Government of Karnataka

SOCIAL SCIENCE
(Revised - 2023)

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PART - 2 SH
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SIXTH STANDARD
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ENGLISH MEDIUM
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KARNATAKA TEXTBOOK SOCIETY (R.)

6th Cross, Malleshwaram, Bengaluru - 560 003.
 CONTENTS

Chapter Page
No.
HISTORY No.

12 SOME DYNASTIES OF NORTH INDIA 1

13 SULTANS OF DELHI 14

14 INDIAN INTELLECTUALISM AND BHAKTI MOVEMENT 22

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15 VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE AND BAHAMANI KINGDOM 34
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16 THE MUGHALS AND THE MARATHAS 54

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CIVICS
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17 DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY 71

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18 FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS AND DUTIES 76

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19 NATIONAL INTEGRATION 84
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20 NATIONAL SYMBOLS 89

GEOGRAPHY

21 ASIA 99

22 EUROPE 121

23 AFRICA 139

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Chapter
12 Some Dynasties of north india

Introduction to the Chapter

The Rajput, Karkota and Ahom dynasties played an
important role in Indian history from 650 to 1200. This
Chapter describes the contributions of these dynasties to
art, architecture and literature. It also briefly narrates the
history of some prominent Rajput dynasties such as the
Gurjara Pratihara, the Pala, the Chauhan and the Guhila,

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besides social and economic conditions of the Age.
Competencies

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1 Understanding the important rulers of Karkota Dynasty
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and their achivements.

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2 Appreciating the contributions made by the Rajput

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dynasties to art, architecture and literature.

3 Understanding achievements of the Rajput dynasties.
4 Marking on the map the historical places associated
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with the Rajput Age.

5 Appreciating the achievements of Ahom rulers and
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also their contributions in art.

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KARKOTA EMPIRE OF KASHMIR

The Karkota rulers of Kashmir built a
model state and gave an effient administration
through which they creacted an awesome
image for themselves in the history the world.
Founded in 625 by Raja Durlabhavardhana,
Karkotas were one of the strongest of empires
of India. The empire which existed for 230 years Lalithaditya

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(625 to 855) covered the Himalayan mountain ranges and
held its sway upto Central Asia. Paraspore or Parihasapura
was their capital and they were the worshippers of Sun God.
The famous Marthanda sun temple in Kashmir highlights the
glory of the rulers of this dynasty.
The prominent and most influential ruler of this dynasty
was Lalithaditya who came to power in 724. His rule of 36
years included the present day Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakand
and Bihar states. His period is considered as the ‘Golden Age’
in the history of Karkota dynasty. Lalithaditya made unique
contributions to art and culture.
The Age of Karkotas was considered the age of Shaiva

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Siddantha. Shaivasuthra was written by Vasugupta. Great
philosopher and poet, Abhinavagupta belonged to this period.

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Thrika and Koula traditions developed during this period. It

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was a golden era in the history of Kashmir. Kalhana was the
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court poet of Lalithaditya.

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Rajputs
The Rajputs claim their descent from the ancient Kshatriya
dynasties such as the Surya-vamsa and Chandra-vamsa.
Well-known for their valour and adventurous spirit, the
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Rajputs ruled in north India for about five centuries. The

Age of Rajputs is indeed memorable in several respects. The
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Rajputs were the ones who boldly faced the invasions of the
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Arabs, the Turks, the Afghans and the Mughals and defended
India.
The Rajput character
The Rajputs were distinctive in their character. The
traditional values of protecting the orphans, the weak, the
women and the cows were dear to them. Defending those who
sought protection was considered their bounden duty. They
sought inspiration from the songs composed over the heroic
deeds of their ancestors.

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 The Rajput women were known for their valour and
self-respect. When men died fighting in the war, their widows
collectively ended their lives in order to escape being disgraced
by the enemies. This practice is known as jauhar.
Art and Architecture
The contribution of the Rajput Age to art and architecture
is quite rich. Their beautiful temples, magnificent palaces
and formidable forts have survived even now. Following are
some of the notable structures built by them.
Kandariya Mahadeva temple at Khajuraho (Madhya
Pradesh): This is a world-renowned structure. Of the 85
temples at Khajuraho only 22 remain today.

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Kandariya Mahadeva temple, Khajuraho

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● Dilwara temples, Mount Abu (Rajasthan): These are

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delicately carved marble temples.

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● Sun temple, Konarak

(Odisha): This temple is
unique in several respects.
It resembles sun chariot
and is one of the magnificent
and huge temples of India.
It has 24 wheels which have
been beautifully carved.
Dilwara temple, Mount Abu

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 ● Lingaraj temple:
Bhubaneswar (Odisha): This
temple is 1000 years old. Its
impressive tower rises to a
height of 180 feet.

