Study of Human Behaviour

282 Paychology: The LEARNING

PRINCIPLES OF
MAJOR
SOME have conducted extensive experimental research on learning
Several psychologists and proposed
11.2 hereunder:
principles are described
Some of such major
various principles.
112.1 Thorndike's Connectionism
Connectionism is also a form of associative learning. This refers to connection or bond between
and error, i.e. try out
theory is and
stimulus
variously
correctcalled
which is formed
as connectionism
response
by trial method.
or trial and error theory or stimulus-responseThis
by E.L. Thorndike in the year 1898 and again in
theory was propounded
(S-R)theory. This experimental to study the behaviour of cats.
1913
works organism faces a
on the basis of his learning behaviour arises when the
According to Thorndike, problem or problematic
difficult situation-a problem. In
order
sorts of
to solve
movements
the
one by one in a random manner e e situation,
the
organism (the learner) tries all erroneous or incorrect movements. In course of trvi
all sorts of possible
movements). these are the correct movement is eventually made, i.e. the activity
Most of movements,

problem is accidentally performed-a sort of lucky mistake

required to solve the given mistaken" behaviour proves correct
the future behaviour as this 'luckily
ultimately changes
performed behaviours are gradually unleam
which is learnt by practice and the erroneously learning situation(stimulus's) and the
or extinguished. In this way, a connection between gradually gets bonded with the
correct response-(R) is made. Thus, the correct response
learning situation which is termed as S-R bond. dioesb aoad esd gniesl ,01 te
Experimental evidence
Thorndike's 'trial and error' or 'connectionism' is based on several experiments performed by him.
Two of such experiments mentioned below are most popular.
Puzle box experiment: Thorndike housed a hungry cat in a puzzle box (cage) and
presented fried fish in a tray outside the cage which the cat could view from inside the cage. 1he
cage was made of vertical slate (a thin strip of wood) through which the fried fish could be viewed
and also smelt. Inside the box, a loop of string hanged which if pulled, could open the door and e
the hungry cat through to eat the fish (reward). When the cat was first placed inside the cage u
since it was hungry, it struggled energetically to get out of the box. It did many different thntg
etc. but all
such as, trying to squeeze between the slate, scratching at the box, clawing at the door
these were without any effect. To quote Thorndike:
At first the cat is ineffective in attempts to escape, the cat tries to
ny opening, it clawsand bites, sits at the bars, it thrusts its paws squeeze nrous
out through auy
opening and claws at everything it reaches for eight to ten minutes it wll cla
bite and squeeze incessantly.
-THORNDIKE*, 1898
But then, in course of these random activities, eventually the cat pulls the string, thedoor
 Chapter 11 Some Other Principles (Theories) and Aspects of Learning 283
COmesto open,it goes through and eats the fish (reward) (see Figure 11.1). This eventual pulling
string isthe fucky mistake because it proves successful and changes future behaviour of the
of procedure was repeated for several days. Each day, much of the same thing happened,
cat This
althoughthe lucky mistake response gradually began to occur a bit sooner. Gradually, as the
number of trials (days) increased, the ineffective modes of responses were extinguished and the
CoTect response used to occur more rapidly. To quote Thorndike again:
Cradually all other non-successful impulses will be stamped out and the particular
nulse leading to successful act will be stamped in by the resultant pleasure, until
after many trials the cat will when put in a box, immediately claw button or loop
in a definite way.*

Teidgoolide
FIGURE 11.1 Problem box.

