Geological Hazards: Landslides and Sinkholes - Sinkholes form as water erodes the

underground bedrock, creating voids that

Landslides eventually collapse
- Landslides are ground movements on a sloping Types of Sinkholes:
terrain caused by gravity
Cover Collapse Sinkhole
- Landslides are aggravated by rain, as water is a
natural agent of erosion that can loosen and - Develops suddenly, causing catastrophic
saturate the soil damage

- Areas with steep slopes, dense population, Cover Subsidence Sinkhole

and denuded terrain are highly susceptible to
rainfall-induced landslides - Develops gradually where the sediment cover
is permeable and contains sand
Types of Landslides:
Dissolution Sinkhole
Soil Creep Landslide
- Occurs where limestone or dolomite is
- Very slow downslope movement of particles exposed or thinly covered at the surface
on slopes covered in loose, weathered material
Artificial Sinkhole
Slumping Landslide
- Caused by human activities like groundwater
- Downward movement of rock debris, often pumping and construction
due to removal of supporting earth at the base
of the slope Causes of Landslides

Debris Flow Landslide Landslides can be caused by a variety of natural

and human factors. Understanding the different
- Occurs when a slope becomes saturated, causes is crucial for identifying areas at risk and
triggering a landslide of water-soaked rock and implementing appropriate prevention and
soil mitigation strategies.

Rock Fall Landslide Natural Causes of Landslides:

- Sudden slide of rocks downslope, often caused Climate

by heavy rain loosening the rocks
- Long-term climatic changes can impact soil
Sinkholes stability (e.g., reduction in precipitation leading
to lower water table and soil weight, or
- Sinkholes are topographic depressions formed significant increase in precipitation causing soil
by the collapse of the ground surface layer saturation)
- Sinkholes occur in areas with soft, soluble - Saturation of sloped areas with water can
bedrock like limestone, salt beds, or acidic rocks trigger landslides, especially in the absence of
mechanical root support
Earthquakes - Steeper slopes, combined with gravitational
force, can trigger massive landslides
- Seismic activity causes tectonic plate
movements, which can lead to soil covering on - Steeper slopes can also cause debris to move
steep slopes slipping and causing landslides farther from the foot of the area

Earthquake-induced ashfall and debris flows Human Causes of Landslides:

can also trigger mass soil movement
Mining
Weathering
- Blasting techniques used in mining can weaken
- Natural deterioration of rocks through soils in areas susceptible to landslides,
chemical, physical, and biological processes increasing the risk
weakens landslide-susceptible materials
- Earthwork and changes to slope shape can
- When rocks become weak enough, they can also impose new loads on existing slopes
slip away, causing landslides
Clear Cutting
Erosion
- Removing all old trees from an area decimates
- Sporadic running water, wind, currents, ice, the existing mechanical root structure, changing
and waves can erode slope support, enabling the amount of water infiltrating the soil
landslides to occur more easily
Rainfall-Induced Landslides
Volcanic Eruptions
- The most common and widespread damaging
- In wet conditions, volcanic eruptions can cause landslides in the Philippines, often triggered by
soil to move downhill, triggering landslides prolonged or heavy rainfall

- Volcanic gases dissolving in groundwater can - Soil conditions, in addition to precipitation, are
weaken rock by altering minerals to clay, critical factors in the occurrence of rainfall-
contributing to landslide risk induced landslides

Forest Fires - Factors like accumulated rainfall volume,

length and severity, and slope of the terrain
- Burning vegetation that holds soil in place have the greatest effect on slope stability and
increases the risk of landslides, as it takes time landslide/debris occurrence
for vegetation to re-establish on steep slopes
Types of Landslides:
- Wildfire removes the protective ability of
vegetation, increasing runoff, erosion, and 1. Soil Creep Landslide: Very slow downslope
debris flow movement of particles in weathered material