Sun temple, Konarak

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● Gwalior fort (Madhya

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Pradesh): This gigantic fort has

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been described as "the necklace
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pearl of the Indian forts". Within
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the fort is a two-storeyed palace

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built by Raja Mansingh for his

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beloved queen Mriganayane. On

the walls of rocks outside the
Gwalior fort several statues have
been carved out. Among them, Lingaraj temple, Bhubaneswar
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there is a huge statue of Vrishaba

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(Adinath), the first Jain

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Tirthankara.
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● Hawa Mahal, Jaipur

(Rajasthan): Jaipur city is
popularly known as the
'Pink City' because all
the buildings of the city
have been painted pink.
It is one of the beautiful
cities of the world. The
Gwalior fort

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five-storeyed Hawa Mahal at Jaipur is an attractive structure.

● Udaipur Palace
(Rajasthan): Udaipur
is a lovely city. The
palace at Udaipur
is the biggest in
Rajasthan.

Hawa Mahal, Jaipur

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● Miniature paintings:

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patronised the art of
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painting. The artists
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decorated the walls of

temples and palaces
and illustrated the
books with miniature
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paintings which are

known for their colour
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Udaipur Palace
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combination and delicate line

drawings.
Literature: Sanskrit
literature flourished during
the Rajput Age. Gujarati, Hindi
and Rajasthani languages
developed. Chand Bardai's
Prithviraj Raso is a famous
Rajput miniature painting

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Hindi work of the period. Many of the Rajput rulers were
themselves scholars. They patronished poets. Jayadeva, who
wrote Gita Govinda, was in the court of the Sena rulers. The
Rajput dynasties supported Nalanda, Kashi, Vikramashila,
Ujjayini and other ancient higher centres of learning.

Rajaputs and Contemporary

Kingdoms (975-1200)

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Indian Ocean

Activity: Collect more details about the ancient universities of India

from the internet and prepare a report.

Rajput Dynasties
Several Rajput dynasties played an important role in

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Indian history. Among them, let's take up four prominent
Rajput dynasties, namely, the Gurjara Pratihara, the Pala,
the Chauhan and the Guhila, for study.

The Gurjara Pratihara: The Gurjara Pratiharas were ruling

from Avanti (Ujjayini in Madhya Pradesh). The famous ruler
of the dynasty was Nagabhata. He built a vast empire. He is
credited for having defended India from the Arab invasion.

King Bhoja was a great ruler of the dynasty and was also
a man of letters. He captured the famous city of Kannauj.
He earned fame by defeating the Palas of Bengal. The Arab

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traveller Sulaiman, who visited India during his time, calls him

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‘‘a great king having an efficient cavalry’’. He also describes
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him as ‘‘the enemy of the Arabs’’.

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The Palas: The Palas ruled for about four centuries.

Dharmapala was the most important ruler of the dynasty. His
kingdom was one of the great kingdoms of the time in north
India. His memorable achievement was the capture of the
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famous city of Kannauj. The Pala dynasty was overthrown by

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Vijayasena, a ruler of Karnataka origin. The dynasty which

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he established was known as the Sena dynasty.

The Palas were followers of Buddhism. They patronised

Hindu Dharma. They showed special interest in the spread of
education. The Universities of Uddandapura and Vikramashila
were founded by them.

The Chauhans: Prithviraj III was the well-known ruler

among the Chauhans. Delhi was his capital city.

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 The fascinating story of Prithviraj Chauhan marrying
Samyukta, the beautiful daughter of Jayachandra, the king
of Kannauj, has been narrated in several literary works of
the period. There was enmity between Jayachandra and his
relative Prithviraj. However, Samyukta and Prithviraj loved
each other.
Jayachandra did not invite Prithviraj for the swayamvara of
Samyukta. In order to insult Prithviraj, Jayachandra placed
at the entrance of his palace a statue of the former to appear
to be a palace guard. Samyukta, setting aside all the princes
assembled for the swayamvara to seek her hand, went to the

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palace gate and garlanded the statue of Prithviraj.

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Prithviraj, who was hiding all the time behind the statue,

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rushed Samyukta to his place on his horse and married
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her. This episode, however, further embittered the relations

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between the two royal houses.

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When Muhammad Ghori invaded India, Prithviraj opposed

him. He got the support of several Rajput rulers against the
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common enemy. However, Jayachandra of Kannauj refused

to join him. In the battle that took place Prithviraj defeated
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Muhammad Ghori. But he granted him mercy and let him

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off. Next year Muhammad Ghori challenged Prithviraj. In

the second battle that ensued Prithiviraj was defeated. At
this hour of crisis, Prithviraj mounted his horse and tried
to escape. However, he was captured by the enemy soldiers.
Muhammad Ghori ordered him to be killed. Soon Delhi
came under Muhammad Ghori. This paved the way for the
establishment of the rule of the Sultans at Delhi.

