N O T E S

PERSPECTIVES OF
PSYCHOLOGY

1. The Psychodynamic Perspective- Sigmund Freud. unconscious mind,

early childhood experiences, and interpersonal relationships
id- includes all the primal and unconscious desires.
ego- deal with the demands of the real world
superego- last part of the psyche to develop and is tasked with
managing all of our internalized morals, standards, and ideals.

2. The Behavioral Perspective- learned behaviors. Edward Thorndike and

John B. Watson. focuses solely on observable behaviors rather than on
emphasizing internal states. Behavioral principles are often applied in
mental health settings.

3. The Cognitive Perspective - mental processes like memory, thinking,

problem-solving, language, and decision-making. Jean Piaget and Albert
Bandura
information-processing model (comparing the human mind to a
computer) to conceptualize how information is acquired, processed,
stored, and utilized.

4. The Biological Perspective- emphasizes the physical and biological

bases of behavior. how genetics influence behavior or how damage to
specific areas of the brain affect personality.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and positron emission tomography
(PET) scans give researchers tools to observe the brain under a variety
of conditions.
 N O T E S

PERSPECTIVES OF
PSYCHOLOGY

5. The Cross-Cultural Perspective- human behavior across

different cultures. culture influences our thinking and behavior.
In individualistic cultures (such as the United States) people tend
to exert less effort when they are part of a group—a phenomenon
known as social loafing
In collectivistic cultures (such as China), people tend to work
harder when they are part of a group.

6. The Evolutionary Perspective- how the theory of evolution can

explain physiological processes.

7. The Humanistic Perspective- a positive view of human nature.

Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow emphasize the free will of human
beings and their natural striving to grow and unfold their inner
potential.
self-actualization

8. Positive psychology- which focuses on helping people live

happier, healthier lives.
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RESEARCH METHODS
1. Naturalistic Observation- to study human or animal behavior in its
natural context. behavior observed in everyday life is likely to be more
natural, spontaneous, and varied than that observed in a laboratory.

2. Case Studies- a detailed description of one person or a few individuals.

-uses a variety of methods to collect information that yields a detailed, in-
depth portrait of the individual.
- includes real-life observation, interviews, scores on various
psychological tests, and whatever other measures the researcher
considers revealing.

3. Surveys- a carefully selected group of people is asked a set of

predetermined questions in face-to-face interviews or in questionnaires.

Naturallistic Observations, Case Studies, Surveys can provide a rich set of

raw data that describes behaviors, beliefs, opinions, and attitudes.

4. Correlational Research- Correlation means that two phenomena

seems to be related when one goes up, the other goes up or down.
Correlation research often sheds light on important psychological
phenomena These interesting findings allow us to make some predictions,

Correlational data are useful for many purposes, but they do not
permit the researcher to explain cause and effect.

5. Experimental Research- intriguing psychological variables, such as

love, hatred, or grief, do not readily lend themselves to experimental
manipulation. experiments are conducted in an artificial setting,
participants—whether human or nonhuman animals—may behave
differently than they would in real life.
The experimental method is a powerful tool, but it, too, has limitations

6. Multimethod Research- Use different methods of data collection and

analysis within a single research paradigm.
 N O T E S
NERVOUS SYSTEM
most complex body system.
Constantly alive with electricity
body's prime communication and Coordination network
an estimate is that all the individual nerves rom one body, joined end to end,
could each around the world two and a half times

The nervous system has three main functions:

1. sensory input - the body gathers Information or data, by way of
neurons, glia and synapses.
2. integration of data
3. motor output
The nervous system is composed of excitable nerve cells (neurons) and
synapses that form between the neurons and connect them to centers
throughout the body or to other neurons.

Functions of the Nervous System:

1. Organizing and directing motor responses of the voluntary muscle
system, enabling the body to move more effectively as a whole and
to achieve purposeful movement.
This coordination of voluntary muscles makes possible complex
activities, such as walking, running, and playing, as well as simple
activities, such as maintaining muscle tone and posture while at rest.

2. Monitoring and recognizing stimuli (and Information) within the

environment and directing an appropriate response to the stimuli.
This function makes possible reflex actions, such as pulling away one's
hand from a hot surface, as well as perceiving music being played in
the next room.

3. Monitoring and coordinating internal body states so that internal

organs function as a unit, Internal body constancy (homeostasis) is
maintained, and protective action is taken.