- Burrowing insects that seek cooler soil during 2. Slumping Landslide: Downward movement
a wildfire can also destabilize the soil of rock debris, often due to removal of
buttressing earth at the foot of a slope
Gravity
3. Debris Flow Landslide: Occurs when a slope 3. Dissolution Sinkhole: Occur in areas where
becomes saturated with water, triggering a limestone or dolomite is exposed or thinly
landslide of water-soaked mass of rock and soil covered, with aggressive dissolution happening
where water first contacts the rock surface
4. Rock Fall Landslide: Sudden slides caused by
heavy rain loosening rock on a slope 4. Artificial Sinkhole: Caused by human
activities like mining, drilling, changes in weight,
Causes of Sinkholes or increased water flow
Sinkholes can also be caused by both natural Signs of Impending Geologic Hazards
and human factors, leading to the formation of
depressions or holes in the ground. Landslides and sinkholes are two of the most
common geologic hazards. Being aware of the
Natural Causes of Sinkholes: signs of these impending hazards can help
Dissolution of Sedimentary Rocks people recognize when it's time to take action
and prepare for potential dangers.
- Sinkholes occur when sedimentary rocks, such
as limestone or dolomite, are dissolved, Warning Signs of an Impending Landslide:
creating voids filled with air or water Indicators of Previous Landslides
Human Causes of Sinkholes: - Multiple landslide events in the same place
Underground Water Pumping can be retrogressive, piecemeal, or reactivated

- Pumping water from underground can alter - Reactivated landslides occur when an old,
the flow of water, causing soil erosion and the semi-stable landslide changes, causing a new
formation of voids collapse in the same place

- Broken pipes underground can also lead to - Inspecting an area of an old landslide for
internal erosion and void formation scarps and deposits is a clear indicator that a
landslide will reactivate, showing the fragile and
- Changing drainage systems can divert water to vulnerable underlying geology
areas with soluble rock, leading to erosion and
sinkhole development Tension Cracks

Types of Sinkholes: - Caused by the stress and friction of geological

materials moving apart, forming steep cracks in
1. Cover Collapse Sinkhole: Develop abruptly the terrain
and cause catastrophic damage, occurring
where covering sediments contain significant - Tension cracks above an existing landslide can
clay hint at a future reactivation, and are located on
higher elevated ground
2. Cover Subsidence Sinkhole: Develop
gradually where covering sediments are - Cracks found on flat terrain are caused by fault
permeable and contain sand, are smaller and movement, not landslides
may go undetected
Movement of Objects - Dead patches of grass or plants

- Deformation and movement of non-living Other Indicators

objects not caused by humans can indicate a
landslide, such as trees bending into a J-curve as - Sinkholes appearing in the neighborhood
the ground slips out from underneath - Wilted vegetation in a limited area
- A patch of angled or "crooked" forest on a - Discolored or debris-contaminated well water
slope can be a sign of unstable ground
- Earthly odor in the home after rain
- Slow landslide indicators include movement of
floor tiles, deformation of door frames, and - New or widening cracks, separation between
broken utility lines walls/ceilings/floors, cracked grout/tiles,
uneven floors, doors/windows not
- Creaking and cracking sounds can also be opening/closing easily
warning signs
It's important to note that the presence of one
Changes in Water Flow or more of these signs does not necessarily
- Obvious changes in water flow, such as mean a landslide or sinkhole will immediately
springs, seeps, or wet ground appearing on dry occur. However, they should be viewed as
terrain, or unexpected withdrawal of water, can warnings that something is wrong and further
indicate altered pressure within the slopes investigation or action may be necessary to
prevent potential disaster.
- Low water levels can precede the arrival of a
debris flow, which is a very wet, mobile Geological Maps
landslide loaded with debris Definition and Purpose
Warning Signs of an Impending Sinkhole: - Geological maps are a complete compilation of
Structural Deformation information about the solid Earth we live on

- Trees or fence posts tilting or falling - They show the different types of rocks or
structures that are on the surface of the Earth,
- Foundations that slant with geological features, rock units, or geologic
strata shown by color or symbols to indicate
- Cracks in the ground where they are exposed at the surface
- Cracking or buckling of a home's concrete slab - Geological maps are uniquely suited to solving
Changes in the Landscape problems involving Earth resources, hazards,
and environments
- New small ponds appearing after rain
Key Features of Geological Maps
- Sudden drainage of a pond
- Faults
- Dips, depressions, or slopes appearing in a
yard - Tilts
- Folds Importance of Geological Maps