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 There are many legends about Prithviraj, and his heroic
deeds have been described in the Hindi poem called Prithviraj
Raso by Chand Bardai.
The Guhilas: Guhilas (Guhilots)
belonged to a lineage of great warriors.
Khommana, a ruler of the dynasty,
defended his kingdom from the Arab
military expedition and took the title
of Bappa Rawal. Another notable ruler
of the dynasty was Rana Kumbha who
fought against the Sultans of Delhi
and defended his kingdom. He built

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32 forts to keep his kingdom safe and

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secure. The magnificent victory tower

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(Vijaya Sthambha) at Chittorgarh was
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Victory Pillar,
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erected by him. Chittorgarh

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The well-known ruler among the

Guhilas was Rana Sanga or Rana Samgrama Simha. A hero
of a hundred battles, he had 80 scars of war on his body. He
constantly fought against the sultans of Delhi.
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Economic conditions: • From the time of the Guptas, it was

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a practice to grant lands to those who were in king's service.

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This practice continued during the Rajput Age and gave rise
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to zamindari system. The zamindari system added to the

difficulties of the tillers of land.
• Towns had craftsmen and traders. The vaishyas
(merchants) were engaged in business and banking.
• Foreign trade flourished. The Arabs traded at the ports
on the west coast of India. Spices, cotton and diamonds were
exported from India. Horses were imported from Central Asia
and Arabia.

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 • The income of the kingdom was mostly spent on building
forts and temples. This provided employment to thousands
of people.
Social conditions: • There were several social classes in
society. These were based on hereditary professions.
• Women were held in high esteem. They were cultured
and they studied literature, Sanskrit language, dance, music,
painting and embroidery work.
• Rajputs undertook pilgrimages to holy places and bathed
in holy rivers. Pushkar, the centre of worship of Brahma near

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Ajmer, was an important place of pilgrimage. A huge annual
fair and festival was being held at Pushkar, and it continues

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Camel fair at Pushkara

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 AHOM DYNASTY
Ahom rulers had ruled over the
parts of modern Assam for 598 years.
(1228-1826). The dynasty was started
by Shan prince Sukapa. His ancestors
crossed Patcoy mountains and settled
in Assam. The king was called Aasam
Emblem of Ahom
raja and the citizens were called
Dynasty
Kavopha. The King was appointed
with the approval of Pathramantris or
Manthrimandala. They had the power of removing a king. In

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the 14th century there was no suitable person to become a
king. Hence, they did not have a king on 3 occasions. The

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manthrimandala took over the charge.

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Ahom kings were considered Divine

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kings. The king Sukapa belonged to Kunjung
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dynasty. He was the grandson of Lyungdon,

the king of the abode. Sukapha came down
earth to rule Mangrimongram. The rulers
called themselves Indra vamsha Kshatriya.
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Suhungmung (1497-1539) had the title of

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‘Swarga Narayana’. In the epic ‘Burunji’, and

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in ‘‘Swarga Narayana Maharajor Jonmakatha’’ Sukapha

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section it was described that ‘Ahom kings

were the descedents of Hindu Gods’.
After incarnation, King acquired AHOM. Then the kings
added Singha or Simha to their names. Bitharul Phukan,
an army was kept ready to safeguard the state, king and the
capital.
In its 600 years of rule, we have identified three important
rulers- Sukapha- the founder of Ahom Dynasty, Suhang

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Mung-the one who extended the empire, and Supatha- the
one who strived for the overall development of the kingdom.
Lacit Borphukan became a famous commander in chief of
the army.
The Queens of Ahom: The queens also took part in
the administration of the kingdom. The chief queen was
called Boor kuvari and the other queens as Parvtiya kuvari,
Rajdangiya kuvari and Tamuli kuvari. The queens were
usually belonged to Ahom. Coins were printed the names of
king and the queen on both the sides.
Fight with the Moghals:

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The Moghuls could not establish their supremacy over
the north east because of the powerful Ahom dynasty ruled

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there. The Moghuls had a long desire of acquiring the fertile

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Assam. They invaded Ahom between 1615-1682 – seventeen
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times. They captured Guwahati(Pragjyothishapura). Later

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King Chakradwaja Singha defeated Moghuls and captured

Guwahati. Lasith Borphukan had organized a strong river
navy with 70000 soldiers against the Moghuls. Hence the
Moghuls could not defeat Ahom Kingdom completely.
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Naval Force of Ahoms:

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Ahoms Kept their Navy along Brahmaputra River on its

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west coast and drove the enemies away. They were experts in
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the naval fighting. They built navy ships. They knew guerilla
warfare. Therefore the Islamic rulers could not defeat them
easily.
Chronology
The Age of Karkota Dynasty - 625 - 855
The Age of Rajputs - 650-1200
The Age of Ahom Dynasty - 1228 - 1826

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 Exercises
Discuss in groups and answer
1 Name the prominent ruler of Karkota Dynasty?
2 State the character of the Rajputs.
3 Name any three famous structures of the Rajput Age.
Where are they located?
4 Name the poets who composed Prithviraj Raso and Gita
Govinda.
5 Write a note on Prithviraj Chauhan?

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6 Who was Bappa Rawal?

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7 Write a short note on Rana Samgrama Simha.
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8 Write a note on the social conditions during the Rajput
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Age.
9 Who was the prominent ruler of Ahom Dynasty?

