMPLOYEE; TRUNCATE: It is used to delete all the rows
from the table and freethe space containing the table. Syntax:
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name; Example: TRUNCATE TABLE EMPLOYEE; Data
Manipulation Language • DML commands are used to modify the database.
It isresponsible for all form of CHANGES in the database. • The
command of DML is not auto-committed that means it can't permanently
save all the changes in thedatabase. They can be rollback. Here are
some commands that come under DML: INSERT UPDATE DELETE •
DML commands are used to modify the database. It isresponsible for
all form of CHANGES in the database. • The command of DML is not
auto-committed that means it can't permanently save all the changes
in thedatabase. They can be rollback. Here are some commands that
come under DML: INSERT UPDATE DELETE Data Manipulation
Language - INSERTINSERT: The INSERT statement is a SQL query. It is
used to insert data into the row of a table. Syntax: INSERT INTO
TABLE_NAME (col1, col2, col3,.... col N) VALUES (value1, value2,
value3, .... valueN); OR INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME VALUES (value1,
value2, value3, .... valueN); Example: INSERT INTO XYZ (Author,
Subject) VALUES ("Sonoo", "DBMS"); INSERT: The INSERT statement is a
SQL query. It is used to insert data into the row of a table. Syntax:
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME (col1, col2, col3,.... col N) VALUES (value1,
value2, value3, .... valueN); OR INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME VALUES
(value1, value2, value3, .... valueN); Example: INSERT INTO XYZ
(Author, Subject) VALUES ("Sonoo", "DBMS"); Data Manipulation
Language - UPDATEUpdate: This command is used to update or modify the
value of acolumn in the table. Syntax: UPDATE table_name SET
[column_name1= value1,...column_nameN = valueN] [WHERE CONDITION]
Example: UPDATE students SET User_Name = 'Sonoo' WHERE Student_Id =
'3' Update: This command is used to update or modify the value of
acolumn in the table. Syntax: UPDATE table_name SET [column_name1=
value1,...column_nameN = valueN] [WHERE CONDITION] Example: UPDATE
students SET User_Name = 'Sonoo' WHERE Student_Id = '3' Data Control
Language DCL commands are used to GRANT and TAKE BACK authority from
any database user. Here are some commands that come under DCL:
Grant Revoke DCL commands are used to GRANT and TAKE BACK
authority from any database user. Here are some commands that come
under DCL: Grant Revoke Data Control Language - Grant GRANT: It
is used to give user access privileges to a database. Example: GRANT
SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE TO SOME_USER, ANOTHER_USER; REVOKE: It is
used to take back permissions from the user. Example: REVOKE SELECT,
UPDATE ON MY_TABLE FROM USER1, USER2; GRANT: It is used to give user
access privileges to a database. Example: GRANT SELECT, UPDATE ON
MY_TABLE TO SOME_USER, ANOTHER_USER; REVOKE: It is used to take back
permissions from the user. Example: REVOKE SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE
FROM USER1, USER2; Transaction Control Language TCL commands can only
use with DML commands like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE only. These
operations are automatically committed in the database that's why
they cannot be used while creatingtables or dropping them. Here are
some commands that come under TCL: COMMIT ROLLBACK SAVEPOINT
TCL commands can only use with DML commands like INSERT, DELETE and
UPDATE only. These operations are automatically committed in the
database that's why they cannot be used while creatingtables or
dropping them. Here are some commands that come under TCL: COMMIT
ROLLBACK SAVEPOINT Transaction Control Language - COMMITCommit:
Commit command is used to save all the transactions tothe database.
