02-09-2021

What is a System ?
■ A collection of Physical, biological or abstract components which together perform
an intended objectives.
■ A system gives an Output ( also called as Response) for an Input ( also called as
Excitation)

■ System can also be collection of multiple sub-systems

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Examples of system

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Classification of systems
■ Variety of classification is possible based on system features and
applications.
■ Some of the important classification includes
 Linear and Non-Linear Systems
 Static and Dynamic systems
 Time invariant and Time variant systems
 Causal and Non-causal systems.

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Linear Vs Non- Linear System

Linear System Non-Linear System
Output of the system varies linearly with input Output of the system does not vary linearly with
input

Satisfy the HOMOGENEITY and SUPERPOSITION Do not Satisfy the HOMOGENEITY and
SUPERPOSITION

Superposition : F(x1+x2) = F(x1)+F(x2)

Homogeneity : F(ax1) = aF(x1)

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Linear Vs Non- Linear System

Superposition : F(x1+x2) = F(x1)+F(x2) Superposition : F(2+8) = F(2)+F(8)

Homogeneity : F(ax1) = aF(x1) Homogeneity : F(10*2) = 10F(2)

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Static Vs Dynamic systems

Static System Dynamic System

At any time, Output of the Output of the system

system depends only on depends on present as well
present input. as on past input.
Memory less system Presence of memory can be
observed.

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Time Invariant Vs Time variant systems

Time Invariant System Time variant System

Output of the system Output of the system

is independent of the varies dependent on
time at which the the time at which
input is applied. input is applied.

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Time Invariant Vs Time variant systems

Time Invariant System Time variant System

Output of the system Output of the system

is independent of the varies dependent on
time at which the the time at which
input is applied. input is applied.

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Causal Vs Non-Causal system

Causal System Non-Causal System

Output is only dependent Output depends on future

on input already received inputs as well
(present or past)
Non-Anticipatory system System anticipates future
input based on past

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What is a Control System?

■ A system or mechanism which directs the input to

other system and regulates their output
■ Control system alters the response of a plant or
system as desired.

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Disturbance
■ Unwanted signals which affect the output of the system
E.g. People entering and leaving as AC room disturbs room
temperature
■ Controller has to eliminate the effects of disturbance

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Feedback in control
■ Feedback sense the plant output and gives a signal which
can be compared to the reference.
■ Controller action (Control input) changes based on feedback
■ Feedback enables the control system in extracting the
desired performance from the plant even in presence of
disturbance.

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Modelling of system - What is a Model ?

■ An elemental or mathematical representation of a plant or system.
■ Model helps in the analysis (input-output) of the system.
■ Captures the dynamics of a system
■ Dynamics refers to evolution of system variables.
– The room temperature when an AC is switched ON
– The speed of car when accelerator is pushed by certain angle

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Types of Mathematical Models

Differential •Dynamics of the system represented in terms of differential
equations.
Equation model •Time domain representation of the system.

Transfer •Dynamics represented in terms of Laplace transform expression.

Function model •Frequency domain representation of the system.

State Space •State is a set of variables that describes the system behaviour in
conjunction with the system inputs.

model •Dynamics are represented by a set of first order differential

equations using these state variables.

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Types of Mathematical Models

Differential •Dynamics of the system represented in terms of differential
equations.
Equation model •Time domain representation of the system.

Transfer •Dynamics represented in terms of Laplace transform expression.

Function model •Frequency domain representation of the system.

•State is a set of variables that describes the system behaviour in

State Space conjunction with the system inputs.

model •Dynamics are represented by a set of first order differential

equations using these state variables.

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Modelling of a system

■ Two methods of Modelling

Analytical Modelling
• Involves systematic application of basic physical laws to system components and their
interconnections.
• Combination of physical modelling and mathematical modelling.

Experimental Modelling
• Selection of mathematical relations which best fit the observed input-output data of a system
• Also called Modelling by synthesis

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Steps in Analytical Modelling

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Steps in Analytical Modelling

1. Purpose of the Model
■ Model to be developed should be decided based
on intended objectives.

2. Define boundaries
■ System of interest is separated from the rest of
the world (referred to as environment) by a
boundary
■ Boundary may be real or imaginary
■ Boundaries for every system and sub system
should be defined based on purpose

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Steps in Analytical Modelling

3. Postulate a structure
■ System store, dissipate, transfer or transform energy from one form to another
■ Identify simple elements which characterize these operations on energy
■ Represent the actual system as an interconnection to these elements
■ Referred to as physical modelling

4. Select Variables of Interest

■ First step of mathematical modelling
■ Assign variables to all system attributes of interest.

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Steps in Analytical Modelling

5. Mathematical description of each model elements
■ Identify the relations between variables at each of the model elements
■ Relations may be differential or algebraic expression

6. Apply Relevant Physical law

■ The most important step in getting the mathematical model
■ Develop equations to describe the effects of element interconnections.
■ Physical laws describe these effects (Eg : Newton’s law of motion, Krichhoff’s
voltage and current law, thermodynamics laws)

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Steps in Analytical Modelling

7. Final form of mathematical model
■ All the equations resulting from step 6 put together form the mathematical
model of the system.
■ Can be simplified if possible.
8. Analyse and Validate model
■ Model is never an exact representation of true system.
■ Verify the accuracy of the model if possible.
■ Comparing model results with actual results for some Input/output conditions.
9. Modify model if necessary
■ To be done if results in step 8 are not convincing.

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Elements of Modelling
■ Physical system can be classified in to various types :
– Electrical system
– Mechanical system
– Electronic system
– Hydraulic system
– Thermal system

■ Each of these systems can be modelled in terms of certain basic

elements

■ Basic elements of all physical systems can be shown to be analogous.

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Mechanical System

■ Classification based on type of motion

– Translation system having linear motion
– Rotational systems having angular motion about a fixed axis
Translational Rotational
Basic System Elements
Mass (M) Inertia (J)
Damper (B) Damper (D)
Linear Spring (K) Torsional Spring (K)
Basic System Variables
Force (F) Torque (T)
Displacement (x) Angular Displacement (θ)
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Mass Vs Inertia

MASS INTERIA
■ Property of an element that stores the ■ Property of an element that stores the
kinetic energy due to translation kinetic energy due to rotational
motions motions
■ When a force (F) is acting on a body of ■ When a torque (T) is acting on a body
mass M causing displacement x, then of inertia J causing angular
displacement θ, then
=
=

51

Damper
■ Damper is an element that generates force which acts opposite to the direction of
motion, translation or rotational
■ Damper resist motion
■ Friction or dashpot are examples of damper
■ Translation : =
■ Rotational : =

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Linear Vs Torsional Spring

Linear Spring Torsional Spring

■ Property of an element that stores the ■ Property of an element that stores the
potential energy due to translation potential energy due to rotational
motions motions
■ When a spring of spring constant K is ■ When a torque spring of constant K is
applied a force F causing an elastic applied a Torque T , causing an
displacement x, then angular displacement θ, then
= =

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7
54
55
Find the Differential equations governing the mechanical
systems, shown below.

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Time Domain Vs Frequency Domain

Time Domain Frequency Domain
Time domain graph shows how a signal changes Frequency domain graphs shows how much of a
over time signal lies with each frequency

In a time domain graph, the magnitude x(t) of the Signal is represented by a sum of sinusoids of
signal at each time instant t is represented. different frequencies (f or ω) each with certain
magnitude X(f) or X(ω)

Phase shift (ф) f each of the sinusoids is also

recorded.

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Time domain Graph : Example

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Frequency Domain Graph : Example

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Domain Transformation
■ A given function or signal can be converted between the time and frequency
domains using a mathematical transform
■ Fourier stated that any signal in time domain can be represented as a
summation of sinusoids of different frequencies (Fourier series and Fourier
Transform)
■ Sinusoids are preferred because they do not change shape when passed
through an Linear Time Invariant (LTI) systems and there can only be an
amplitude gain and phase shift.

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Advantages of Domain Transformation

■ Each domain of signal representation provides us with different kind of

information of the same signal.

■ Depending on the objective, analysis in one domain will be advantageous

over analysis in another domain
For E.g., signals having characteristics that change with frequency can be
easily analysed in frequency domain compared to time domain.

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LAPLACE TRANSFORM :Motivation

■ Consider the model of a Mass-Spring-Damper system under free vibration :

𝑀𝑥̈ + 𝐵𝑥̇ + 𝐾𝑥 = 0
■ Solution to this equation is of the form: 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑 i.e Displacement
x(t) can have exponential and sinusoidal terms
■ Exponential term is due to damper while sinusoidal terms is due to interconnection
between mass and spring.

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Laplace Transform : Motivation

■ It is observed that solution to differential equations of LTI
systems are either exponential or sinusoidal or combinations of
both.

■ In frequency domain transformation, signals are decomposed

into sinusoidal described by an amplitude and phase at each
frequency.