maze as a
experiment: Thorndike performed another experiment on rats using
a Maze for 24 hours and was brought to entry of the maze. Food
food
problem. The rat was deprived of which could be obtained by going through the maze
the maze the
was available in the goal box of box. It could be reached expeditiously by avoiding and
pathways from entry door to the goal food
the door, being hungry, it sensed the smell of the
blind alleys. When the rat
enters
beginning, the rat explored the maze after putting in
In the entered
began its exploratory behaviour. following almost each and every blind paths. It
the goal by eventually, the rat entered the
correct
Some efforts. It tried to reach exploratory activities,
and rentered. In course of
these
the food is reached, the trial ends. The procedure was
goal. When box without
path leading directly to the days until the maze is run from entrance to the goal experiment was
repeated regularly for several the blind alleys. The criterion of learningin this thought to be
into
error, i.e, without entering trial, i.e. the habit to follow only the correct path was continuously
maze
three consecutive errorless when rat was able to make errorless run into the
learning
the part of index of
outset of learning,
for three consecutive days. of Thorndike, one may assume that at the different for
From the two
experiments occurrence. However, the probability is has higher
initial probability of cat
each response has some cage problem, the squeezing response of the initial hierachy
responses. For example, in the string. Thus, there is
different response of the cat pulling
probability than the correct the effect of training trials is to increase selectively the probability reward
probabilities and response here is one which brings
Of response responses in the repertory. The correct acquired through trial and error and
of one of the of the organism which is
satisfying the drive
and by way of repeated practice.
Strengthened by
Thorndike, E.L. 1898, ibid.
 Behavlour
Study of Human
Prychology: The characteristics of
284 fundamental Jearning process which
makes clear some
The theory
folows: process strongly.
Learning is a gradual holding the connection
()
Practice is important for important condition for learning behaviour to OCcur.
(ii) an
(drive state) isrewarding learnt
and therefore such responses are
(i) Motivation
a response is while tk
(iv) Success ofunsuccessful are unlearnt. error.
which are
involves the process of trial and
(v) Learning

Laws of learning of studies. Thorndike formulated

obtained in course of series
Basing on the material
facts
learning. These laws are as follows:
the process of
basic 'laws'that govern learning. According to this law 4
Law of effect: This is the most important law of depend upon the effect that arespose
) of S-R connections
strengthening or weakening This law states that a response which has satisfvine
produces on the organism (learner).
drive, escape from punishment, or relief from fear wil
effect, such as satisfaction ofa
response which has an unpleasent effect, such as frustration of
be learned while the not be learned. This law is
based on formal
fear, will
a motive, punishment or (pleasure principle). The law states th¡t
philosophical principle of 'hedonism'
connection between the response and
strengthens the
satisfying effect of aresponseresponses. On the other hand, the annoying effect of a
the stimulus that arouses the words, the satisfying activitiesare
stamped
response weakens the connection. In other problem, the
annoying ones are stamped out. In the case of puzzle box
in and the and the response of pulling the string
the stimulus-the string
connection between through to the fish outside the cage.
The
the cat
was strengthened because it made that the cat made in response to
the other
between other movements
connections
the cage, were gradually weakened and eliminated as they produced
stimuli within
annoying effect. a According
Law of exercise: The law of exercise is another important law of learning.
(i)
often repeated responses are assumed to be established. In this sens.
to this law, more frequency'. Accordingly, less repeated response
the law is often referred to as 'Law of sublaws-the law of use and the law of dS
die out. Thus, this law consists of two
described, explains the repetition of cone
The law of effect which has just been correct response. SSimilarly,
the establishment of
response and the law of use explains
not repeated whilethe
the law of effect also explains why the incorrect responses are
law of disuse explains why incorrect responses are eliminated. part of
the
the
The law of exercise is a well established principle. This is the reason that body. Thus,the
body which is more exercised become stronger than less exercised part of the in futurethan
established
responses that are most frequently repeated (kept in use) are likely to be
the less frequently repeated (disuse) responses. calledlaw
learning
(ii) Law of readiness: Sometimes areference is made to athird law of to the state ofthe
organism
of readiness. This law is a corollary of the 'law of effect'. It refers
organism which makes him ready to respond. Under the law of readinesS, the
 Chapter 11 Some Other Principles (Theorles) and
Aspects of Learning + 209
experiences satisfaction in responding to the
resnond, it causes annoyance. Thus, this law situation. But, when he is not ready or set
is not an independent law of
rather just a corollary of law of effect. Thus law is learning
learn and
important in inducing atendency to
hence, applies to every intent learning situation.
cofmments
Thorndike'stheory of connectionism (S-R association) is considered as a landmark theory of
learningfor two basic reasons-firstly, Thorndike in fact, laid the
foundation stone for founding
difficult theeories of learning. Secondly, his works on cats and rats inspired many
researchers to
work extensively on how and what one learns and how learned behaviours are strengthened.
Thorndike's theory is based on well established fact of 'Practice'. Practice makes our
learned responses perfect, i.e. practice establishes S-R connections perfectly. Though, this notion
of Thorndike has met with severe criticism due to exaggerated emphasis on it, however, as we find
in most learning occasions, more particularly in motor learning, considerable amount of practice
is indispensable. Moreover, Thorndike is supposed to be the first psychologist to recognize the
significance of motivation in learning which led to the formulation of law of effect. Hill (1977)*
has rightly stated "he (Thorndike) incorporated within his objective psychology of learning, the
law of effect and thus, became the first real reinforcement theorist.
However, the theory suffers from certain pertinent shortcomings. The major shortcomings
are as follows:

