Data Communication and Computer Network

Chapter 2.

Fundamentals of Data-Signaling and Digital Transmission.

BITS College

Presented to: Anteneh Kassaye

7/11/2023
Fundamentals of Data and Signals
 Data and signals are two of the basic building blocks of any computer
network.
 "data" and "signal" do not mean the same thing and that, in order for a
computer network to transmit data, the data must first be converted into
the appropriate signals.
 Both can be in either analog or digital form, which gives us four possible
data-to-signal conversion combinations:
o Analog data-to-analog signal, which involves amplitude and frequency modulation techniques
o Digital data-to-square-wave digital signal, which involves encoding techniques
o Digital Data to (a discrete) analog signal, which involves modulation techniques
o Analog data-to-digital signal, which involves digitization techniques
Analog vs. digital
 Data and Signal can exist in either analog or digital form.
 Analog : represented as continuous waveforms that can be at an infinite number of
points between some given minimum and maximum.
 By convention, these minimum and maximum values are presented as voltages.

 Figure 2-1 A simple example of an analog waveform The waveform of a symphonic overture with noise

 The most common example of analog data is the human voice.

o For example, when a person talks into a telephone, the receiver in the mouthpiece converts the airwaves of
speech into analog pulses of electrical voltage. Music and video, when they occur in their natural states,
are also analog data.
Analog Signals
 Noise is unwanted electrical or electromagnetic energy that degrades the
quality of signals and data. 1.5

1 4

0.8 1
3
0.6

0.4 2 0.5

0.2
1
0
0

0
-0.2
-0.5
-0.4 -1

-0.6
-2
-1
-0.8

-1 -3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 -1.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

A computer generated signal a waveform with noisse super imposed recovered signal after applying filter

o One of the primary shortcomings of analog data and analog signals is how difficult it is
to separate noise from the original waveform.
Digital Data and Digital Signal
 Digital data and digital signals are composed of a discrete or fixed number
of values, rather than a continuous or infinite number of values.

 Digital data takes on the form of binary 1s and Os. But digital signals are
more complex. To keep the discussion as simple as possible, we will
introduce two forms of digital signal.

 The first type of digital signal takes the shape of what is called a "square
wave." These square waves are relatively simple patterns of high and low
voltages. (such as 5 volts) and a low voltage (such as 0 volts).
Digital Data and Digital Signal

Figure 2-3 A simple example of a digital waveform

A digital waveform with noise so great

that you can no longer recognize the
original waveform

A digital signal with some noise introduced

Digital Data and Digital Signal
 The ability to separate noise from a digital waveform is one of the great
strengths of digital systems.

 When data is transmitted as a signal, the signal will always incur some
level of noise. In the case of digital signals, however, it is relatively simple
to pass the noisy digital signal through a filtering device that removes a
significant amount of the noise and leaves the original digital signal intact.

 Despite this strong advantage that digital has over analog, not all systems
use digital signals to transmit data. One possible reason is that the
electronic equipment used to transmit a signal usually dictates the type of
signals that can be transmit
Digital Data and Digital Signal
 The second form of digital signal involves more complex combinations of
modulated analog signals.
 Even though the resulting signal is a composition of analog signals, we can
treat the end product as a digital signal because there are a discrete
number of signal combinations and levels.
The important characteristics of signals.
 Analog and Digital signals have three basic components:
 Amplitude : the height of the wave above (or below) a given reference point
 Frequency: the number of times a signal makes a complete cycle within a given time frame
 phase: the position of the waveform relative to a given moment of time, or relative to time zero

A sine wave is used to represent

an analog signal
Frequency and Phase
 A phase change (or phase shift) involves jumping forward (or backward) in the waveform
at a given moment of time. Jumping forward one-half of the complete cycle of the signal
produces a 180-degree phase change, as seen in Figure 2-8(b). Jumping forward one-
quarter of the cycle produces a 90-degree phase change, as in Figure 2-8(c). As you will
see in this chapter's "Transmitting digital data with discrete analog signals" section, some
systems can generate signals that do a phase change of 45, 135, 225, and 315 degrees on
demand.
Amplification and attenuation
 When traveling through any type of medium, a signal always experiences
some loss of its power. This loss of power, or loss of signal strength, is
called attenuation.
 Attenuation in a medium is a logarithmic value (in which a value decrease
of 1 represents a tenfold decrease). Decibel (dB) is a relative measure of
signal loss or gain.
Amplification is the opposite of attenuation. When a signal is amplified by an
amplifier, the signal gains in decibels.

 The decibel is a relative measure of signal loss or gain and is expressed as

dB = 10 X log10 (P2/P1)
 `
Composit Signals
 Exercises: write a program using your favorite programing language which
adds two waveforms signals and shows the output. Include the plotes of
both input and output signals.
 A= 10 sine(x)
 B=5 sine(4x)
CONVERTING DATA INTO SIGNALS
 Like signals, data can be analog or digital.
o Often, analog signals convey analog data, and digital signals convey digital data.
 However, you can use analog signals to convey digital data, and digital
signals to convey analog data.
 The decision about whether to use analog or digital signals often depends
on the transmission equipment and the environment in which the signals
must travel.
 Certain electronic equipment is capable of supporting only analog signals,
while other types of equipment support only digital signals.
o For example, the telephone system was created to transmit human voice,
which is analog data.
 Transmitting analog data with digital signals is also fairly common.
CONVERTING DATA INTO SIGNALS (cont,...)
 There are four main combinations of data and signals:

signal data
Analog Analog
Digital Digital
Analog Digital
Digital Analog
CONVERTING DATA INTO SIGNALS (cont,...)