- Rock layers - Provide critical information for disaster

preparedness and risk reduction, especially for
Parts of a Geological Map rainfall-induced landslides and sinkholes
Legend - Explains the meaning of the colors, - Help identify areas prone to geological hazards
patterns, and symbols used on the map so appropriate mitigation measures can be
Interpretation - Provides information on the taken
geological features and structures shown - Assist in the exploration and management of
Title - Identifies the specific area or region Earth resources like minerals, energy, and
covered by the map groundwater

Susceptibility - Indicates the likelihood of - Enable the study of the geological history and
geological hazards like landslides occurring in evolution of a region (implied throughout)
different areas (References from the provided text)
Sources - Lists the data sources and agencies Mitigation Strategies: A Prevention to Loss of
that contributed to the map Lives and Properties
Symbols Used in Geological Maps Mitigation refers to actions taken to prevent or
- Thick and thin lines reduce the risk to lives, properties, social and
economic activities, and natural resources from
- First capitalized letter in a geologic unit natural hazards.

- Colors Key Points:

- Dotted contact lines Protection of schools and hospitals - Ensure

new schools and hospitals are located and
Interpreting Geological Structures
constructed to avoid high-hazard areas and
Normal fault - Hanging wall moves down reduce potential damage from natural hazards.
relative to footwall Existing buildings should be surveyed to
determine resistance levels.
Reverse fault - Hanging wall moves up relative
to footwall Adoption of nonstructural measures -
Businesses and households should secure
Strike-slip fault - Horizontal movement along furniture, equipment, and vegetation to reduce
the fault plane earthquake injuries, damage, and wildfire risk.

Anticline - Upward fold in rock layers Incorporation of mitigation into new

development - Local jurisdictions should use
Plunging syncline - Downward fold in rock
hazard and risk assessment, land use plans, and
layers
zoning to limit development in hazard-prone
areas. Compatible uses like recreation or - Plant vegetation to prevent erosion and
wildlife reserves should be incorporated. compact soil

Protection of cultural properties - Mitigation - Build debris flow diversion channels to steer
should include preservation of libraries, flow away from property
landmarks, historic buildings, artworks, and
other cultural resources. - Avoid building on or near steep slopes,
mountain edges, drainages, or erosion valleys
Protection of natural resources - Disaster
response plans should identify and protect - Be familiar with surroundings and watch for
valuable natural resources like endangered changes that could indicate a landslide
species. - Avoid open storm-water drainage and runoff
Government leadership of mitigation areas
implementation - Government should require - Stay updated on news and disaster plans for
new facilities they fund, regulate, or lease to be the local area
designed, built, and located per building codes
and disaster resilience. - Stay away from the path of debris and mud-
flow, and seek higher, sturdy ground
Mitigation training - Training programs should
be developed and offered to address - If escape is not possible, curl into a ball and
contemporary mitigation challenges. find shelter to protect from debris

Hazard-specific research - Recent disasters - After a landslide, stay away from the slide
have emphasized the need for research to area, listen for emergency information, and
improve mitigation practices. report injuries/flooding

Actions to Protect Lives and Property: Precautions for Sinkholes:

- Develop and rehearse a family disaster plan, - Find refuge on stable, open ground if a
including a communications plan sinkhole appears suddenly

- Assemble emergency supplies for home and - Wait until the sinkhole stops moving before
car attempting to retrieve belongings

- Know how to shut off utilities and keep - Wait for local government announcement that
needed resources on hand it is safe to return

- Duplicate important documents and keep - Stay away from the sinkhole, monitor for
originals in a safe deposit box expanding cracks/damage, and do not throw
anything in
- Make a detailed inventory of personal
belongings with photos/videos - Relocate to a safe location away from the
sinkhole area
Precautions for Landslides: