How do Organisms Reproduce?

Introduction

Reproduction is the process by which living organisms produce new individuals similar to themselves.
It ensures continuity of life on earth.
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Nucleus of the cell contains DNA (Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid) which is the heredity material.
DNA replicates and forms new cells causing variation. So, these new cells will be similar but may
not be identical to original cell.
Variations are useful for the survival of the individual and species over time as well as basis for evolution.
For example- If temperature of water increases (due to global warming) drastically, bacteria will die. But if
some variants are resistant to heat, they will survive.

Types of Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

A single individual give rise to new individual. Two individuals i.e., one male and one female are

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Gametes are not formed. needed to give rise to new individual.

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New individual is identical to parent. Gametes are formed.
It is extremely useful as a means of rapid New individual is genetically similar but not identical
multiplication.
Adopted by lower organisms.
to parents.

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It is useful to generate more variations in species.

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Adopted by higher organisms.

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The parent cell divides into daughter cells.
1. Binary Fission

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Seen in bacteria, protozoa like Amoeba, Paramecium.
The cell division can occur in any plane as in case of Amoeba. However, organisms like Leishmania, which have a

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whip like flagella at one end, binary fission occurs in a definite orientation in relation to the flagellum.

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Cytokinesis: Division of cytoplasm.
Karyokinesis: Division of Nucleus.
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 2. Multiple Fission

In this during unfavourable conditions, the parent cell develops a thick resistant wall around itself forming a
cyst.
Within the wall, the cytoplasm divides many times to form many plasmodia.
When conditions become favourable, the cyst wall breaks and the Plasmodium are released.
e.g. Plasmodium

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3. Budding

Organisms like Hydra & reproduce through budding, utilizing regenerative cells.

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A bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division at a specific site on the parent organism.
Buds mature into independent individuals and detach from the parent body.

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In some multi-cellular organisms with simple body organization,

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fragmentation is a method of reproduction.

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Example: Spirogyra breaks into smaller pieces upon maturation,

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which grow into new individuals.
Not all multi-cellular organisms can divide cell-by-cell due to

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complex body organization.
Organisms with specialized cells organized into tissues and organs

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require more complex reproductive methods.

5. Regeneration

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Fully differentiated organisms can regenerate new individuals from body parts.
Example: Hydra and Planaria can regenerate from cut pieces.
Regeneration involves specialized cells proliferating and
differentiating into various cell types and tissues.
It is a process distinct from reproduction as most organisms
do not rely on being cut up to reproduce.

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 6. Vegetative Propagation

In plants, parts like roots, stems, and leaves can develop into new plants under suitable
conditions.
Vegetative propagation is used in methods like layering or grafting for agricultural
purposes.
Advantages include earlier flowering and fruiting, propagation of plants without seed
production, and genetic similarity to the parent plant.

7. Spore Formation

In simple multi-cellular organisms like bread mould (Rhizopus), specific reproductive parts produce spores.
Sporangia contain spores that can develop into new individuals when they come into contact with a suitable
surface.
Spores are protected by thick walls until they find a suitable environment for growth.

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Tissue Culture:

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It involves growing new plants from tissue or cells removed from a plant's growing tip.

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Cells divide rapidly to form callus, which is then transferred to a medium containing growth hormones for
differentiation.

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Plantlets are eventually transferred to soil for maturation.
Tissue culture allows for the propagation of disease-free plants and is commonly used for ornamental plants.

Le Sexual Reproduction

Involves two individuals, male and female, for new generation creation.

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Sexual reproduction introduces genetic variation, vital for species survival.

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Errors in DNA copying during reproduction lead to variations in populations, enhancing species adaptability.

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Combining DNA from two individuals generates novel combinations of variants.

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Sexual reproduction is crucial for species evolution and adaptation to changing environments.

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Flowers are the reproductive organs of plants.

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A typical flower consists of four main whorls namely sepals, petals, stamen and pistil.

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 Types of Flowers
Bisexual flower: Both male and female reproductive parts are present.
Example: Hibiscus, mustard.
Unisexual flower: Either male or female reproductive part is present.
Example: Papaya, watermelon.

Seed Formation

Pollination
Pollen grains, produced in the anther, are transferred to the stigma of same flower (self pollination) or stigma
of another flower (cross pollination) through agents like air, water or animals.
Fertilization
Pollen grains germinate and form pollen tubes which pass through style to reach upto the ovules present in
ovary.
The fusion of male and female gametes is called fertilization. Zygote is produced inside the ovary.

Pollen reaches Pollen tube grows

suitable stigma (from pollen grain)

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reaches
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(in ovule)

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Le Embryo Zygote

Zygote divides to form embryo. Ovule develops thick coat and changes into seed gradually.

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Ovary changes into fruit and other parts of flower fall off.
The seed germinates to form a plant under suitable conditions such as air, moisture etc.

Seed Germination

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 Human Reproduction

Humans use sexual reproduction, involving the combination of germ cells from two individuals.
Sexual maturation occurs during puberty, marked by physical changes indicating readiness for reproduction.
Changes at Puberty
Common in male and female
Thick hair growth in armpits and genital area.
Skin becomes oily, may result in pimples.
In girls
Breast size begin to increase.
Girls begin to menstruate.
In boys
Thick hair growth on face.
Voice begin to crack.

Male Reproductive System

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re Pair of testes are located inside scrotum which is present outside abdominal cavity.
Scrotum has a relatively lower temperature needed for the production of sperms.
Male germ cell i.e. sperms are formed here.

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Testis Testes release male sex hormone (testosterone).
Function of testes:
Regulate production of sperms.
Bring changes at puberty.

Vas deferens It passes sperms from testes upto urethera.