4. Other functions, such as display of personality traits, language,

speech, learning, remembering, feeling emotion, reasoning, and generating
and relaying thoughts.
 N O T E S

NERVOUS SYSTEM
Two major parts nervous system

*Central Nervous System (CNS)- brain and spinal cord

brain- is the body's "control center“.
The CNS has various centers located within it that carry out the
sensory, motor, and integration of data. These centers can be
subdivided into:
1. Lower Centers (including the spinal cord and brain stem)
2. Higher centers communicating with the brain via effectors.

*Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)- a vast network of spinal and

cranial nerves that are linked to the brain and the spinal cord.
It contains sensory receptors which help in processing changes
in the internal and external environment. This information is
sent to the CNS via afferent sensory nerves.

The Brain and Spinal Cord are the Central Nervous System.
the human brain- resembles a computer.
-But in addition to logical processing, it is capable of complex
development, learning, self-awareness, emotion, and creativity.
-Every second, millions of chemical and electrical signals pass
around the brain and the body's intricate nerve network but
nervous tissue is delicate and needs physical protection and a
reliable blood supply.

Amygdala- red spots shown at right and are responsible for the
recognition of fear and negative emotions as well as facial
recognition.
1. -Facial expression is one or more motions or positions of the
muscles beneath the skin of the face.
-These movements convey the emotional state of an Individual to
observers and are a form of nonverbal communication. They are a
primary means of conveying social information between humans.
 N O T E S

NERVOUS SYSTEM

Cerebral Cortex
- Brain's most complex area with billions of neurons and trillions of
synapses:
-the tissue responsible for mental activities: consciousness,
perceiving sensations, skilled movements, emotional awareness,
memory, thinking language ability, motivation.

Functions of the frontal lobe of the brain

Decision-making
problem-solving
Conscious thought
Attention
Emotional and behavioral control
Speech production
Personality
Intelligence
Body movement.

Functions of the parietal lobe of the brain

Sensory information (touch, pressure, pain, position, vibration,
temperature) processing.
Spatial processing and spatial manipulation. This is the ability to
understand where you are in three-dimensional space, such as
how to navigate around your home or town.

The temporal lobe is located between the frontal and occipital

lobes and below your parietal lobe.
Functions:
Language comprehension speech formation learning
Memory - Hearing
Nonverbal interpretation
Sound-to-visual image conversion
 N O T E S

SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

Sensation and perception are two separate processes that are

very closely related.

1. Sensation is input about the physical world obtained by our

sensory receptors.
2. Perception is the process by which the brain selects, organizes,
and interprets these sensations.

senses are the physiological basis of perception.

Perception of the same senses may vary from one person to
another because each person’s brain interprets stimuli differently
based on that individual’s learning, memory, emotions, and
expectations.
Sensory receptors are specialized neurons that respond to
specific types of stimuli.
When sensory information is detected by a sensory receptor,
sensation has occurred.
The conversion from sensory stimulus energy to action potential
is known as transduction

There are five senses:

1. vision
2. hearing (audition)
3. smell (olfaction)
4. taste (gustation)
5. and touch (somatosensation).
Sensory systems provide information about
1. balance (the vestibular sense),
2. body position and movement (proprioception and kinesthesia),
3. pain (nociception),
4. and temperature (thermoception)
 N O T E S

1. Signal detection theory - In some cases a specific stimulus gets

detected while the stimulus is weaker than others, although you
might think that the strongest stimuli would be received and
processed. Someone might detect a specific, but weaker stimuli
through all the other stronger stimuli.
- For example, parents of a new-born are likely to hear their baby
crying over the sound of a train passing by. Simply because their
brain is programmed during that time to hear, smell, and prioritize
the stimuli sent by their baby over other stimuli.

2. Threshold of sensation
-The functioning of the senses is often tested and divided into three
levels.
The different levels are the
absolute threshold- senses receive stimuli that are both strong
and weak, your senses aren’t able to detect every stimulus in your
environment. When stimuli are at such a low level, you wouldn’t be
able to hear, smell, see, taste or feel them.

the differential threshold- senses detect all kinds of stimuli at

once, some of these stimuli are close to each other.
-The minimal difference that a person can detect between to stimuli.
This means that two stimuli do in fact differ from each other, but you
might only feel, hear, see, smell or taste one thing.

the terminal threshold- senses pick up stimuli.