Syntex: COMMIT; Example: DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE AGE = 25; COMMIT;
Commit: Commit command is used to save all the transactions tothe
database. Syntex: COMMIT; Example: DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE AGE =
25; COMMIT; Transaction Control Language - RollbackRollback: Rollback
command is used to undo transactions that have not already been saved
to the database. Syntex: ROLLBACK; Example: DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE AGE = 25; ROLLBACK; SAVEPOINT: It is used to roll
thetransaction back to a certain point without rolling back the
entire transaction. Syntex: SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT_NAME; Rollback:
Rollback command is used to undo transactions that have not already
been saved to the database. Syntex: ROLLBACK; Example: DELETE FROM
CUSTOMERS WHERE AGE = 25; ROLLBACK; SAVEPOINT: It is used to roll
thetransaction back to a certain point without rolling back the
entire transaction. Syntex: SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT_NAME; Data Query
Language DQL is used to fetch the data from the database. It uses
only one command: SELECT a. SELECT: This is the same as the
projection operation of relational algebra. It is used to select the
attribute based on the condition described by WHERE clause. Syntax:
SELECT expressions FROM TABLES WHERE conditions; Example: SELECT
emp_name FROM employee WHERE age > 20; DQL is used to fetch the data
from the database. It uses only one command: SELECT a. SELECT: This
is the same as the projection operation of relational algebra. It is
used to select the attribute based on the condition described by
WHERE clause. Syntax: SELECT expressions FROM TABLES WHERE conditions;
Example: SELECT emp_name FROM employee WHERE age > 20; SQL Operator
SQL Comparison Operators: Operator Description + It adds the value of
both operands. - It is used to subtract the right-hand operand from
the left-hand - operand. It is used to subtract the right-hand
operand from the left-hand operand. * It is used to multiply the
value of both operands. / It is used to divide the left-hand operand
by the right-hand operand. % It is used to divide the left-hand
operand by the right-hand operand and returns reminder. SQL
Arithmetic Operators Operator Description = It checks if two operands
values are equal or not, if the values are queal then condition
becomes true. != It checks if two operands values are equal or not,
if values are not equal, then condition becomes true. <> It checks if
two operands values are equal or not, if values are not equal then
condition becomes true. > It checks if the left operand value is
greater than right operand value, if yes then condition becomes true.
< It checks if the left operand value is less than right operand
value, if yes then condition becomes true. >= It checks if the left
operand value is greater than or equal to the right operand value, if
yes then condition becomes true. SQL Arithmetic Operators Operator
Description <= It checks if the left operand value is less than or
equal to the right operand value, if yes then condition becomes
true. !< It checks if the left operand value is not less than the
right operand value, if yes then condition becomes true. !> It checks
if the left operand value is not greater than the right operand value,
if yes then condition becomes true. SQL Logical Operators Operator
Description All It compares a value to all values in another value
set. AND It allows the existence of multiple conditions in an SQL
statement. ANY It compares the values in the list according to the
condition. Between It is used to search for values that are within a
set of values. IN It compares a value to that specified list value.
NOT It reverses the meaning of any logical operator. OR It combines
multiple conditions in SQL statements. EXIST It is used to search for
the presence of a row in a specified table. LIKE It compares a value
to similar values using wildcard operator. Example: SQL> CREATE TABLE
EMPLOYEE ( EMP_ID INT NOT NULL, EMP_NAME VARCHAR (25) NOT NULL,
PHONE_NO INT NOT NULL, ADDRESS CHAR (30), PRIMARY KEY (ID) );• DESC
EMPLOYEE; • DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition • DROP TABLE
"table_name"; • SELECT * FROM table_name; • INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME
VALUES (value1, value2, value 3, .... Value N); • INSERT INTO
TABLE_NAME[(col1, col2, col3,.... col N)] VALUES (value1, value2,
value 3, .... Value N); • UPDATE table_name SET column_name = value
WHERE condition; SQL> CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE ( EMP_ID INT NOT NULL,
EMP_NAME VARCHAR (25) NOT NULL, PHONE_NO INT NOT NULL, ADDRESS CHAR
(30), PRIMARY KEY (ID) );• DESC EMPLOYEE; • DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE condition • DROP TABLE "table_name"; • SELECT * FROM table_name;
• INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME VALUES (value1, value2, value 3, .... Value
N); • INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME[(col1, col2, col3,.... col N)] VALUES
(value1, value2, value 3, .... Value N); • UPDATE table_name SET
column_name = value WHERE condition; Example: • UPDATE table_name SET
column_name = value1, column_name2 = value WHERE condition; • DELETE
FROM table_name WHERE some_condition; • UPDATE table_name SET
column_name = value1, column_name2 = value WHERE condition; • DELETE
FROM table_name WHERE some_condition; Views in SQL • Views in SQL are
considered as a virtual table. A viewalso contains rows and columns.
• To create the view, we can select the fields from oneor more tables
present in the database. • A view can either have specific rows based
on certaincondition or all the rows of a table. • Views in SQL are
considered as a virtual table. A viewalso contains rows and columns.