■ To account for exponential response as well, we extend the idea

of frequency domain representation. A new transformation is
defined such that signals are decompose into both sinusoidal
and exponentials
65

Laplace Transform
■ Laplace transform decomposes signals in time domain into a domain of both
sine and exponential functions.
■ Domain of Laplace functions is called S-Domain (Simon Laplace)
■ S is a complex number i.e., s-plane is 2 dimensional: one dimension to describe
the frequency of since wave (ω) and another to describe the exponential term (σ)
S = σ+j ω
■ Given S, we can get an exponential sinusoidal signals as

𝑒 =𝑒 =𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 + 𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡)

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Laplace Transform
■ Given a signal x(t), its Laplace Transform is given by
𝐿 𝑥 𝑡 =𝑋 𝑠 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 1

■ L(.)- Laplace Transform Operator

■ Existence of Laplace transform depends on the convergence integral
in Eq.(1) which depends on the value of σ
■ The region in S-plane in which the Laplace transform exists for a
function x(t) is called the region of Convergence (ROC)

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Motivation for Transfer function.

■ To find the time response, we need to solve ordinary differential
equations.

■ When the mode equations are transformed to S-domain, they turn

out to be algebraic equations which are easier to solve.

■ The transformed model in S-domain is called transfer function

model.

■ It is a model which is applicable for all kinds of input signals.

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Transfer Function
■ For an LTI system, the transfer function is the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output to the
Laplace transform of the input with the initial conditions being zero.

■ Mathematically, if U(s) is the Laplace transform of the input function and Y(s) is the Laplace
transform of the output, the transfer function is G(s) is given by

( )
𝐺 𝑠 =
( )

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Step 1 : Write The Differential Equations

Step 2 : Take Laplace Transform

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1
2
Block Diagram Representation of a System

3
4
5
 Signal Flow Graph
■ A signal-flow graph consists of a network in which nodes are connected by directed branches.

■ It depicts the flow of signals from one point of a system to another and gives the relationships
among the signals.

■ Signal flow graphs and block diagrams are alternative, though equivalent, tools for graphical
representation of interconnected systems

6
 Terminologies
• An input node or source contain only the outgoing branches. i.e., X1

7
 Terminologies
• An input node or source contain only the outgoing branches. i.e., X1
• An output node or sink contain only the incoming branches. i.e., X4

8
 Terminologies
• An input node or source contain only the outgoing branches. i.e., X1
• An output node or sink contain only the incoming branches. i.e., X4
• A path is a continuous, unidirectional succession of branches along which no
node is passed more than ones. i.e.,
X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 X1 to X2 to X4

9
 Terminologies
• An input node or source contain only the outgoing branches. i.e., X1
• An output node or sink contain only the incoming branches. i.e., X4
• A path is a continuous, unidirectional succession of branches along which no
node is passed more than ones. i.e.,

• A forward path is a path from the input node to the output node. i.e.,
X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 , and X1 to X2 to X4 , are forward paths.

10
 Terminologies
• An input node or source contain only the outgoing branches. i.e., X1
• An output node or sink contain only the incoming branches. i.e., X4
• A path is a continuous, unidirectional succession of branches along which no
node is passed more than ones. i.e.,

• A forward path is a path from the input node to the output node. i.e.,
X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 , and X1 to X2 to X4 , are forward paths.
• A feedback path or feedback loop is a path which originates and terminates on
the same node. i.e.; X2 to X3 and back to X2 is a feedback path.

11
12
 Signal Flow Graph
Mason's Gain Formula
■ Let R(s) is the input of the system
■ C(s) is the output of the system
■ Then the transfer function of the system is T(s) = C(s)/R(s)
1
■ Over all gain T= (σ𝐾 𝑃𝐾 ∆𝐾 )
∆
■ K is the number of forward path
■ Where T= T(s) is Transfer function of the system
■ Pk forward path gain of the Kth forward path
■ Δ = 1- (sum of individual loop gains)+(sum of two non touching loops)- (sum of three non touching
loops)+(sum of four non touching loops)-…..
■ Δk = 1- sum of loop gains which are not touching to the Kth forward path

13
Steps To Solve SGF

14
Steps
■ Step 1: Identify the number of Forward path. i.e K = ???
■ Step 2 : Evaluate the Forward path Gains P1, P2, Pk……
■ Step 3: Identify the Individual Loop Gains P11, P21, P31, P41….
■ Step 4: Identify the Two-Non Touching Loop Gains P12, P22, P32…
■ Step 5: Evaluate ∆
■ Step 6 : Evaluate ∆𝐾

1
Finally, Over all gain T = σ𝐾 𝑃𝐾 ∆𝐾
∆

15
Step 1 &2:

16
Step 3:

17
Step 4

18
Step 5 and Step 6

19
Transfer Function

20
Questions

21
 Properties oF Transfer function
■ Transfer function of a system is independent of the magnitude and nature of
input.
■ Using the transfer function, the response can be studied for various inputs to
understand the nature of the system.
■ Transfer function does not provide any information concerning the physical
structure of the system i.e. two different physical system can have the same
transfer function.