-these stimuli are detected by your senses and a signal of the stimuli
will be sent to your brain quicker than all other stimuli. This might be
despite the fact that you are trying to focus on something else, to
ensure a reaction that would protect your body.

-The way you perceive things depends on the information your brain
receives about your environment from the sensational process. The
functioning of your senses regarding the different thresholds,
therefore, affects how you experience things after you feel, hear, see,
smell and taste them.
 N O T E S

The Eye
Light enters the eye through the cornea, a clear covering that
protects the eye and begins to focus the incoming light.

The light then passes through the pupil, a small opening in the center
of the eye.

The pupil is surrounded by the iris, the colored part of the eye that
controls the size of the pupil by constricting or dilating in response
to light intensity.

Behind the pupil is the lens, a structure that focuses the incoming
light on the retina, --the layer of tissue at the back of the eye that
contains photoreceptor cells.

As our eyes move from near objects to distant objects, a process

known as visual accommodation occurs.

Visual accommodation is the process of changing the curvature of

the lens to keep the light entering the eye focused on the retina.

Rays from the top of the image strike the bottom of the retina and
vice versa, and rays from the left side of the image strike the right
part of the retina and vice versa, causing the image on the retina to
be upside down and backward.

Furthermore, the image projected on the retina is flat, and yet our
final perception of the image will be three dimensional.

For people with normal vision, the lens properly focuses incoming
light on the retina.
For people who are nearsighted, images from far objects focus too
far in front of the retina,
whereas for people who are farsighted, images from near objects
focus too far behind the retina.
Eyeglasses solve the problem by adding a secondary corrective lens.
 N O T E S

Trichromatic theory – Thomas Young projected red, green and

blue-violet lights onto a screen so they partly overlapped.
He found that he could create any color in the visible spectrum by
varying the intensities of the three lights.
When all three lights fell on the same spot, they create white light.

Opponent-process theory – (Ewald Hering)

Afterimages are made possible by three types of color receptors:
red-green, blue-yellow, and a type that perceives differences in
brightness.
A red-green cone cannot transmit messages for red and green at the
same time.
Therefore, staring at the green, black and yellow flag for thirty
seconds will disturb the balance of neural activity.
The afterimage of red, white and blue would represent the eye's
attempt to reestablish a balance.

Color Blindness
1. Trichromat – a person with normal color vision
2. Monochromat – a person who is sensitive to black and white only
and hence color-blind.
3. Dichromat – a person who is sensitive to black-white and either
red-green or blue-yellow and hence partially color-blind.

VISUAL PERCEPTION
Visual perception is the process by which we organize or make sense
of the sensory impressions caused by the light that strikes our eyes.

Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization

Gestalt Psychologists have noted that our perceptions are also
guided by rules or laws of closure, proximity, similarity, continuity
and common fate.
 N O T E S

1. Closure – the tendency to perceive a broken figure as being

complete or whole.
2. Proximity – nearness; the perceptual tendency to group
together objects that are near one another.
3. Similarity- the perceptual tendency to group together
objects that are similar in appearance.
4. Continuity – the tendency to perceive a series of points or
lines as having unity.
5. Common Fate – the tendency to perceive elements that move
together as belonging together.

Two processes to explain the perception of sound waves:

1. Place Theory – the pitch of the sound is determined by the

section of the basilar membrane that vibrates in response to
the sound.
2. Frequency Theory – the pitch of a sound is reflected in the
frequency of the neural impulses that are generated in
response to the sound.
 N O T E S

STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Consciousness is a term used to describe the awareness of

your physical and mental experience.
Not all forms of awareness are the same.
One meaning of consciousness is sensory awareness of the
environment.
Another aspect of consciousness is selective attention.
Selective attention means focusing one's consciousness on
a particular stimulus.
Selective attention is the key to self-control.
Selective attention makes our senses keener.
Another meaning of consciousness is that of direct inner
awareness.
We are conscious or have direct inner awareness of our own
thoughts, images, emotions, and memories.
Human consciousness is often compared to a stream—it is
constantly changing, but always flowing smoothly.
The way that your thoughts drift from one topic to another
can feel effortless even when the thoughts you're having are
dramatically different.
Two common states of awareness exist: conscious and
unconscious.
Where the term unconscious represents of a lack of
awareness, consciousness itself can present with varying
levels of awareness.
This is often referred to as a person's state of
consciousness.
Human consciousness can be altered in a number of different
ways including through hypnosis, with drugs, and mental
exercises.
Reaching an altered state of consciousness can also be
achieved through various types of meditation and mind-body
practices
 N O T E S

Levels of Awareness

A person's state of consciousness is interconnected with

their level of awareness.
For example, if someone is in a half-asleep or drowsy state, they
will typically experience a lowered level of awareness.
Conversely, when exposed to a stimulant, a person can
experience a heightened level of awareness.

Low Awareness

-Although you may not feel as if you are aware of every single
detail of what is happening around you, even in a state of
consciousness where you have a low level of awareness, your
brain is still capable of processing the signals it receives.

High Awareness

-A person who experiences a high level of awareness tends to be

more in control of their thoughts.
-The ability to pay attention to detail and analyze the activity
around you comes with heightened awareness, but this can
typically only be achieved during certain states of
consciousness.

The practice of mindfulness is one example of how heightened

awareness of a person's thoughts can be achieved by
focusing on the present moment.
Meditation is often used to reach this type of awareness
because the practice can help individuals achieve an altered
state of consciousness.
 N O T E S

Factors That Can Alter Consciousness

Body Clocks and Consciousness
-Many people begin the day full of energy but then start to feel
run-down by mid-afternoon.
-The daily fluctuations of energy levels are known as the
circadian rhythm and play an important role in human
consciousness.
Sometimes referred to as the body's "clocks," these daily
rhythms have a major impact on your consciousness because
these rhythms determine the level of awareness or alertness
your body is able to achieve.

Sleep and Dreams

-Sleep experts recommend that adults get eight hours of sleep a
night.
-We spend one-third of our lives in sleep – or would if we could.
-Sleep creates a unique state of consciousness because while
you experience a lowered level of awareness during sleep, your
brain is still active.
-Your brain's ability to cycle through different stages of sleep
with both rapid eye movement (REM) and non-REM sleep is proof
of this activity.
-When the sleep cycle is disrupted, it can wreak havoc on a
person's body clock and impact their state of consciousness
during both sleep and waking periods.
-If you're not sleeping well, common sleep disorders could be
to blame for the drowsiness, irritability, and brain fog that
comes from disrupted sleep.
-Dreams are most likely to be vivid during REM sleep.
REM sleep is the part of the sleep cycle most often associated
with the dreams that you can remember when you wake up.
 N O T E S

Altering Consciousness Through Hypnosis, Meditation and

Biofeedback
1. Hypnosis
is an altered state of consciousness in which people
are suggestible and behave as though they are in a
trance.
The phenomenon of hypnosis involves hyper-
awareness which leads to an alteration of a person's
state of consciousness.
During hypnosis, a person will often appear as if
they are asleep, although in reality, they are
actually processing their thoughts through a deep,
focused awareness.
Hypnosis has been used for a number of purposes
including pain management and weight loss.
Research also shows that hypnosis can be an
effective treatment for different types of anxiety
and pain.
Role Theory (Theodore Sarbin) – A theory that
explains hypnotic events in terms of the person's
ability to act as though he or she were hypnotized.
Response Set Theory – The view that response
expectancies play a key role in the production of the
experiences suggested by the hypnotist.

2. Meditation
is a systematic procedure for inducing a calm,
relaxed state through the use of special techniques.
As the term is commonly used by psychologists,
meditation refers to various ways of focusing one's
consciousness to alter one's relationship with the
world.
 N O T E S

They are methods of suspending problem-solving,

planning, worries, and awareness of the events of
the day.
These methods help people cope with stress by
inducing feelings of relaxation.
Many studies document that meditation increases
relaxation, decreases pain, decreases anxiety, and
alleviates problems related to anxiety, including
migraine headaches.
It also improves attention and concern for others.
One common form of meditation, transcendental
meditation (TM), was brought to the United States
by the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in 1959.
People practice TM by concentrating on mantras –
words or sounds that are claimed to help the person
achieve an altered state of consciousness.
It is used as a method for coping with stress.

3. Biofeedback
is the systematic feeding back to an organism
information about a bodily function so that the
organism can gain control of that function.
Biofeedback is widely used by sports psychologists
to teach athletes how to relax muscle groups that
are essential to the task at hand so that the
athletes can control anxiety and tension.
 N O T E S

Altering Consciousness Through Drugs

A psychoactive drug is a chemical that changes our
states of consciousness, particularly our
perceptions and moods.
These drugs are commonly found in everyday foods
and beverages, including chocolate, coffee, and soft
drinks, as well as in alcohol and in over-the-counter
drugs, such as aspirin, Tylenol, and cold and cough
medication.
Psychoactive drugs are also frequently prescribed
as sleeping pills, tranquilizers, and anti-anxiety
medications, and they may be taken, illegally, for
recreational purposes.
The four primary classes of psychoactive drugs are
stimulants, depressants, opioids, and hallucinogens.
Psychoactive drugs affect consciousness by
influencing how neurotransmitters operate at the
synapses of the central nervous system (CNS).
Some psychoactive drugs are agonists, which
mimic the operation of a neurotransmitter; some
are antagonists, which block the action of a
neurotransmitter; and some work by blocking the
reuptake of neurotransmitters at the synapse.
In some cases, the effects of psychoactive drugs
mimic other naturally occurring states of
consciousness.
For instance, sleeping pills are prescribed to create
drowsiness, and benzodiazepines are prescribed to
create a state of relaxation.
In other cases, psychoactive drugs are taken for
recreational purposes with the goal of creating
states of consciousness that are pleasurable or
that help us escape our normal consciousness.
 N O T E S

Altering Consciousness Through Drugs

The use of psychoactive drugs, and especially those
that are used illegally, has the potential to create
very negative side effects.
The problem is that many drugs create tolerance: an
increase in the dose required to produce the same
effect, which makes it necessary for the user to
increase the dosage or the number of times per day
that the drug is taken.
As the use of the drug increases, the user may
develop a dependence, defined as a need to use a
drug or other substance regularly.
Dependence can be psychological, in which the drug
is desired and has become part of the everyday life
of the user, but no serious physical effects result if
the drug is not obtained; or physical, in which
serious physical and mental effects appear when the
drug is withdrawn.
Cigarette smokers who try to quit, for example,
experience physical withdrawal symptoms, such as
becoming tired and irritable, as well as extreme
psychological cravings to enjoy a cigarette in
particular situations, such as after a meal or when
they are with friends.
Users may wish to stop using the drug, but when
they reduce their dosage they experience
withdrawal—negative experiences that accompany
reducing or stopping drug use, including physical
pain and other symptoms.
When the user powerfully craves the drug and is
driven to seek it out, over and over again, no matter
what the physical, social, financial, and legal cost,
we say that he or she has developed an addiction to
the drug.
 N O T E S

Speeding Up the Brain with Stimulants: Caffeine,

Nicotine, Cocaine, and Amphetamines
A stimulant is a psychoactive drug that operates by
blocking the reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine,
and serotonin in the synapses of the CNS.
For these reasons, stimulants are frequently used
to help people stay awake and to control weight.
Used in moderation, some stimulants may increase
alertness, but used in an irresponsible fashion they
can quickly create dependency.
The withdrawal from stimulants can create profound
depression and lead to an intense desire to repeat
the high.
People who reduce their caffeine intake often report
being irritable, restless, and drowsy, as well as
experiencing strong headaches, and these
withdrawal symptoms may last up to a week.
Most experts feel that using small amounts of
caffeine during pregnancy is safe, but larger
amounts of caffeine can be harmful to the fetus.
Nicotine is the main cause for the dependence-
forming properties of tobacco use, and tobacco use
is a major health threat.
Nicotine creates both psychological and physical
addiction, and it is one of the hardest addictions to
break.
Nicotine is also found in smokeless (chewing)
tobacco.
Today cocaine is taken illegally as recreational
drug.
 N O T E S

Speeding Up the Brain with Stimulants: Caffeine,

Nicotine, Cocaine, and Amphetamines
Cocaine has a variety of adverse effects on the body.
Since cocaine also tends to decrease appetite,
chronic users may also become malnourished.
The intensity and duration of cocaine's effects,
which include increased energy and reduced fatigue,
depend on how the drug is taken.
Injecting or smoking cocaine produces a faster,
stronger high than snorting it.
Amphetamine is a stimulant that produces increased
wakefulness and focus, along with decreased fatigue
and appetite.
Amphetamine is used in prescription medications to
treat attention deficit disorder (ADD) and
narcolepsy and to control appetite.