• To create the view, we can select the fields from oneor more tables
present in the database. • A view can either have specific rows based
on certaincondition or all the rows of a table. Creating view A view
can be created using the CREATE VIEW statement. We cancreate a view
from a single table or multiple tables. Syntax CREATE VIEW view_name
AS SELECT column1, column2..... FROM table_name WHERE condition;
Creating View from a single table CREATE VIEW DetailsView AS SELECT
NAME, ADDRESS FROM Student_Details WHERE STU_ID < 4; A view can be
created using the CREATE VIEW statement. We cancreate a view from a
single table or multiple tables. Syntax CREATE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column1, column2..... FROM table_name WHERE condition;
Creating View from a single table CREATE VIEW DetailsView AS SELECT
NAME, ADDRESS FROM Student_Details WHERE STU_ID < 4; Creating View
from multiple tables View from multiple tables can be created by
simply include multiple tables in the SELECT statement. In the given
example, a view is created named MarksView fromtwo tables
Student_Detail and Student_Marks. CREATE VIEW MarksView AS SELECT
Student_Detail.NAME, Student_Detail.ADDRESS, Student_Marks.MARKS FROM
Student_Detail, Student_Mark WHERE Student_Detail.NAME =
Student_Marks.NAME; SELECT * FROM MarksView; DROP VIEW view_name;
View from multiple tables can be created by simply include multiple
tables in the SELECT statement. In the given example, a view is
created named MarksView fromtwo tables Student_Detail and
Student_Marks. CREATE VIEW MarksView AS SELECT Student_Detail.NAME,
Student_Detail.ADDRESS, Student_Marks.MARKS FROM Student_Detail,
Student_Mark WHERE Student_Detail.NAME = Student_Marks.NAME; SELECT *
FROM MarksView; DROP VIEW view_name; SQL Index • Indexes are special
lookup tables. It is used to retrieve datafrom the database very fast.
• An Index is used to speed up select queries and where clauses. But
it shows down the data input with insert and updatestatements.
Indexes can be created or dropped without affecting the data. • An
index in a database is just like an index in the back of abook.
Create Index statement CREATE INDEX index_name ON table_name (column1,
column2, ...); • Indexes are special lookup tables. It is used to
retrieve datafrom the database very fast. • An Index is used to speed
up select queries and where clauses. But it shows down the data input
with insert and updatestatements. Indexes can be created or dropped
without affecting the data. • An index in a database is just like an
index in the back of abook. Create Index statement CREATE INDEX
index_name ON table_name (column1, column2, ...); Unique Index
statement Syntax CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name ON table_name
(column1, column2, ...); Example CREATE UNIQUE INDEX websites_idx ON
websites (site_name); Drop Index Statement Syntax DROP INDEX
index_name; Example DROP INDEX websites_idx; Syntax CREATE UNIQUE
INDEX index_name ON table_name (column1, column2, ...); Example
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX websites_idx ON websites (site_name); Drop Index
Statement Syntax DROP INDEX index_name; Example DROP INDEX
websites_idx; SQL Sub Query A Subquery is a query within another SQL
query and embedded within the WHERE clause. Important Rule: • A
subquery can be placed in a number of SQL clauses like WHERE clause,
FROM clause, HAVING clause. • You can use Subquery with SELECT,
UPDATE, INSERT, DELETE statements along with the operators like =,
<, >, >=, <=, IN, BETWEEN, etc. • A subquery is a query within
another query. The outer query is known as the main query, and the
inner query is known as a subquery. • Subqueries are on the right
side of the comparison operator. • A subquery is enclosed in
parentheses. • In the Subquery, ORDER BY command cannot be used. But
GROUP BY command can be used to perform the same function as ORDER BY
command. A Subquery is a query within another SQL query and embedded
within the WHERE clause. Important Rule: • A subquery can be placed
in a number of SQL clauses like WHERE clause, FROM clause, HAVING
clause. • You can use Subquery with SELECT, UPDATE, INSERT, DELETE
statements along with the operators like =, <, >, >=, <=, IN, BETWEEN,
etc. • A subquery is a query within another query. The outer query is
known as the main query, and the inner query is known as a subquery.