78
Properties OF Transfer function
■ General form of transfer function of a system

■ N : Order of the system

■ K : System gain or Gain Factor – A Proportional value that relates the magnitude of the
input to that of the output signal at steady state.
■ z1,z2,…zm : Zeros of the system
■ p1,p2,…..pn: Poles of the system
■ n≥m because the system becomes non-causal and is not physically realizable if n< m.

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Poles and Zeros
Poles
■ Roots of the denominator polynomial of the transfer function
■ Values of s at which the transfer function becomes unbounded

Zeros
■ Roots of the numerator polynomial of the transfer function
■ Values of s at which the transfer function vanishes

■ Poles ad Zeros together with the system gain K characterise the input –output system
dynamics.

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Time Response Analysis

■ The time response of the system is the output of the closed loop
system as a function of time. It is denoted by c(t).
■ The time response can be obtained by solving the differential
equation governing the system.
■ Alternatively the response can be obtained from the transfer function
of the system and the input to the system.

126

Time Response Analysis

■ The time response of a control system consist of two parts
: the transient and the steady state response.
■ The transient response of the system when the input
changes from one state to another.
■ The steady state response is the response as time, t
approaches infinity.

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Test Signals
■ The knowledge of input signal is required to predict the response of a system.
■ In most of the system, the input signals are not known ahead of time and also
it is difficult to express the input signals mathematically by simple equations.
■ The actual input signals are a sudden shock, a sudden change, a constant
velocity and a constant acceleration. Hence test signals which resembles
these are used as input signals to predict the performance of the system.
■ The standard test signals are :
■ Step signal, Ramp signal, Parabolic signal, Impules.

128

Test Signals

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Test Signals
L( )=1

Impulse Signal

130

Test Signals
L( )=1

Impulse Signal

L /

Step Signal If A = 1, then Unit If Unit Step then 1/s

Step Signal

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Test Signals
L( )=1

Impulse Signal

L /

Step Signal If A = 1, then Unit If Unit Step then 1/s

Step Signal

L /

Ramp Signal If A = 1, then Unit If Unit Ramp then

Ramp Signal 1/s2

132

Test Signals
L( )=1

Impulse Signal

L /

Step Signal If A = 1, then Unit If Unit Step then 1/s

Step Signal

L /

Ramp Signal If A = 1, then Unit If Unit Ramp then

Ramp Signal 1/s2

L /

Parabolic Signal If Unit Parabolic

If A = 1, then Unit then 1/s3
Parabolic Signal
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Test Signals
L( )=1

Impulse Signal

L /

Step Signal If A = 1, then Unit If Unit Step then 1/s

Step Signal

L /

Ramp Signal If A = 1, then Unit If Unit Ramp then

Ramp Signal 1/s2

L /

Parabolic Signal If Unit Parabolic

If A = 1, then Unit then 1/s3
Parabolic Signal
134

Order of the System

■ The input and output relationship of the system can be expressed by
nth order differential equation.

■ The order of the system is given by the order the differential equation
governing the system. If the system is governed by the nth order
differential equation then the system is called nth order system.

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Order of the System

■ Alternatively, the order of the system can also be determined from the transfer
function. The transfer function can be obtained by taking the Laplace transform of
the differential equations.

136

Order of the System

■ The numerator and denominator can expressed as a
factorised form as

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Response of A system for Unit Step Signal

138

139
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140

141
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142

Response of A system for Unit Ramp Signal

Response of A system for Impulse Signal

Try your Own!!!!

143
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Time Response: Second Order system

■ The closed loop second order system :

The Standard form of the closed loop transfer function of Second order system is given by,

144

Time Response: Second Order system

■ Damping ratio is defined as the ratio of the actual damping to the
critical damping.