Urethera It is a common passage for both sperms and urine. Its outer covering is called penis.

Seminal vesicles and prostate gland add their secretion to the sperms. This fluid
Associated glands provide nourishment to sperms and make their transport easy.
Sperm along with secretion of glands form semen.
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 Female Reproductive System

A pair of ovary is located in both sides of abdomen.

Female germ cells i.e. eggs are produced here.
Ovary

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At the time of birth of a girl, thousands of immature eggs are present in the ovary.
At the onset of puberty, some of these eggs start maturing.
One egg is produced every month by one of the ovaries.

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Receives the egg produced by the ovary and transfer it to the uterus.

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Oviduct or Fallopian
tube Fertilisation i.e. fusion of gametes takes place here.

Uterus
in It is a bag-like structure where development of the baby takes place.
Uterus opens into vagina through cervix.

rn Fertilization of Egg

When egg is
ea The fertilized egg called zygote is planted in uterus and develops into an embryo.
The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue
called placenta. It provides a large surface area for the exchange of glucose, oxygen
fertilised

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The time period from fertilization upto the birth of the baby is called gestation
period. It is about 9 months.

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When egg is not
fertilised
The uterus prepares itself every month to receive fertilized egg.
The lining of the uterus becomes thick and spongy, required to support the embryo.
When fertilisation had not taken place, this lining is not needed any longer.

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This lining breaks and comes out through vagina as blood and mucus.
This cycle takes around 28 days every month and called menstruation.

re Reproductive Health

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Many diseases can be sexually transmitted such as:
Bacterial : Gonorrhoea and syphilis
Viral : Warts and HIV-AIDS

Contraceptive Method

To prevent union of egg and sperm.

Physical barrier Use of condoms, cervical caps and diaphragm.

Use of oral pills

Chemical methods These change hormonal balance of body so that eggs are not released.
May have side effects.

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 Intrauterine
contraceptive device Copper-T or loop is placed in uterus to prevent pregnancy.
(IUCD)

In males the vas deferens is blocked to prevent sperm transfer called vasectomy.
Surgical methods In females, the fallopian tube is blocked to prevent egg transfer called tubectomy.

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ng Female Foeticide

The practice of killing a female child inside the womb is called female foeticide.

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For a healthy society, a balanced sex ratio is needed that can be achieved by educating people to avoid
malpractices like female foeticide and prenatal sex determination.
Prenatal sex determination is a legal offence in our country so as to maintain a balanced sex ratio.

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 Activity

Activity 7.1

Dissolve about 10 gm of sugar in 100 mL of water.

Take 20 mL of this solution in a test tube and add a pinch of yeast granules to it.
Put a cotton plug on the mouth of the test tube and keep it in a warm place.
After 1 or 2 hours, put a small drop of yeast culture from the test tube on a slide and cover it with a coverslip.
Observe the slide under a microscope..

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Observation
Under anaerobic conditions yeast reproduces asexually by budding.
Many cells are seen in the budding stage. Sometimes a chain of buds is also seen

Activity 7.2
2.
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Wet a slice of bread, and keep it in a cool, moist and dark place.
Observe the surface of the slice with a magnifying glass.

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Record your observations for a week.

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Observation
White cottony growth is seen on the surface of the bread. It gradually masses. These black dots are present
slightly above the surface.

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Observe a permanent slide of Amoeba under a microscope.
Similarly observe another permanent slide of Amoeba showing binary fission.
Now, compare the observations of both the slides.

Observation
The first slide displays Amoeba's irregularly shaped unicellular body, while the second depicts various stages of
Amoeba's binary fission, including membrane constriction.
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 Activity 7.4

Collect water from a lake or pond that appears dark green and contains filamentous structures.
Put one or two filaments on a slide.
Put a drop of glycerine on these filaments and cover it with a coverslip.
Observe the slide under a microscope.
Can you identify different tissues in the Spirogyra filaments?

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Observation
Spirogyra filaments are elongated, unbranched, and green with cells stacked end-to-end, uniform in size and

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shape, each containing a spiral ribbon-like chloroplast.

Activity 7.5

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Take a potato and observe its surface. Can notches be seen?
Cut the potato into small pieces such that some pieces contain a notch or bud and some do not.

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Spread some cotton on a tray and wet it. Place the potato pieces on this cotton. Note where the pieces with the
buds are placed.
Observe changes taking place in these potato pieces over the next few days. Make sure that the cotton is kept
moistened.

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Which are the potato pieces that give rise to fresh green shoots and roots?

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Observation
Potato eyes (buds in notches) develop green shoots within 2-3 days, followed by root growth. Pieces with eyes
sprout both shoots and roots, demonstrating vegetative reproduction from stem tubers.
The pieces without an eye fail to sprout
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 Activity 7.6

Select a money-plant.
Cut some pieces such that they contain at least one leaf.
Cut out some other portions between two leaves.
Dip one end of all the pieces in water and observe over the next few days.
Which ones grow and give rise to fresh leaves?
What can you conclude from your observations?

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Observation

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New shoots develop from pieces with leaves, while those lacking leaves fail to sprout

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Leaves originate from nodes on the stem, which also contain buds capable of forming new shoots if provided
with favorable conditions. Internodal segments cannot generate shoots

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Activity 7.7

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Soak a few seeds of Bengal gram (chana) and keep them overnight.
Drain the excess water and cover the seeds with a wet cloth and leave them for a day. Make sure that the
seeds do not become dry.
Cut open the seeds carefully and observe the different parts.

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Compare your observations with the Fig and see if you can identify all the parts.

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Observation
Removing the brown seed coat reveals two large cotyledons with an attached embryo featuring a radicle and
plumule, resembling a figure.
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