Lo Gestalt psychologists have raised severe critical comments describing the theory far from
reality. According to the Gestaltists, the emphasis on practice in the theory is undue
because, practice alone is not important. Moreover, the theory is analytical in nature
yhereas what we learn is the pattern of the whole learning situation for which insight
ánd not the practice is important.
(i) Behaviourists have also criticized Thorndike's concept of law of effect. According to
them, the concepts of satisfaction and annoyance are subjective. Therefore, to explain
learning behaviour on the basis of subjective aspects would be misleading.
the effect
(iii) According to this theory, the repetition of a response is dependent upon ones are not
that it produces. Satisfying responses are repeated while annoying analogy is
repeated. Hence, learning of a response is effected backwardly. This response
not understandable to many learning theorists as how the consequence of the
consequence follows.
can influence the response which occurs first and its
(iv) The theory is mechanistic. It assumes that satisfying responses get fixated automatically
while the annoying responses drop out. Thus, it does not recognize the importance of
he failed to notice
insight or intelligence at all. Thorndike has himself accepted that the effect of reward
believes,
even a single activity being aroused on any rationale. He
However, Knafer (1968) found that
and punishment are mechanistic and autonomic. Hence, 'insight
for higher level conditioning, concentrations and awareness is a must.
instead of mechanical repetition is more important.
Thus. it is clear that Thorndike's theory suffers from several criticisms. However, the theory
theories of learning were
is important in the sense that building upon Thorndike's work, further learning.
propounded and thus, it paved the way tor progressive research in the area of
"HillL wE. (1977), Learning: ASurvey f Psychological Interpretations, 3rd ed., San Francisco Chandler.
 A1.3

Behaviour
Psychology; The Study of Human
286 I n
ano

A1.3 JNSIGHT THEORY severely criticized

analytical W ah
s a

with the principle of 'Gestalt'

theory of learning based on cognitive
approach t h r ete

Kohler and
of
Koffka,
behaviourists on
pregnant
learning and advocated
facts
Insight
gathered in course of works done
(stimulus-stimulus)
on perceptual
association instead of
prleiarninciplnegs, oom.

Hoo

This theory hasbeen built up on the formation of S-S SR the

si

that involves the

a phenomenon does it involve any observable
o nbe

association. neither a gradual process nor come

learning is Solutions suddenly. Most often b uf t

The theory holds that come to solution of a problem. the solution.

trial and eror
procedure to
progress, followed by sudden visualization of
Visualization third

there would be no apparentcalled insight.

was

this sudden solution is such as learning must be treated as a whole, the

of phenomena
Gestaltists argue that the parts. Learning comes in sudden flashes (or becom insight) the
than sum of its complete whole
learning, whole is greater the parts together in such a way that thethose parts (Wittings nd the
puts
only when the learner and that exceeds the mere sum or total of of
an organized pattern done on chimpanzees. One
Williams-III, 1984). some experiments
theory on the basis of
Gestaltists suggested thishereinbelow:
such experiment is
described isolated in a cage, hence, it was prevented from
'Sultan' was kept few bananas were
A chimpanzee, namedanimals. After a considerable deprivation of food, a
Sultan was given two
being acquainted with otherdistance which was beyond the reach of Sultan. bananas were kept at
kept outside the cage at a The sticks were hollow but firm bamb00 rods. The
sticks of different lengths. reached with the help of either of the sticks independentiy.
even be stick, even
such a distance that it could not to try to reach the bananas with one or the other
The chimpanzee took much
pains
But, all efforts proved futile. He then stopped making
the bars. stick
through pushing the shoulders from two sticks in despair. Eventually, the narrow end of one
efforts and began to playhollow with the
the broad end of the other stick.
got fitted into
together, it became
Thus, when the two sticks joined chimpanzee gazed at
relatively a longer stick. The felt delighted (see
and
this change in the situation usually expressed
of delight is
Figure 11.2). This sort AhaExperienc!
beings a_ This insight
in human
from perceiving the
which the chimp (Sultan) invented related
objects and the distance as one
two sticks, the
pattern leading to the solution
unit forming one united immediately pulled the banana
of the problem. Sultan
solved. Kohler (1925S)
and thus, the problem was
explains itas follows:
the chimp to put
SoBving the problem requiredmeaningful
into a whole.
Several pieces togetherexperiment resulted from
The solution in this period
insight, a sudden realization following awithout
of mental wrestling with a
problem FIGURE 11.2 Two-stick problem to show
reward*. Insight learning by chimpanzee.