Slowing Down the Brain with Depressants: Alcohol,

Barbiturates and Benzodiazepines, and Toxic Inhalants
In contrast to stimulants, which work to increase
neural activity, a depressant acts to slow down
consciousness.
A depressant is a psychoactive drug that reduces
the activity of the CNS.
Depressants are widely used as prescription
medicines to relieve pain, to lower heart rate and
respiration, and as anticonvulsants.
The most commonly used of the depressants is
alcohol, a colorless liquid, produced by the
fermentation of sugar or starch, that is the
intoxicating agent in fermented drinks.
 N O T E S

Slowing Down the Brain with Depressants: Alcohol,

Barbiturates and Benzodiazepines, and Toxic Inhalants

Alcohol is the oldest and most widely used drug of

abuse in the world.
In low to moderate doses, alcohol first acts to
remove social inhibitions by slowing activity in the
sympathetic nervous system.
At high blood levels, further CNS depression leads to
dizziness, nausea, and eventually a loss of
consciousness.
Alcohol is not a "safe" drug by any means—its safety
ratio is only 10.
Alcohol use is highly costly to societies because so
many people abuse alcohol and because judgment
after drinking can be substantially impaired.
Even people who are not normally aggressive may
react with aggression when they are intoxicated.
Alcohol use also leads to rioting, unprotected sex,
and other negative outcomes.
Barbiturates are depressants that are commonly
prescribed as sleeping pills and painkillers.
Related to barbiturates, benzodiazepines are a
family of depressants used to treat anxiety,
insomnia, seizures, and muscle spasms.
In the United States, benzodiazepines are among the
most widely prescribed medications that affect the
CNS.
Toxic inhalants are also frequently abused as
depressants.
Inhalants are some of the most dangerous
recreational drugs, with a safety index below 10, and
their continued use may lead to permanent brain
damage.
 N O T E S

Opioids: Opium, Morphine, Heroin, and Codeine

Opioids are chemicals that increase activity in

opioid receptor neurons in the brain and in the
digestive system, producing euphoria, analgesia,
slower breathing, and constipation.
Their chemical makeup is similar to the endorphins,
the neurotransmitters that serve as the body's
"natural pain reducers."
Natural opioids are derived from the opium poppy,
which is widespread in Eurasia, but they can also be
created synthetically.
Opium is the dried juice of the unripe seed capsule
of the opium poppy.
It may be the oldest drug on record, known to the
Sumerians before 4000 BC.
Morphine and heroin are stronger, more addictive
drugs derived from opium, while codeine is a weaker
analgesic and less addictive member of the opiate
family.
When morphine was first refined from opium in the
early 19th century, it was touted as a cure for opium
addiction, but it didn't take long to discover that it
was actually more addicting than raw opium.
When heroin was produced a few decades later, it
was also initially thought to be a more potent, less
addictive painkiller but was soon found to be much
more addictive than morphine.
Heroin is about twice as addictive as morphine, and
creates severe tolerance, moderate physical
dependence, and severe psychological dependence.
 N O T E S

Hallucinogens: Cannabis, Mescaline, and LSD

The drugs that produce the most extreme alteration

of consciousness are the hallucinogens,
psychoactive drugs that alter sensation and
perception and that may create hallucinations.
The hallucinogens are frequently known as
"psychedelics."
Drugs in this class include lysergic acid
diethylamide (LSD, or "Acid"), mescaline, and
phencyclidine (PCP), as well as a number of natural
plants including cannabis (marijuana), peyote, and
psilocybin.
The chemical compositions of the hallucinogens are
similar to the neurotransmitters serotonin and
epinephrine, and they act primarily as agonists by
mimicking the action of serotonin at the synapses.
The hallucinogens may produce striking changes in
perception through one or more of the senses.
The precise effects a user experiences are a
function not only of the drug itself, but also of the
user's preexisting mental state and expectations of
the drug experience.
In large part, the user tends to get out of the
experience what he or she brings to it.
The hallucinations that may be experienced when
taking these drugs are strikingly different from
everyday experience and frequently are more similar
to dreams than to everyday consciousness.