• Subqueries are on the right side of the comparison operator. • A
subquery is enclosed in parentheses. • In the Subquery, ORDER BY
command cannot be used. But GROUP BY command can be used to perform
the same function as ORDER BY command. Subqueries with the Select
Statement SQL subqueries are most frequently used with the Select
statement. Syntax: SELECT column_name FROM table_name WHERE
column_name expression operator ( SELECT column_name from table_name
WHERE ... ); Example: SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE ID IN (SELECT ID
FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE SALARY > 4500); SQL subqueries are most
frequently used with the Select statement. Syntax: SELECT column_name
FROM table_name WHERE column_name expression operator ( SELECT
column_name from table_name WHERE ... ); Example: SELECT * FROM
EMPLOYEE WHERE ID IN (SELECT ID FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE SALARY > 4500);
Subqueries with the INSERT Statement• SQL subquery can also be used
with the Insert statement. In the insert statement, data returned
from the subquery is used to insert into another table. • In the
subquery, the selected data can be modified with any of the character,
date functions. Syntax: INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2,
column3....) SELECT * FROM table_name WHERE VALUE OPERATOR Example:
INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE_BKP SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE ID IN (SELECT
ID FROM EMPLOYEE); • SQL subquery can also be used with the Insert
statement. In the insert statement, data returned from the subquery
is used to insert into another table. • In the subquery, the selected
data can be modified with any of the character, date functions.
Syntax: INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3....) SELECT
* FROM table_name WHERE VALUE OPERATOR Example: INSERT INTO
EMPLOYEE_BKP SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE ID IN (SELECT ID FROM
EMPLOYEE); Subqueries with the UPDATE StatementThe subquery of SQL
can be used in conjunction with the Update statement. When a subquery
is used with the Update statement, then either single or multiple
columns in a table can be updated. Syntax: UPDATE table SET
column_name = new_value WHERE VALUE OPERATOR(SELECT COLUMN_NAME FROM
TABLE_NAME WHERE condition); Example: Let's assume we have an
EMPLOYEE_BKP table available which is backup of EMPLOYEE table. The
given example updates the SALARY by .25 times in the EMPLOYEE table
for all employee whose AGE is greater than or equal to 29. UPDATE
EMPLOYEE SET SALARY = SALARY * 0.25 WHERE AGE IN (SELECT AGE FROM
CUSTOMERS_BKP WHERE AGE >= 29); The subquery of SQL can be used in
conjunction with the Update statement. When a subquery is used with
the Update statement, then either single or multiple columns in a
table can be updated. Syntax: UPDATE table SET column_name =
new_value WHERE VALUE OPERATOR(SELECT COLUMN_NAME FROM TABLE_NAME
WHERE condition); Example: Let's assume we have an EMPLOYEE_BKP table
available which is backup of EMPLOYEE table. The given example
updates the SALARY by .25 times in the EMPLOYEE table for all
employee whose AGE is greater than or equal to 29. UPDATE EMPLOYEE
SET SALARY = SALARY * 0.25 WHERE AGE IN (SELECT AGE FROM
CUSTOMERS_BKP WHERE AGE >= 29); Subqueries with the DELETE
StatementThe subquery of SQL can be used in conjunction with the
Delete statement just like any other statements mentioned above.
Syntax: DELETE FROM TABLE_NAME WHERE VALUE OPERATOR (SELECT
COLUMN_NAME FROM TABLE_NAME WHERE condition); Example: Let's assume
we have an EMPLOYEE_BKP table available which is backup of EMPLOYEE
table. The given example deletes the records from the EMPLOYEE table
for all EMPLOYEE whose AGE is greater than or equal to 29. DELETE
FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE AGE IN (SELECT AGE FROM EMPLOYEE_BKP WHERE AGE >=
29 ); The subquery of SQL can be used in conjunction with the Delete
statement just like any other statements mentioned above. Syntax:
DELETE FROM TABLE_NAME WHERE VALUE OPERATOR (SELECT COLUMN_NAME FROM
TABLE_NAME WHERE condition); Example: Let's assume we have an