Apes, N.Y. Harcourt, Bruce.

Kohler, W. (1925), The Mentality of
 Chapter 11 Some Other Principles
(Theories) and Aspects of Learning 287
A131 AnotherAExperiment
Inanotherexperiment, Kohler hanged a basket of fruits with the ceiling in a room. The basket
washangedat a height so that Sultan could not reach the fruit
threetool boxes kept in the room hither and thither. The hungryeven by jumping.
Sultan There
was brought intowere
the
Atthe beginning, the chimp (Sultan)
room. routine attempted to reach the basket by jumping from the
response, but failed. Then the chimp
foora looked
the situation inside the room. He saw the boxes, went ncar
one boxandtried to catch the basket by standing on the box
butfailed again. Then he brought another box and finally the
thirdbox, piled cach box on one another and then the chimp
was able to reach the basket. In future, it was observed that
the chimp usedthe three boxes without wasting time to reach
the target. Here
again the three boxes piled one another and
the suspended basket of fruits became interrelated elements
of
of perception the whole (see Figure 11.3).
The above two experiments obviously show how
insight or perception of relations (cognitive awareness or
map) between the different elements of a situation and goal
get organized together forming a pattern that enables the
organismto achieve the goal, i.e. solving the problem.
Insight is defined as sudden perception of relation
ships between the elements of a situation and goal which
suddenly comes and goes on without any break till one
reaches the goal.sit tfoirlw
Insightful learning is characterized as follows:
) nsight depends upon arrangement of the problem
situation. Insight comes easily provided the
FIGURE 11.3 A fruit basket hanging
essentials for solutions are so arranged that their with the roof; and a monkey is trying
relationship can be perceived, viz. the required to reach It by standing onthe boxes.
l tools are present, and that these can easily be putt
together to form a whole pattern etc.
For trial and error,
(i) Once solution occurs with insight, it can be promptly repeated. is the rule and,
gradual solution is the rule while for insightful learning, sudden solution without any
repeated
therefore, on next similar occasion, previous mode of solution is
trial and error.
situation also. What is learnt
(iii) Asolution achieved with insight can be applied in a new
relationship between means
through insight is not an S-R sequence rather a cognitive
and end.
able to adapt himself to new situation. He is
An effective learner is rich in resources and be successful to discover the
situation. He should
capable enough to use what he knows in new learning in place of mechanical rote
situations he has never faced before. Emphasis on insightful
encourages problem solving behaviour. Hence, problem solving behaviour can be better
learning and error or conditioning,
Cxplained in terms of insight rather than trial
 Human Behaviour
288 Psychology: The Study of
tnormivecgottonA
Critical comments higher level learning among developed
particularly
Ansight has a very important place in learning plays a key role in solving complex problem of
organisms. This fact cannot be denied. It rather this theory is not a fully
higher order with which human beingsbeings nostly confront. However, perfect
shortcomings:
theory of learning. It suffers from following suddenness. Insight comes dramaticalu.
characteristics of insight is
() One of the salient sudden. Even insight according to Dunker is gradui
But, all kinds of learnings are not
and graduated.
theory does not agree with trial and error notion. But, if we minutely conside
(1) Insight would find that Sultan also tried different movements and
the experiments of Kohler, we
found solution eventually. Hence, the elements of trial and error is found in insioh
then
experiments also.
biased. The situation cannot be regarded
(i11) The learning situation selected by Kohler was
representative of all kinds of learning situations. Particularly, the acquisition
as skills cannot be acquired
error, these
of motor skill is possible by mechanical trial and
dramatically.
11.14 TRANSFER OF LEARNINGdisb uo nt ols dhoot
Transfer is a general phenomenon. Learning one skill or task often influences the acquisition of
another skill or task. For example, a child when learns cycling, the gained ability is transferred
to the process of learning any other two-wheeler vehicle such as scooter or bike. Similarly when
we lean to drive a particular make of car, we also become able to drive other makes of cars
With certain modifications or changes in the system such as right-hand driving to left-hand driving
etc. The proficiency gained in additions and subtractions while learning in schools enables the
Pupils correctly calculate the price he should pay in buying an object. In school learning situations
aso, the abilities gained in additions and subtractions, enable children to learn other mathematical
Operations such as multiplication and division. Similarly, on many other situations also, we find the
Phenomenon of transfer inoperation. Thus, transfer refers to the impactof earlier acquired habit or
ability in the acquisition of a new habit or atask.
 h i c th