■ The response c(t) second order system depends on the value of

damping ratio. Depending on the value of the damping ratio, the
system can be classified into following four cases,

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Time Response: Second Order system

146

147
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148

Response of the system undamped second

order

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150

151
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Response of the system under damped

second order system

152

153
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154

Response of the system Critically damped

second order system
■ Try yourself!!!!

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Time Response Characteristics

The common transient response characteristics:

■ Delay Time.
■ Rise Time.
■ Peak Time.
■ Maximum Peak.
■ Settling Time.

156

Time Response Characteristics

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Time Response Characteristics

Delay Time
■ The time required for the response to reach 50% of the final value in the first time is called
the delay time.

Rise Time
■ The time required for response to rising from 10% to 90% of final value, for an overdamped
system and 0 to 100% for an underdamped system is called the rise time of the system.

158

Time Response Characteristics

Peak Time
■ The time required for the response to reach the 1st peak of the time response or 1st peak
overshoot is called the Peak time.

Maximum overshoot
■ The difference between the peak of 1st time and steady output is called the maximum
overshoot.

Settling Time
■ The time that is required for the response to reach and stay within the specified range (2% to
5%) of its final value is called the settling time.

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160

Problem :

161
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162

163
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Time Response Analysis

■ The time response of the system is the output of the closed loop
system as a function of time. It is denoted by c(t).
■ The time response can be obtained by solving the differential
equation governing the system.
■ Alternatively the response can be obtained from the transfer function
of the system and the input to the system.

126

Time Response Analysis

■ The time response of a control system consist of two parts
: the transient and the steady state response.
■ The transient response of the system when the input
changes from one state to another.
■ The steady state response is the response as time, t
approaches infinity.

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Test Signals
■ The knowledge of input signal is required to predict the response of a system.
■ In most of the system, the input signals are not known ahead of time and also
it is difficult to express the input signals mathematically by simple equations.
■ The actual input signals are a sudden shock, a sudden change, a constant
velocity and a constant acceleration. Hence test signals which resembles
these are used as input signals to predict the performance of the system.
■ The standard test signals are :
■ Step signal, Ramp signal, Parabolic signal, Impules.

128

Test Signals

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Test Signals
L( )=1

Impulse Signal

130

Test Signals
L( )=1

Impulse Signal

L /

Step Signal If A = 1, then Unit If Unit Step then 1/s

Step Signal

131
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Test Signals
L( )=1

Impulse Signal

L /

Step Signal If A = 1, then Unit If Unit Step then 1/s

Step Signal

L /

Ramp Signal If A = 1, then Unit If Unit Ramp then

Ramp Signal 1/s2

132

Test Signals
L( )=1

Impulse Signal

L /

Step Signal If A = 1, then Unit If Unit Step then 1/s

Step Signal

L /

Ramp Signal If A = 1, then Unit If Unit Ramp then

Ramp Signal 1/s2

L /

Parabolic Signal If Unit Parabolic

If A = 1, then Unit then 1/s3
Parabolic Signal
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Test Signals
L( )=1

Impulse Signal

L /

Step Signal If A = 1, then Unit If Unit Step then 1/s

Step Signal

L /

Ramp Signal If A = 1, then Unit If Unit Ramp then

Ramp Signal 1/s2

L /

Parabolic Signal If Unit Parabolic

If A = 1, then Unit then 1/s3
Parabolic Signal
134

Order of the System

■ The input and output relationship of the system can be expressed by
nth order differential equation.

■ The order of the system is given by the order the differential equation
governing the system. If the system is governed by the nth order
differential equation then the system is called nth order system.

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Order of the System

■ Alternatively, the order of the system can also be determined from the transfer
function. The transfer function can be obtained by taking the Laplace transform of
the differential equations.

136

Order of the System

■ The numerator and denominator can expressed as a
factorised form as

137
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Response of A system for Unit Step Signal

138

139
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140

141
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142

Response of A system for Unit Ramp Signal

Response of A system for Impulse Signal

Try your Own!!!!

143
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Time Response: Second Order system

■ The closed loop second order system :

The Standard form of the closed loop transfer function of Second order system is given by,

144

Time Response: Second Order system

■ Damping ratio is defined as the ratio of the actual damping to the
critical damping.

■ The response c(t) second order system depends on the value of

damping ratio. Depending on the value of the damping ratio, the
system can be classified into following four cases,

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Time Response: Second Order system

146

147
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148

Response of the system undamped second

order

149
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150

151
13
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Response of the system under damped

second order system

152

153
14
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154

Response of the system Critically damped

second order system
■ Try yourself!!!!