EMPLOYEE_BKP table available which is backup of EMPLOYEE table. The
given example deletes the records from the EMPLOYEE table for all
EMPLOYEE whose AGE is greater than or equal to 29. DELETE FROM
EMPLOYEE WHERE AGE IN (SELECT AGE FROM EMPLOYEE_BKP WHERE AGE >= 29 );
SQL Clauses GROUP BY • SQL GROUP BY statement is used to arrange
identical data intogroups. • The GROUP BY statement is used with the
SQL SELECT statement. • The GROUP BY statement follows the WHERE
clause in a SELECT statement and precedes the ORDER BY clause. • The
GROUP BY statement is used with aggregation function. • SQL GROUP BY
statement is used to arrange identical data intogroups. • The GROUP
BY statement is used with the SQL SELECT statement. • The GROUP BY
statement follows the WHERE clause in a SELECT statement and precedes
the ORDER BY clause. • The GROUP BY statement is used with
aggregation function. Syntax SELECT column FROM table_name WHERE
conditions GROUP BY column ORDER BY column Example SELECT COMPANY,
COUNT(*) FROM PRODUCT_MAST GROUP BY COMPANY; HAVING • HAVING clause
is used to specify a search condition for a groupor an aggregate. •
Having is used in a GROUP BY clause. If you are not using GROUP BY
clause then you can use HAVING function like a WHERE clause Syntax
SELECT column1, column2 FRO M table_name WHERE conditions GROUP BY
column1, column2 HAVING conditions ORDER BY column1, column2; Example
SELECT COMPANY, COUNT(*) FROM PRODUCT_MAST GROUP BY COMPANY HAVING
COUNT(*)>2; Syntax SELECT column1, column2 FRO M table_name WHERE
conditions GROUP BY column1, column2 HAVING conditions ORDER BY
column1, column2; Example SELECT COMPANY, COUNT(*) FROM PRODUCT_MAST
GROUP BY COMPANY HAVING COUNT(*)>2; ORDER BY • The ORDER BY clause
sorts the result-set in ascending or descending order. • It sorts the
records in ascending order by default. DESC keyword is used to sort
the records in descending order. Syntax SELECT column1, column2 FROM
table_name WHERE condition ORDER BY column1, column2... AS C|DESC;
Example SELECT * FROM CUSTOMER ORDER BY NAME; OR SELECT * FROM
CUSTOMER ORDER BY NAME DESC; Syntax SELECT column1, column2 FROM
table_name WHERE condition ORDER BY column1, column2... AS C|DESC;
Example SELECT * FROM CUSTOMER ORDER BY NAME; OR SELECT * FROM
CUSTOMER ORDER BY NAME DESC; SQL Aggregate Functions COUNT FUNCTION •
COUNT function is used to Count the number of rows in a database
table. It can work on both numeric and non-numeric data types. •
COUNT function uses the COUNT(*) that returns the count of all
therows in a specified table. COUNT(*) considers duplicate and Null.
Syntax COUNT(*) or COUNT( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression ) Example
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM PRODUCT_MAST; SELECT COUNT(*) FROM
PRODUCT_MAST; WHERE RATE>=20; SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT COMPANY) FROM
PRODUCT_MAST; SELECT COMPANY, COUNT(*) FROM PRODUCT_MAST GROUP BY
COMPANY; SELECT COMPANY, COUNT(*) FROM PRODUCT_MAST GROUP BY
COMPANYHAVING COUNT(*)>2; • COUNT function is used to Count the
number of rows in a database table. It can work on both numeric and
non-numeric data types. • COUNT function uses the COUNT(*) that
returns the count of all therows in a specified table. COUNT(*)
considers duplicate and Null. Syntax COUNT(*) or COUNT( [ALL|DISTINCT]
expression ) Example SELECT COUNT(*) FROM PRODUCT_MAST; SELECT
COUNT(*) FROM PRODUCT_MAST; WHERE RATE>=20; SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT
COMPANY) FROM PRODUCT_MAST; SELECT COMPANY, COUNT(*) FROM
PRODUCT_MAST GROUP BY COMPANY; SELECT COMPANY, COUNT(*) FROM
PRODUCT_MAST GROUP BY COMPANYHAVING COUNT(*)>2; SUM FUNCTION • Sum
function is used to calculate the sum of all selected columns. It
works on numeric fields only. Syntax SUM() or SUM( [ALL|DISTINCT]
expression ) Example SELECT SUM(COST) FROM PRODUCT_MAST; SUM() with
WHERE SELECT SUM(COST) FROM PRODUCT_MAST WHERE QTY>3; SUM() with
GROUP BY SELECT SUM(COST) FROM PRODUCT_MAST WHERE QTY>3 GROUP BY
COMPANY; SUM() with HAVING SELECT COMPANY, SUM(COST) FROM
PRODUCT_MAST GROUP BY COMPANY HAVING SUM(COST)>=170; • Sum function