Human Behavlour
314 + Peychology: The Study of perma

Transfer effects are of two typespositive and negative. In positive transfer. thhe acquisitn a task

of one type of skill facilitates the acquisition of another. On the other hand, when the acquisitin recita

of a new skill or task, it is known as

training negative
interferes in the acquisition transfer of Appro

of earlier habit or skillterms, positive transfer is also referred to as because earlier while the etcT
.

transfer. In technical as habit interference. It is so called acquired

sometimes habits
negative transfer is referred to acquisition of new habit or skill. However,
inhibitive. Such the effec
Some

to the nor
are interfering in nature
learn
facilitative
of any effect effects
acquisition on later task is neither
learning or effect shows absence of of
no
of earlier or no transfer effect. Thus, zero earlier
called zero effect
learning on new (later) learning. zero transfer effects are shown in Table 11.4. natu

The positive, ncgative and learning

of transfer effect: transfer in
TABLE 11.4 The phenomenon
Original (previous) learning Later (news) learning (Kind of fect) Wh
Nature of transfer
Task-A
Taks-B (Facilitating) Thu
Positive transfer
A.
Negative transfer Task-C
Task-D (Interfering) spe
B Task-F (No effect) Th
C. Zero transfer Task-E

be

11.14.1 Kinds of Transfer in Learning

learning, psychologists have recognized two types of transfer phenomenon.
In the area of transfer and specific transfer. The effect of
former
These are nonspecific (general) or generic
transfer is always positive while the effect of latter type may be both-positive and
type of
negative.

NoDspecific (general) or generic transfer

conceptualized nor described in detail.
This type of transfer is quite general in nature and is neither
Despite ambiguity in conceptualization, it has been observedway. in general that previous learning
Its effect is a sort of warming
serves as predisposing effect to learn another task in a better
task more conveniently.
up in which prior knowledge or learning predisposes one to learn another effects of its knowledge
Thus, in course of performing an original task, such kinds of warming up
Such a phenomenon
prepare or make the learner ready to perform next task with some convenience.
is witnessed by all of us in our daily life situations. An athlete or a cricket player before going to
play or take part in sports activities makes a light preparatory exercises just to get himself "warmed
up' for final demonstration in the competition. Children's initial practice in drawing irregular lines
on the board or moving pencil on a sheet of paper warms them up to draw lines smoothly to
learn alphabet writings, drawing symmetrical lines, sketching figures ete. All these are examples o
nonspecific or generic transfer.
Similarly, we find the examinees in the examination hall that in the beginning, their rate of
oriting answers is slow which gradually increases. This also exemplifies the nonspecific or genen
transfer. Thus, warming up is a kind of establishing adjustment with the items situations,
eauipments etc. which are used in learning or performing a task. This adjustment results from
initial practice.
Another important element of non-specifictransfer is learning to learn, Learning to learn
task
means learning or acquiring the basic skills and best methods to learn or perform an original
 Chapter 11 Some Other Principles (Theories) and Aspects of
Learning 315
acquired or developed through previous practice. Such practices or trials
Mhich. 0ois in bring almost
permanent chhange the individual and transfer effects of such learnings
facilitate
atask. For example, adequate knowledge of vocabulary, rules of grammar, previousin habits learning
of
iation,previous knowledge of a subject etc. facilitate in
further structure of sentences, use of
poriate words and rules of grammar, rapid reading of books,
etc. Thus, learning to lean serves as a base or foundation over higher
which level concepts
learning of a subject
or acquisition of
skill depends and facilitates in
some acquiring a new and thus,
karnprovides convenience in further or future learning skill. To put it another
learning way,is learning
to learn also a formto
ofnon-speciictransfer effect in future leaning.
It isimportant to remember here that the transfer effect of 'warming up' is of temporary
while the effect of
nature learning to learn' is relatively permanent.
specific transfer
While learning something, it consists of aseries of stimulus-S-response associations (S-R associations).
Thus, learning involves a chain of discriminable stimuli, each of which has to be associated with a
specifc response. Specific transfer, therefore, means effect of learning of atask on the other task.
The learning of one task may either facilitate the learming of another task or make it more difficult
ormay have no such effect. This kind of transfer effect depends upon similarity or dissimilarity
hetween the initial leaming task and the second task. The possible relationship between stimuli and
responses are shown in Table 11.5.
TABLE 11.5 Transfer effect on the basis of stimulus-response similarities and differences
Initial task Second task Comments Nature of transfer
1. SA-RA SC-RD Stimulus and response both are Zero effect
different
2. SA-RA SA-RA Both are similar Positive transfer
3. SA-RA SA-RD Stimuli are similar but responses Some amount of positive
differ transfer may occur
4. SA-RA SC-RA Stimulus is different but responses Positive transfer is obtained
are similar
5. SA-RA SA-RA Both are similar but association pairs Negative transfer will occur
are interchanged