Analog Data transmission using analog Signal (Amplitude

Modulation, AM ) and Digital Data transmission using digital
signal (baseband)
CONVERTING DATA INTO SIGNALS (cont,...)

R
e
Pictures in the left shws Analog signal represented by Descret (digital values), while
the pictures in the right side shows Digital signal being represented by two diffent
frequencies (Frequency Shift Keying , FSK)
Pulse modulation
 Pulse modulation consists essentially of sampling analog information
signals and then converting those samples into discrete pulses and
transporting the pulses from a source to a destination over a physical
transmission medium.
 The four predominant methods of pulse modulation include
o pulse width modulation (PWM),
o pulse position modulation (PPM),
o pulse amplitude modulation (PAM),
o and pulse code modulation (PCM).
Pulse modulation
o (a) analog signal;
o (b) sample pulse;
o (c) PWM;
o (d) PPM;
o (e) PAM;
o (f) PCM
 With PCM, the analog signal is sampled and then
converted to a serial n-bit binary code for
transmission. Each code has the same number of
bits and requires the same length of time for
transmission. PAM is used as an intermediate.
Nyquist Criterion: Sampling Rate
 The Nyquist sampling theorem establishes the minimum
sampling rate (fs) that can be used for a given PCM
system.
 For a sample to be reproduced accurately in a PCM
receiver, each cycle of the analog input signal (fa) must
be sampled at least twice. Consequently, the minimum
sampling rate is equal to twice the highest input
frequency. Mathematically, the minimum Nyquist
sampling rate is
fs ≥ 2fa
 where fs _ minimum Nyquist sample rate (hertz)
fa _ maximum analog input frequency (hertz)
The Relationship Between Frequency and Bits per Second
Two formulas express the direct relationship between the
frequency of a signal and its data transfer rate: Nyquist's
theorem and Shannon's theorem.
 Nyquist's theorem calculates the data transfer rate of a
signal using its frequency and the number of signaling levels;
Data rate = 2 x f x log2 (L)
f is the frequency of the signal and L is the number of signaling
levels.
For example
Given a 3100-Hz signal and two signaling levels (like a high
amplitude and a low amplitude), the resulting channel capacity
is 6200 bps, which results from
2 x 3100 x log2 (2) = 2 x 3100 x I. Hypothet ical signaling
And technique with four signal
levels
A 3100-Hz signal with four signaling levels yields 12,400bps.
The Relationship Between Frequency
and Bits per Second
 Note further that the Nyquist formula does not incorporate noise, which is always present.
Thus, many use the Nyquist formula not to solve for the data rate, but instead, given the
data rate and frequency, to solve for the number of signal levels L

 Shannon's theorem calculates the maximum data transfer rate of an analog signal (with
any number of signal levels) and incorporates noise
 Data rate = f x log2 (1 + S/N)
 in which the data rate is in bits per second, f is the frequency of the signal, S is the
power of the signal in watts, and N is the power of the noise in watts.
Consider a 3100-Hz signal with a power level of 0.2 watts and a noise level of 0.0002 watts:
Data rate= 3100 x log2 (1 + 0.2 / 0.0002) = 3100 x log2 (1001)
= 3100 X 9.97
= 30,901 bps
Review before we move to Digital
 In 400 BC.
 1833, Carl Friedrich Gauss 26 paralle lines
 1831 Samuel F. B. Morse telegraph.
 1870s, Boudot Code ,1874 Multiplexcer
 1875 – telephone A. Graham Bell
 1899- Marconi Radio
 1930 First computer, 1932,..
 1945 –ENIAC
 1951 UNIVAC
 1957 Transistor, sputnic
1970 Microprocessor
1980 PC,...
Digital Transmission
 Digital transmission is the transmittal of digital signals between two or
more points in a communications system.
 The signals can be binary or any other form of discrete-level digital pulses.

 The original source information may be digital or analog that have been
converted to digital pulses prior to transmission.

 With digital transmission systems, a physical facility, such as a pair of

wires, coaxial cable, or an optical fiber cable, is required to interconnect
the various points within the system.

 The pulses are contained in and propagate down the cable.

Advantages of Digital Transmission
 The primary advantage of digital transmission over analog transmission is
noise immunity.
 Digital signals are also better suited than analog signals for processing and
combining using a technique called multiplexing.

 Digitl system Uses signal regeneration rather than signal amplification

 Digital signal processing (DSP) is the processing of analog signals using

digital methods and includes band limiting the signal with filters,
amplitude equalization, and phase shifting.

 It is much simpler to store digital signals than analog signals

Advantages of Digital Transmission,cntd..
 The transmission rate of digital signals can be easily changed to adapt to
different environments and to interface with different types of equipment.

 Digital signals are simpler to measure and evaluate than analog signals.

 Therefore, it is easier to compare the error performance of one digital

system to another digital system. Also, with digital signals, transmission
errors can be detected and corrected more easily and more accurately
than is possible with analog signals.
Disadvantages of Digital Transmission
 The transmission of digitally encoded analog signals requires significantly
more bandwidth than simply transmitting the original analog signal.
o Bandwidth is one of the most important aspects of any communications system
because it is costly and limited.
 Also, analog signals must be converted to digital pulses prior to
transmission and converted back to their original analog form at the
receiver, thus necessitating additional encoding and decoding circuitry.

 In addition, digital transmission requires precise time synchronization

between the clocks in the transmitters and receivers.

 Finally, digital transmission systems are incompatible with older analog

transmission systems