is used to calculate the sum of all selected columns. It works on
numeric fields only. Syntax SUM() or SUM( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )
Example SELECT SUM(COST) FROM PRODUCT_MAST; SUM() with WHERE SELECT
SUM(COST) FROM PRODUCT_MAST WHERE QTY>3; SUM() with GROUP BY SELECT
SUM(COST) FROM PRODUCT_MAST WHERE QTY>3 GROUP BY COMPANY; SUM() with
HAVING SELECT COMPANY, SUM(COST) FROM PRODUCT_MAST GROUP BY COMPANY
HAVING SUM(COST)>=170; AVG FUNCTION • The AVG function is used to
calculate the average value of thenumeric type. AVG function returns
the average of all non-Null values. Syntax AVG() or
AVG( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression ) Example SELECT AVG(COST) FROM
PRODUCT_MAST; • The AVG function is used to calculate the average
value of thenumeric type. AVG function returns the average of all
non-Null values. Syntax AVG() or AVG( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )
Example SELECT AVG(COST) FROM PRODUCT_MAST; MAX FUNCTION • MAX
function is used to find the maximum value of a certain column. This
function determines the largest value of all selected values of a
column. Syntax MAX() or MAX( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression ) Example
SELECT MAX(RATE) FROM PRODUCT_MAST; MIN FUNCTION • MIN function is
used to find the minimum value of a certain column. This function
determines the smallest value of all selected values of a column
Syntax MIN() or MIN( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression ) Example SELECT
MIN(RATE) FROM PRODUCT_MAST; • MAX function is used to find the
maximum value of a certain column. This function determines the
largest value of all selected values of a column. Syntax MAX() or
MAX( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression ) Example SELECT MAX(RATE) FROM
PRODUCT_MAST; MIN FUNCTION • MIN function is used to find the minimum
value of a certain column. This function determines the smallest
value of all selected values of a column Syntax MIN() or
MIN( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression ) Example SELECT MIN(RATE) FROM
PRODUCT_MAST; SQL JOIN SQL, JOIN means "to combine two or more
tables". In SQL, JOIN clause is used tocombine the records from two
or more tables in a database. Types of SQL JOIN INNER JOIN LEFT
JOIN RIGHT JOIN FULL JOIN SQL, JOIN means "to combine two or
more tables". In SQL, JOIN clause is used tocombine the records from
two or more tables in a database. Types of SQL JOIN INNER JOIN
LEFT JOIN RIGHT JOIN FULL JOIN INNER JOIN In SQL, INNER JOIN
selects records that have matching values in both tables as long as
the condition is satisfied. It returns the combination of all rows
from boththe tables where the condition satisfies. Syntax SELECT
table1.column1, table1.column2, table2.column1,.... FROM table1 INNER
JOIN table2 ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;
Example SELECT EMPLOYEE.EMP_NAME, PROJECT.DEPARTMENT FROM EMPLOYEE
INNER JOIN PROJECT ON PROJECT.EMP_ID = EMPLOYEE.EMP_ID; In SQL, INNER
JOIN selects records that have matching values in both tables as long
as the condition is satisfied. It returns the combination of all rows
from boththe tables where the condition satisfies. Syntax SELECT
table1.column1, table1.column2, table2.column1,.... FROM table1 INNER
JOIN table2 ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;
Example SELECT EMPLOYEE.EMP_NAME, PROJECT.DEPARTMENT FROM EMPLOYEE
INNER JOIN PROJECT ON PROJECT.EMP_ID = EMPLOYEE.EMP_ID; LEFT JOIN The
SQL left join returns all the values from left table and the matching
values from the right table. If there is no matching join value, it
will return NULL. Syntax SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2,
table2.column1,.... FROM table1 LEFT JOIN table2 ON
table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column; Example SELECT
EMPLOYEE.EMP_NAME, PROJECT.DEPARTMENT FROM EMPLOYEE LEFT JOIN PROJECT
ON PROJECT.EMP_ID = EMPLOYEE.EMP_ID; The SQL left join returns all
the values from left table and the matching values from the right
table. If there is no matching join value, it will return NULL.
Syntax SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2, table2.column1,....