Activities
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1 Collect the photos of Rajput temples, palaces and forts

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and write a short note on each.

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2 Mark the centres of Rajput architecture on the map.

3 List the names of writers and poets of the ancient
Kashmir and their works.

4 Read the life history of Lacit Borphukan.



13
 Chapter
13 Sultans of Delhi

Introduction to the Chapter

During the 11-12th centuries the Turks repeatedly invaded
Indian territories. These invasions finally culminated
in the establishment of the rule of the Sultans of Delhi
(1206-1526). This Chapter briefly states the policies of the
sultans, their administration, socio-economic conditions
of the period and the contributions made by them to
architecture and literature.

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Competencies

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1 Understanding how the Turkish invasions during the

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11-12th centuries finally led to the establishment of
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the rule of the Delhi Sultans.

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2 Understanding the impact of the rule of the Sultans

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on the economic, social and cultural life of the people.

3 Marking on the map places associated with the
Sultanate period.
Beginning from the 8th century, there were repeated
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invasions from across the north-western borders of India.

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These invasions aimed at looting the wealth, acquiring

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territories and spreading Islam.

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The Arab invasion: The Arabs were the first to invade the
Indian territories. They invaded Sindh in A.D. 712. As a result
of their victory, the provinces of Sindh and Multan came under
their control. With this, the Islam started taking roots in the
newly conquered lands. However, the Arab aggression soon
cooled down due to the opposition from the Karkota dynasty
of Kashmir.
The Turkish invasion - Mahmud Ghazni: Three centuries
after the Arab invasion, Mahmud Ghazni attacked India. Of
Turkish origin, Mahmud was the Sultan of Ghazni, a small

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kingdom in Afghanistan. He invaded India for seventeen
times, looting and destroying prosperous cities and wealthy
temples. Among such temples included Sri Krishna temple
at Mathura (Uttar Pradesh) and the rich and sacred temple
of Somanath (Gujarat).
Activity: There is a lot of difference between the early invasions and
later by Ghors and Mughals. What impact did these invasions make on
the life in India. Discuss and prepare a report.

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Mahmud Ghazni Muhammad Ghori

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After Independence the Somanath temple was rebuilt on a

grand scale (1951). It was inaugurated by none other than
the first President of Free India, Dr. Rajendra Prasad.
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Somanath temple, Gujarat

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 Muhammad Ghori: During the last quarter of the 12th
century Muhammad Ghori, who was ruling a kingdom in
Afghanistan, invaded India and secured the provinces of
Sindh and Punjab. When he made further advances into
Indian territories, Prithviraj Chauhan, the king of Delhi and
Ajmer, routed him in a battle. However, Muhammad was
spared from death penalty. The very next year Muhammad
came to India and fought with Prithviraj and defeated him.
Muhammad ordered him to be killed. Delhi came under the
control of Muhammad Ghori. Before returning to Afghanistan
he transferred the conquered territories to his general by name
Qutbuddin Aibak. Aibak started ruling as sultan of Delhi.
The Slave Dynasty

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Qutbuddin was the first sultan of Delhi. He had originally

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been a slave and hence the dynasty founded by him is known

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as the 'Slave' dynasty. He strengthened the Turkish rule in
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India by defeating his enemies. To mark his victory he started

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constructing Qutb Minar at Mehrauli near Delhi. Later it was

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completed by Sultan Iltutmish.

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Qutbuddin Aibak Sultana Raziya

The only female ruler during the Sultanate period was
Raziya. A daring sultana, she dispensed justice in the royal court.
She dressed herself as a man and led army in the battlefield.
Intolerant of a woman's rule, the nobles rebelled and killed her.

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 Qutb Minar, Delhi
The Khalji Dynasty

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After the Slave dynasty, the Khaljidynasty
came to power. Alauddin Khalji was the

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strongest of all the sultans of Delhi. His rule

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was based on military power. BL
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Policies: Alauddin introduced several

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reforms in administrative, military and
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economic fields. He regulated the price of

goods commonly consumed. He banned
consumption of liquor and gambling in Delhi.
The guilty were severely punished.
Military campaigns: Alauddin aspired to
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conqueror entire India. In the first instance, Alauddin Khalji

he conquered north India by his military strength. To south
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India he sent Malik Kafur, a slave who was close to him, with
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a huge army. Malik Kafur invaded the four major kingdoms

of south India and looted their capitals.
The kingdoms conquered by Malik Kafur were the Yadavas
of Maharashtra (capital Devagiri), the Kakatiyas of Andhra
(Warangal), the Hoysalas of Karnataka (Dorasamudra) and
the Pandyas of Tamil Nadu (Madurai).
Malik Kafur, continuing his military march, proceeded
upto Rameshwaram. All along the route his army destroyed
several places of worship and looted wealth. Never before had
such a huge quantity of wealth of south India flowed to Delhi.

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 Alauddin patronised Amir Khusrau, Amir Hasan and other
Persian poets. He built a new fort in Delhi known as Siri. Alai
Darwaza in Delhi, a grand structure, was his contribution
to architecture.

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Alai Darwaza, Delhi

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Alauddin's last days were tragic. There were several revolts

in the palace to overthrow him. Finally, Malik Kafur, out of
greed for power, killed his master and declared himself sultan.
But he too was killed by his enemies. Within a short time, the
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Khalji rule ended and the Tughlaqs came to power.

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The Tughlaq Dynasty

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Muhammad bin Tughlaq was the most

notable sultan of the Tughlaq dynasty. He
was a scholar. Lacking practical sense,
he took decisions in haste. He could be
easily enraged. He was a man of strange
character.
Administrative experiments - Transfer
of capital: To improve the functioning of
Muhammad bin
the administration Muhammad undertook Tughlaq

18
several experiments. One such experiment was the transfer
of capital from Delhi to Devagiri (Maharashtra). He was of the
view that the capital should be centrally located. Devagiri, 700
miles from Delhi, was renamed Daulatabad. He passed strict
orders that all the residents of Delhi should move to the new
place. The residents of Delhi, who were forced to leave their
homes, faced untold misery in the course of their journey
to a far place in the south. A large number of them died on
their way. Anyway, after shifting the capital he realized that
he had committed a grave mistake. So he ordered reshifting
of the capital and the people to Delhi. However, only a few
survived to return to Delhi.
Another reform of Muhammad was that in place of silver

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coins he issued token coins of copper with the same face

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value. But he failed to pass order that only the government

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had the authority to mint copper coins. Consequently people
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themselves began to mint copper tokens. The government
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could not meet the demand for silver coins in exchange for
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token coins. Muhammad soon realized his folly and ordered

that old coins should be used. This experiment proved a great
failure and weakened the financial condition of the state.
Discontented by Muhammad's rule, people revolted. While
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he was putting down a revolt in Sindh province, he died

of fever.
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After the Tughlaq rule, the Sayyid and the Lodi dynasties
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ruled from Delhi for a short period. The last Lodi ruler Ibrahim
was defeated in the battle of Panipat by Babur who laid the
foundation of the Mughal rule.
Conditions of the Delhi Sultan’s Period
● Administration: Although the Hindus formed the majority
under the sultanate, the administration functioned on Turkish
lines. The army formed the backbone of the state. The sultans
were absolute. Balban, a notable sultan, declared that he was
Allah’s representative and hence accountable to Allah alone.

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The sultans, however, had to face frequent revolts of the local
rulers, and were always fearful of losing power.
● Economy: The burden of land revenue heavily fell on
the peasants. Muhammad bin Tughlag further increased the
land revenue and got it collected mercilessly. Consequently
peasants revolted everywhere.
Weaving was a major occupation of the people. The cities
provided employment to a large number of workers on account
of brisk building activities taking place there.
The sultans were importing mainly horses for the army.
At the same time, a large number of Indians enslaved by the
sultans were being exported.

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Alauddin Khalji even fixed the price of slaves who were sold

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in the market. The number of slaves under the sultans was

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indeed shocking. While Alauddin Khalji had 50,000 slaves
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under him, Firuz Shah Tughlaq owned 1,80,000 slaves.

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Architecture and literature: The main

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structures built by the sultans were

the famous Qutb Minar (17 m tall), Alai
Darwaza, an impressive entrance, Quwwat-
ul-Islam mosque and the fort of Siri. All
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these are in Delhi.

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During the sultanate period, the Urdu

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language evolved. Amir Khusrau and Amir Amir Khusrau

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Hasan were great

Persian poets of the
period. Amir Khusrau
was a great musician
and evolved musical
instruments such as
tabla, sitar and others.
The poet Jayasi wrote
Padmavat in Urdu
Kabirdas Meerabai

20
which was a sufi poem. Ramananda, Kabirdas, Raidas and
Meerabai belonged to this period.
Chronology
Arab invasion of Sindh - 712
Mahmud Ghazni's invasions - 1000-1026
Battles of Tarrain (Between Muhammad
Ghori and Prithvi Raj Chouhan) - 1191-1192
Rule of Delhi Sultans - 1206-1526
Qutbuddin Aibak - 1206-1210
Raziya Sultana - 1236-1240
Alauddin Khalji - 1296-1316
Muhammad bin Tughlaq - 1325-1351

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Battle of Panipat and beginning
of the Mughal rule - 1526

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New Word :

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Minar - A long tower
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Exercises
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Discuss in groups and answer

BE @K

1 What were the results of Mahmud Ghazni's invasions?

2 What were the achievements of Muhammad Ghori?
3 State the achievements of Qutbuddin Aibak.
TO

4 State the policies of Alauddin Khalji and their results.

5 Why did the policies of Muhammad bin Tughlaq fail?
T
O

6 What were the social and economic conditions during

N

the rule of the Sultans of Delhi?

7 What were the contributions of the Delhi Sultans to
architecture and literature?
Activities
1 Collect the pictures of the monuments of the period of
Delhi Sultans, with brief notes.
2 Mark on the map places associated with the Sultans
of Delhi.