155
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Time Response Characteristics

The common transient response characteristics:

■ Delay Time.
■ Rise Time.
■ Peak Time.
■ Maximum Peak.
■ Settling Time.

156

Time Response Characteristics

157
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Time Response Characteristics

Delay Time
■ The time required for the response to reach 50% of the final value in the first time is called
the delay time.

Rise Time
■ The time required for response to rising from 10% to 90% of final value, for an overdamped
system and 0 to 100% for an underdamped system is called the rise time of the system.

158

Time Response Characteristics

Peak Time
■ The time required for the response to reach the 1st peak of the time response or 1st peak
overshoot is called the Peak time.

Maximum overshoot
■ The difference between the peak of 1st time and steady output is called the maximum
overshoot.

Settling Time
■ The time that is required for the response to reach and stay within the specified range (2% to
5%) of its final value is called the settling time.

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160

Problem :

161
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162

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Frequency Response of the system

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Advantage of Frequency Response

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Frequency Response of the system

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Magnitude and Phase angle

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Bandwidth

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Stability
Linear Time Invariant Systems
■ A system is stable if the system eventually comes back to the
equilibrium state when the system is subjected to an initial
condition

■ A system is unstable if the output diverges without bound from its

equilibrium state when the system is subjected to an initial
condition

■ A system is marginally stable if the system tends to oscillate about

is equilibrium state subjected to an initial condition
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Stability
What is bounded input and output ?

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Stability

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Stability

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Bounded Input and Bounded Output

(BIBO)
■ A system is stable if for every bounded input signal the system
response is bounded
■ A system is unstable if for any bounded input signal the system
response is unbounded

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Bounded Input and Bounded Output

(BIBO)

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Stability
■ Stability of the system depends on the poles
■ If all the poles located in the left-half of the S-plane, then the system
is stable.
■ As the poles approaches zero, the stability decreases
■ When the poles are located on imaginary axis then the system is marginally
stable.
■ If poles located on imaginary axis are repeated then the system is
unstable
■ If poles are located in the right half of s-plane then the system is
unstable

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Classification of Stability
■ Absolutely stable system
■ Unstable system
■ Conditionally stable system

Techniques used to calculate the stability of a system

■ Routh-Hurwiz Criterion
■ Root Locus
■ Bode Plot
■ Nyquist plot
■ Nicholas Chart

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Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion

■ Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion is having one necessary
condition and one sufficient condition for stability.
■ If any control system doesn’t satisfy the necessary condition,
then we can say that the control system is unstable.
■ But, if the control system satisfies the necessary condition,
then it may or may not be stable.
■ So, the sufficient condition is helpful for knowing whether the
control system is stable or not.

185

Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion

Necessary Condition for Routh-Hurwitz Stability
■ The necessary condition is that the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial should
be positive.
■ This implies that all the roots of the characteristic equation should have negative real parts
■ Consider the characteristic equation of the order ‘n’ is

■ Note that, there should not be any term missing in the nth order characteristic equation.

■ This means that the nth order characteristic equation should not have any coefficient that is of
zero value..

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Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion

Sufficient Condition for Routh-Hurwitz Stability
■ The sufficient condition is that all the elements of the first column of the Routh array
should have the same sign.
■ This means that all the elements of the first column of the Routh array should be either
positive or negative.
Routh Array Method
■ If all the roots of the characteristic equation exist to the left half of the ‘s’ plane, then the control
system is stable.
■ If at least one root of the characteristic equation exists to the right half of the ‘s’ plane, then the
control system is unstable.
■ So, we have to find the roots of the characteristic equation to know whether the control system is
stable or unstable.
■ But, it is difficult to find the roots of the characteristic equation as order increases.
187

Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion

■ So, to overcome this problem there we have the Routh array method.

■ In this method, there is no need to calculate the roots of the characteristic equation.

■ First formulate the Routh table and find the number of the
sign changes in the first column of the Routh table.

■ The number of sign changes in the first column of the Routh table gives
the number of roots of characteristic equation that exist in the right half
of the ‘s’ plane and the control system is unstable.

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Routh array method

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Using Routh array method Determine the stability of the system represented by the
following characteristic equation

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Step 3 − Verify the sufficient condition for the Routh-Hurwitz stability.

All the elements of the first column of the Routh array are positive. There is no sign change in the first
column of the Routh array. So, the control system is stable.

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Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion

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Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion

Special Cases of Routh Array

We may come across two types of situations, while forming the Routh table. It is
difficult to complete the Routh table from these two situations.
■ The two special cases are −

• The first element of any row of the Routh array is zero.