of stimulus-stimulus (S-S)
From Table 11.5. it is evident that five distinct possibilities
stimulus-response (S-R) associations and the resultant transfer effects are possible. All such
or caused by certain specific factors that
transfer effects are specific because these eifects are
similarity in stimulus situation, response
operate in forning S-S or S-R associations such as
diferences. Due to operation of these factors, the
Similarity, stimulus differences or response specific factors is operative, no
transfer effect is either positive or negative and if none of these
ransfer effect (zero effect) occurs.
be attributed to some specific factor involved
Thus, specifc transfer effect is an effect that can
in learning tasks. studies, the following conclusions have been drawn
On the basis of several experimental
about specific transfer.
 11.14.2 Bases of Transfer oo oo gnio
Ahe phenomenon of transfer occurs on account of the
following factors:9g o
Similarity of contentsbnsgab usl es obeik atl olls o ot Sr
Parts of old habits runoff as a response to
new situation more easily when the
two stimulus situations with some
minor modifications are the same. For contents of th.
learns about the national movement in his example, suppose, a punji
of national movement in the history class.
political science class. He again learns about the event
Since, the contents of the two class situations are he
same, what has been learnt through lectures in the
former is more amenable to be transferred to
another. Similarly, one learns the alphabets
QSTNHPLAR. Here, the learning of the second QQSTNIPJFA. In another session, he is given to leam
of the items are already learned in the series of alphabets will be easier because, most
former set. A person familiar with one card game finds it
easier to Jearn other games. Many similar examples may be cited.
Similarity of technique
Most tasks or problems involve similar techniques to be
a problem. Hence, techniques learned in one followed in performing or solving
situation are
example, one learns a scientific approach to the problem intransferred to another situation. For
one subject and applies the samte
scientific procedure in the other fields is an example of transfer of
takes a course in formal logic and thereafter thinks more technique. Likewise, ifa Stuoci
logic. The procedures of formal logic are logically, test his thinking in termiS
transferred here.
Similárity of principle
LTransfer of technique and principle are akin to each other.
the principles learned in one Roberts (1932) in his study rouf
situation were applied in another situation and thus, the similarity
principle made new learning easier. Similarly Katona (1908) in a
in human adults, showed that
when study of puzzle solving of one ant
kind of problem, they solved new subjects were taught the principle involved in solution
problems also as this too
other hand, those who did not learn the involved the similar principle.
principle, failed to show such transfer.
 Chapter 11 Some Other Principles (Theoriea) and Aspects of Learning 317

kombínation of all these ootn

When the two tasks or problems are similar in contents, techniques and principles, the amount
transfer is supposed to be maximum. This has been shown in a number of studies involving
of well as verbal learning situations. For exanple, Judid (1908) and Harlow (1949)
motor as
observed that the combined sinilarities (contents, techniques and principles)mannerfavour transfer of
that induces
previous experience more readily because these together organize in such a organized together
sort of learning set. Cues received from each elements of similarities are
involved in a situation and make the
and thus, give a more vivid picture of the intricacies
solution easier.
learning is an important phenomenon
From the above descriptions, it is obvious that transfer of modification or learning behaviour.
aspect of behaviour
of learning event and thus, an important
oiibie l gimasl