21
Chapter Indian Intellectualism and
14 Bhakti Movement

Religious and social reform movements

Introduction to the Chapter
● Between the 8th and 16th centuries many religious and social
reform movements were witnessed in India. These were led
by religious leaders who aimed at regeneration of religious
and social life of the people.
● In this Chapter the life, teachings and reforms of
Shankaracharya, Ramanujacharya, Basaveshvara and

ED
Madhvacharya, who were in the forefront of the reform

H
movements, have been briefly stated.

IS
● Don’t you know about Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa?
BL
EP S
What are their contribution to the society? Like the Dasas
R TB

the saints of north India also awakened the people through

U
BE @K

their teachings. Let us study about them.

● In this Chapter the meaning and features of the Bhakti
cult have been explained. The Bhakti saints such as Sri
Chaitanya, Guru Nanak and Meerabai and the Sufi saints
have been introduced. In addition, the harmony that the
TO

Bhakti cult established among different religious groups,

T

and the contribution it made to the growth of the regional

O

languages have been dealt with.

N

Competencies
1 Understanding the teachings and reforms of the religious
leaders.
2 Understanding the importance and relevance of their
reforms.
3 Understanding the contributions of the Bhakti saints to
social harmony.
4 Understanding the teachings of the saints, and imbibing a
liberal outlook.

22
 The saints of India not only guided the people through
their teachings but also undertook active religious and social
reforms. Their reforms eradicated ignorance and evil practices
among the people. Their impact is felt even at present.

Have you listened to the stotra Bhajagovindam? Do you

have the practice of singing it? Who has composed it?

Sri Shankaracharya
Shankaracharya was born at Kaladi
in Kerala. An extraordinary boy, by the
time he was eight, he studied the four
Vedas.

ED
Shankara's parents were Shivaguru

H
IS
and Aryamba. He propounded Advaita
BL
philosophy.
EP S
R TB

Sri Shankaracharya
U

Shankaracharya's reforms
BE @K

Shankaracharya condemned certain orthodox practices

prevalent in his times and reformed them. He established
four monasteries (mathas) at Badari (Uttarakhand), Dwaraka
TO

(Gujarat), Puri (Odisha) and Sringeri (Karnataka). These

served as Dharmic centres for uniting Indians.
T
O
N

Badrinath temple, Badarinath

23
 Shankaracharya wrote several hymns and devotional
songs in Sanskrit. His Bhajagovindam is popular among the
people even today. Astonishingly, he achieved all these during
his short life span of just 32 years.
Sri Ramanujacharya
Ramanujacharya was born at Sriperambudur near
Chennai. He studied religious scriptures (shastras) at Kanchi.

Ramanujacharya's parents were Keshava Dikshita and

Kantimati. He propounded Vishishtadvaita philosophy.

Ramanujacharya travelled to different

ED
parts of India and spread Srivaishnavism,

H
the religious sect founded by him.

IS
He declared that salvation (mukti) may be
BL
EP S

attained through devotion (bhakti) and

R TB
U

surrender (prapatti) to God. The Hoysala

BE @K

ruler Vishnuvardhana welcomed him to

his kingdom. Sri Ramanujacharya
TO
T
O
N

Cheluvanarayana temple, Melukote

24
Reforms of Ramanujacharya
• Ramanuja condemned casteism.
• Ramanujacharya was responsible for building several
grand temples in south India including a few at
Melukote (Mandya district).

Sri Basaveshvara
The role of Basaveshvara in the social and religious
reforms in Karnataka was indeed revolutionary. He hailed
from Basavana Bagewadi in Vijayapura district. Refusing to
undergo upanayana ceremony, he was given linga diksha.

ED
After his early schooling, he went to Kudalasangama for
further studies.

H
IS
Basaveshvara's parents, Madarasa and Madalambike,
BL
EP S
R TB

belonged to Bagevadi agrahara. He propounded

U

Shaktivishishtadvaita philosophy.
BE @K

By his talents Basaveshvara became the treasurer of the

Kalachuri ruler Bijjala at Kalyana. In Kalyana he began to
TO

preach progressive ideas. However, these

were opposed by the orthodox section of
T
O

the society. Disappointed, he left Kalyana

N

and moved to Kudalasangama where he

stayed upto the last.
Reforms of Basaveshvara
• Basaveshvara aimed at building the
Sri Basaveshvara
society on a casteless basis.
• ‘Work is Worship’ (Kayakave Kailasa) was one of his
important teachings.

25
Activity : Select three vachanas of Basaveshvara and write a paragraph
on casteless society he dreamt of.

Kayaka means work done as if it were service to God.

Sharing the fruits of Kayaka with everybody in an equitable
way is dasoha. The aim of Basaveshvara was to instil work
culture (Kayaka) among the people.
• Basaveshvara condemned caste system, idol worship and
yajna-yagas. By stating that one's body itself was the
temple, he stopped exploitation by the temple priests.
• By upholding the greatness of women, he gave self-
confidence to womanhood which had lost its voice.