• All the elements of any row of the Routh array are zero.

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Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion

■ Special Case : 1

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Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion

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Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion

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Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion

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Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion

■ Special Case 2

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Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion

Special Case : 2

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Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion

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 Steady State Errors
• Any physical control system inherently suffers steady-state error in
response to certain types of inputs.

• A system may have no steady-state error to a step input, but the same
system may exhibit nonzero steady-state error to a ramp input.

• Whether a given system will exhibit steady-state error for a given type of
input depends on the type of open-loop transfer function of the system.

1
Steady State Errors
• Steady-state error is the difference between the input and the output
for a prescribed test input as t->∞.

2
Steady State Errors
• Consider the unity-feedback control system with the following open-
loop transfer function

• It involves the term sN in the denominator, representing N poles at

the origin.

• A system is called type 0, type 1, type 2, ... , if N=0, N=1, N=2, ... ,
respectively.

3
Steady State Errors
• As the type number is increased, accuracy is improved.

• However, increasing the type number aggravates the stability

problem.

• A compromise between steady-state accuracy and relative stability is

always necessary.

4
Steady State Error of Unity Feedback Systems
• Lets consider the system shown in Figure below :

• The transfer function between the error signal E(s) and the input
signal R(s) is

5
Steady State Error of Unity Feedback Systems
𝑅(𝑠)
𝐸(𝑠) =
1 + 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)

𝑅(𝑠) 𝑅(𝑠)
𝑒 𝑡 = 𝐿−1 (𝐸 𝑠 )= 𝐿−1 =𝐿
−1
(Unity Feedback)
1+𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) 1+𝐺 𝑠

𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝑒 𝑡 = lim 𝑠𝐸 𝑠

𝑡→∞ 𝑠→0

6
Static Error Constants

7
 Steady State error when the input is Unit Step
1 1 1
𝑅(𝑠) = (Unit Step) 𝑠 𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝑠 𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝑠 1 + lim 𝐺(𝑠)
𝑠→0 1+𝐺(𝑠)
𝑠→0

1 1
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝑠𝐸(𝑠) 𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 1+𝐺(𝑠) 1 + 𝐾𝑝

8
 Steady State error when the input is Unit Step
For Type 0 system
1
𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
1 + 𝐾𝑝

𝐾 𝑠 + 𝑧1 𝑠 + 𝑧2 …
𝐾𝑝 = lim 𝐺 𝑠 = lim = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝑠 + 𝑝1 𝑠 + 𝑝𝑠 …

1
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
1 + 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

9
 Steady State error when the input is Unit Step
For Type 1 system
1
𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
1 + 𝐾𝑝

𝐾 𝑠 + 𝑧1 𝑠 + 𝑧2 …
𝐾𝑝 = lim 𝐺 𝑠 = lim =∞
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝑠 𝑠 + 𝑝1 𝑠 + 𝑝𝑠 …

1
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = =0
1+∞

10
Steady State error when the input is Unit Ramp
• For Type 0 system
• For Type 1 system
• For Type 2 system

11
Steady State error when the input is Unit Parabolic
• For Type 0 system
• For Type 1 system
• For Type 2 system

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State Space Model

State
■ It is a group of variables, which summarizes the history of the system in order to predict the
future values (outputs).

State Variable
■ The Variables that defines the state of the system.

State Vector
■ It is a vector, which contains the state variables as elements.

226

State Space Model

Advantages
■ The analysis also considers the initial condition
■ More accurate than the Transfer function
■ Analysis of multi input and multi output is possible
■ Gives information about the controllability
■ It is applicable to all types of dynamics systems

Disadvantages
■ Complex
■ Many Computations are required

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State Space Model

u1(t) y1(t)

(Inputs) MIMO (Output)

u2(t) SYSTEM y2(t)

(State Variables)

x1(t) x2(t)
228

State Space Model

■ Output Equation
y1(t)=c11x1(t)+c12x2(t)+d11u1(t)+d12u2(t)
y2(t)=c21x1(t)+c22x2(t)+d21u1(t)+d22u2(t)

𝑦 (𝑡) 𝑐 𝑐 𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑑 𝑑 𝑢 (𝑡)

= 𝑐 𝑐 +
𝑦 (𝑡) 𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑑 𝑑 𝑢 (𝑡)

Y(t)=CX(t)+DU(t)