FROM table1 LEFT JOIN table2 ON table1.matching_column =
table2.matching_column; Example SELECT EMPLOYEE.EMP_NAME,
PROJECT.DEPARTMENT FROM EMPLOYEE LEFT JOIN PROJECT ON PROJECT.EMP_ID
= EMPLOYEE.EMP_ID; RIGHT JOIN In SQL, RIGHT JOIN returns all the
values from the values from the rows of right table and the matched
values from the left table. If there is no matching in bothtables, it
will return NULL. Syntax SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2,
table2.column1,.... FROM table1 RIGHT JOIN table2 ON
table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column; Example SELECT
EMPLOYEE.EMP_NAME, PROJECT.DEPARTMENT FROM EMPLOYEE RIGHT JOIN
PROJECT ON PROJECT.EMP_ID = EMPLOYEE.EMP_ID; In SQL, RIGHT JOIN
returns all the values from the values from the rows of right table
and the matched values from the left table. If there is no matching
in bothtables, it will return NULL. Syntax SELECT table1.column1,
table1.column2, table2.column1,.... FROM table1 RIGHT JOIN table2 ON
table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column; Example SELECT
EMPLOYEE.EMP_NAME, PROJECT.DEPARTMENT FROM EMPLOYEE RIGHT JOIN
PROJECT ON PROJECT.EMP_ID = EMPLOYEE.EMP_ID; FULL JOIN In SQL, FULL
JOIN is the result of a combination of both left and right outer join.
Join tables have all the records from both tables. It puts NULL on
the place of matches not found. Syntax SELECT table1.column1,
table1.column2, table2.column1,.... FROM table1 FULL JOIN table2 ON
table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column; Example SELECT
EMPLOYEE.EMP_NAME, PROJECT.DEPARTMENT FROM EMPLOYEE FULL JOIN PROJECT
ON PROJECT.EMP_ID = EMPLOYEE.EMP_ID; In SQL, FULL JOIN is the result
of a combination of both left and right outer join. Join tables have
all the records from both tables. It puts NULL on the place of
matches not found. Syntax SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2,
table2.column1,.... FROM table1 FULL JOIN table2 ON
table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column; Example SELECT
EMPLOYEE.EMP_NAME, PROJECT.DEPARTMENT FROM EMPLOYEE FULL JOIN PROJECT
ON PROJECT.EMP_ID = EMPLOYEE.EMP_ID; SQL Set Operation The SQL Set
operation is used to combine the two or more SQL SELECT statements
Types of Set Operation Union UnionAll Intersect Minus The SQL Set
operation is used to combine the two or more SQL SELECT statements
Types of Set Operation Union UnionAll Intersect Minus Union Operation
• The SQL Union operation is used to combine the result of two or
more SQL SELECT queries. • In the union operation, all the number of
datatype and columns must be same in both the tables on which UNION
operation is being applied. • The union operation eliminates the
duplicate rows from its resultset. Syntax SELECT column_name FROM
table1 UNION SELECT column_name FROM table2; Example SELECT * FROM
First UNION SELECT * FROM Second; • The SQL Union operation is used
to combine the result of two or more SQL SELECT queries. • In the
union operation, all the number of datatype and columns must be same
in both the tables on which UNION operation is being applied. • The
union operation eliminates the duplicate rows from its resultset.
Syntax SELECT column_name FROM table1 UNION SELECT column_name FROM
table2; Example SELECT * FROM First UNION SELECT * FROM Second;
Intersect Operation • It is used to combine two SELECT statements.
The Intersect operation returnsthe common rows from both the SELECT
statements. • In the Intersect operation, the number of datatype and
columns must be thesame. • It has no duplicates and it arranges the
data in ascending order by default. Syntax SELECT column_name FROM
table1 INTERSECT SELECT column_name FROM table2; Example SELECT *
FROM First INTERSECT SELECT * FROM Second; • It is used to combine
two SELECT statements. The Intersect operation returnsthe common rows
from both the SELECT statements. • In the Intersect operation, the
number of datatype and columns must be thesame. • It has no
duplicates and it arranges the data in ascending order by default.
Syntax SELECT column_name FROM table1 INTERSECT SELECT column_name
FROM table2; Example SELECT * FROM First INTERSECT SELECT * FROM
Second; MINUSOperation • It combines the result of two SELECT
statements. Minus operator is used todisplay the rows which are
present in the first query but absent in the secondquery. • It has no
duplicates and data arranged in ascending order by default. Syntax
SELECT column_name FROM table1 MINUS SELECT column_name FROM table2;
Example SELECT * FROM First MINUS SELECT * FROM Second; • It combines
the result of two SELECT statements. Minus operator is used todisplay
the rows which are present in the first query but absent in the
secondquery. • It has no duplicates and data arranged in ascending
order by default. Syntax SELECT column_name FROM table1 MINUS SELECT
column_name FROM table2; Example SELECT * FROM First MINUS SELECT *
FROM Second;