ED
• Basaveshvara started an assembly known as Anubhava

H
Mantapa which served as a forum for the sharanas.

IS
BL
EP S
• Basavesvara composed more than a thousand vachanas
R TB
U
which conclude with the refrain Kudalasangamadeva.
BE @K

Vachana literature: The vachana is a distinct literary

form. The vachanas are such that they may be read like prose
or sung like poems. The vachanas were also composed by
Jedara Dasimayya, Allamaprabhu, Chenna Basavanna, Akka
TO

Mahadevi and others. These sharanas came from different

T

communities. The teachings of the vachanas were relevant

O

even today present.

N

Sri Madhvacharya
Madhvacharya was born at Pajaka (Belle) village near
Udupi.
Madhva's parents were Madhyagheha Bhatta and
Vedavati. He propounded Dvaita philosophy.

After accepting sanyas, Madhvacharya toured different

26
parts of India twice for the purpose of spreading his teachings.
He worshipped Lord Vishnu.
Reforms of Madhvacharya
• Madhvacharya composed many
works in Sanskrit relating to
Madhva philosophy.
• He appointed eight of his
disciples to perform regular
pujas of Lord Sri Krishna at
Udupi. Eight Mathas were later Sri Madhvacharya
established.
• He preached the simple path of Bhakti.

ED
Madhvacharya set up a system under which each pontiff

H
IS
would worship Lord Krishna for a period of two months
BL
EP S
in rotation. Later Sri Vadiraja Swami extended the period of
R TB

rotation (paryaya) to two years.

U
BE @K

Apart from the Ashtamathas, the

Uttaradi, Vyasaraya and Raghavendra
Mathas are also religious centres of the
TO

Madhva principles. The influence of the

teachings of Madhvacharya was felt in
T

Karnataka, Andhra, Tamil Nadu and

O

Maharashtra.
N

Bhakti Movement
Ours is a land of saints and sages. Sri Krishna temple, Udupi
Hundreds of saints have taken birth
here from time to time. They brought about social harmony
and encouraged the people to walk the right path. They also
exposed the social ills.
The saints preached the path of bhakti or devotion towards
God. They believed that Bhakti is the only way to earn His
mercy. This approach to God is known as the Bhakti cult.

27
Features of the Bhakti Movement
• The Bhakti cult condemned discrimination between
the high and the low. It declared that all human
beings are equal.
• The Bhakti saints opposed and ridiculed outdated
customs and practices.
• The Sufi saints proclaimed that religion meant love
of all and service to mankind. They maintained that
there is only one God, not many.
• The saints took up the task of uniting the hearts of
the people.
The Bhakti saints

ED
Sri Chaitanya : He was born in West

H
Bengal. Chaitanya decried caste

IS
discrimination. He preached that Bhakti
BL
EP S
R TB

was the only path to the realization of God

U

(mukti).
BE @K

His teachings were rooted in love,

brotherhood and charity. He travelled all
over India spreading the message of love. Sri Chaitanya
TO

Guru Nanak: Guru Nanak was the founder

T

of Sikhism. He was born in Punjab. He

O

emphasized what was common to Hinduism

N

and Islam. His songs called Japji are in

the Granth Sahib, the holy book of the
Sikhs. Sikhism emphasises the importance
of chanting God’s name and doing good
deeds. It also stresses equality between
Guru Nanak
men and women. Nanak questions: ‘‘How
can a woman, who gives birth to kings and prophets, be
inferior to men?’’ He declared: ‘‘Even if I have a lakh tongues,
I will chant the name of one God on all those tongues’’. Nanak

28
visited Karnataka during his journey. The place in Bidar
where he stayed is called the Nanak Zhara.
Meerabai: Saint Meerabai, who is revered as the Radha of
Kaliyug, was a great composer of songs too. She was born in
a royal family of Rajputs in Rajasthan. During her young age,
she was very fond of playing with the idol
of Lord Krishna given to her by her
grandfather. She considered Lord Krishna
as her God. Her mother-in-law strongly
objected to her worship of Krishna. Meera
could not withstand this and, leaving the
palace forever, she went to Brindavan, the

ED
holy place associated with Lord Krishna. Meerabai

H
The feelings of bhakti and love are

IS
prominent in her compositions. Giridhar Gopal is the deity of
BL
EP S

her heart. Through her bhajans, which are popular and sung
R TB
U
all over India even today, Meerabai finds a permanent place
BE @K

in the hearts of millions.

Other prominent Bhakti saints

• Kabirdas: Kabir condemned the injustice of the caste
TO

system, idol worship, pilgrimage, fasts, vows and all other

religious rituals. He declared that he was the child of Allah
T
O

and Rama.
N

• Tulsidas: His famous epic poem is Ramcharitamanasa.