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State Space Model

■ State Equation
( ( ))
= 𝑥 ̇ (t)=a11x1(t)+a12x2(t)+b11u1(t)+b12u2(t)
( ( ))
= 𝑥 ̇ (t)=a21x1(t)+a22x2(t)+b21u1(t)+b22u2(t)

𝑥 ̇ (t) 𝑎 𝑎 𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑏 𝑏 𝑢 (𝑡)

= 𝑎 +
𝑥 ̇ (t) 𝑎 𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑏 𝑏 𝑢 (𝑡)
𝑋̇(t)=AX(t)+BU(t)

230

State Space Model

𝑿̇(t)=AX(t)+BU(t) -----------------------------------(1)
Y(t)=CX(t)+DU(t) ----------------------------------(2)
The first and the second equations are known as state equation and output equation
respectively.
Where,
■ X and 𝑋̇ are the state vector and the differential state vector respectively
■ U and Y are input vector and output vector respectively.
■ A is the system matrix.
■ B and C are the input and the output matrices.
■ D is the feed-forward matrix.

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State Space Model

Order of the matrix

■ A=n×n
■ X= n × 1
■ B= n × m
■ U= m × 1
■ C=p×n
■ D=p×m

232

Controllability and Observability

Controllability
■ A control system is said to be controllable if the initial states of the control system are
transferred (changed) to some other desired states by a controlled input in finite duration of
time.
We can check the controllability of a control system by using Kalman’s test

𝑄𝑐 = [𝐵 (𝐴𝐵) (𝐴 𝐵) (𝐴 𝐵)]

Find the determinant of matrix Qc and if it is not equal to zero, then the control system is
controllable.

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Controllability

Verify the controllability of a control system which is given by the state equation

𝑥 ̇ (t) −1 −1 𝑥 (𝑡) 1
= + 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑥 ̇ (t) 1 0 𝑥 (𝑡) 0

Here n =2

𝑄𝑐 = [𝐵 (𝐴𝐵) (𝐴 𝐵) (𝐴 𝐵)]

234

−1 −1 1 −1
AB= =
1 0 0 1

1 −1
𝑄𝑐 = ⇒ 𝑄𝑐 = 1 ≠ 0
0 1

Hence the system is controllable.

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• If Qc is not a square matrix then do M = Qc QcT

• For the system to be completely controllable Qc should have the rank n.

236

Observability
■ A control system is said to be observable if it is able to determine the initial states of
the control system by observing the output for a finite duration of time.

We can check the controllability of a control system by using Kalman’s test

𝑄𝑜 = [𝐶𝑇 (𝐴𝑇𝐶𝑇) ((𝐴𝑇) 𝐶𝑇)…. ((𝐴𝑇) 𝐶𝑇)]

Find the determinant of matrix Qo and if it is not equal to zero, then the control system
is controllable.

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Deriving Transfer functions from State

Space Description

243

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Deriving Transfer functions from State

Space Description

244

Deriving Transfer functions from State

Space Description

245

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Deriving Transfer functions from State

Space Description

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Deriving Transfer functions from State

Space Description

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Deriving Transfer functions from State

Space Description

248

Deriving State Space Model From

Transfer Function Model
■ The process of converting transfer function to state space form is NOT unique. There are various
“realizations” possible.

■ All realizations are “equivalent” (i.e. properties do not change). However, one representation
may have some advantages over others for a particular task.
■ Possible representations:
• First companion form (controllable canonical form)
• Jordan canonical form
• Alternate first companion form (Toeplitz first companion form)
• Second companion form (observable canonical form)

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Deriving State Space Model From

Transfer Function Model
■ A system is characterized by a transfer function :
𝑌 𝑠 2
=
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠 + 6𝑠 + 11𝑠 + 6
Test the controllability and observability of the system

250

Deriving State Space Model From

Transfer Function Model
Step 1 𝒀 𝒔 (𝒔𝟑 +𝟔𝒔𝟐 + 𝟏𝟏𝒔 + 𝟔) = 𝟐𝑼(𝒔)
On taking inverse Laplace Transform,
Step 2 ⃛ + 𝟔𝒚̈ + 𝟏𝟏𝒚̇ + 𝟔𝒚 𝒕 = 𝟐𝒖(𝒕)
𝒚

Step 3

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Deriving State Space Model From

Transfer Function Model
⃛ = 𝟐𝒖 𝒕 − 𝟔𝒚̈ − 𝟏𝟏𝒚̇ − 𝟔𝒚 𝒕
𝒚

252

Deriving State Space Model From

Transfer Function Model

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