• Surdas: He was another saint-poet. He was born blind.
Sur Sagar is his famous book of poems.
Sufi Movement: The Sufi cult originated in Arabia and
later spread in India. The sufi saints wore coarse woollen
clothes (suf) as a badge of poverty. Hence they were called the
sufis. Gradually the sufis were influenced by Yoga, Vedanta
and Buddhism. Many of them (for example, Baba Budan)
were worshippers of Dattatreya. The sufi saint of Bijapur,

29
Budan-al-din wrote songs in praise of Lord Krishna.
The sufis preached that religion meant love and service
to mankind. They expressed their bhakti by means of singing
and dancing. Both these practices were forbidden by the
orthodox Muslims. There were even women among the sufis
such as Biya who is revered even today.
Nizamuddin Auliya is India’s
leading sufi saint. He settled in
Delhi and lived a life of poverty.
A mosque with a thatched roof
was the centre of his activities.
He rejected a village donated by
the Delhi sultan, and remained

ED
away from politics. He preached
Nizamuddin Auliya

H
the message of good conduct and

IS
compassion to the devotees who came to see him.
BL
EP S
R TB

Bandenawaz is a famous sufi saint of Karnataka. His

U
BE @K

darga which is attractive, is in Gulbarga. The Hindus called

Bandenawaz Keshav Chaitanya and worshipped him.
Chisti : The Chisti is an important sufi sect. Its founder,
Moyinuddin Chisti, came to Ajmer and established his
TO

centre. Piety, service to one’s guru and walking the right

path are the qualities
T

of his followers.
O
N

The Chistis were

sincerely interested
in harmony between
the Hindus and
the Muslims. They
wrote in regional
languages. Salim
Chisti of Fatehpur
(in Agra) is a well- Salim Chisti’s tomb, Agra
known Chisti.

30
The influence of Bhakti Movement
• The Bhakti saints were responsible for creating
harmony between the Hindus and the Muslims.
• The Bhakti saints composed literature in the local
languages. As a result, Indian languages were
enriched.
Chronology
Shankaracharya - 8-9th century
Ramanujacharya - 11-12th century
Basaveshvara - 12th century

ED
Madhvacharya - 13-14th century

H
Sri Chaitanya - 1486-1534

IS
BL
EP S
Guru Nanak - 1469-1538
R TB
U
Meerabai - 1498-1546
BE @K

Nizamuddin Auliya - 1238-1325

Moyinuddin Chisti - 13th century
Bandenawaz - 15th century
TO

Salim Chisti - 16th century

T

New words
O
N

Zhara - sweet water spring.

piety - devotion towards God.

Let’s know
Sri Chaitanya’s birthplace: Navadweep (Nadiya) in
West Bengal. Guru Nanak’s birthplace: Talawandi in
Pakistan. Meerabai: the only daughter of Ratansingh
of the Rathod family of Jodhpur.

31
 Exercises
Discuss in groups and answer
1 What were the reforms made by Shankaracharya?
2 What were the social reforms made by Ramanujacharya?
3 What are the teachings of Basaveshvara?
4 State the importance of vachana literature. Name some
vachanakaras.
5 What are the contributions of Madhvacharya?
6 What did the Bhakti saints preach?

ED
7 What are the songs of Guru Nanak called?

H
8 Who are the leading Sufi saints of India?

IS
9 State the influence of the Bhakti Movement.
BL
EP S
R TB

10 What was the path preached by the saints?

U
BE @K

11 Which is the holy book of the Sikhs?

Discuss
The relevance of the teachings of the Bhakti saints.
TO

Activities
T
O

1 Listen to Bhajagovindam.
N

2 Read the biographies of Shankaracharya,

Ramanujacharya, Basaveshvara and Madhvacharya.
3 Collect any ten vachanas of Basaveshvara.
4 Collect the names of vachanakaras and their
pen-names.
5 Dress yourselves as Acharyas, saints and Sharanas
and narrate their teachings on the stage during
celebrations in the school.

32
6 "Steal not, kill not..." (PÀ¼À¨ÉÃqÀ, PÉÆ®¨ÉÃqÀ). What are the
values found in this vachana? Do we find these values
being practised in our society? Discuss.
7 Collect the teachings of Sri Shankara, Sri Ramanuja
and Sri Madhva.
8 Collect the pictures of the Bhakti saints with details.
9 Read the biographies of Sri Chaitanya, Guru Nanak,
Meerabai, Tulsidas, Kabir, Surdas and the Sufi saints.
10 Listen to Meera bhajans.
11 Find out more information about sufism from the

ED
internet. Discuss their influence on India’s multi-

H
religious society and their relevance in the present

IS
context, and prepare a report of one page.
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K


TO
T
O
N

33
Chapter Vijayanagara Empire and
15 Bahamani Kingdom

VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE
Introduction to the Chapter
Due to the military campaigns of the Sultans of Delhi, the
empires of south India, namely, the Seuna (Maharashtra),
the Hoysala (Karnataka), the Kakatiya (Andhra Pradesh)
and the Pandya (Tamil Nadu) declined. Without a strong
political authority, the culture and social life crumbled. At
such troubled times, the Vijayanagara empire emerged. It

ED
protected and nourished the Hindu Dharma and culture in

H
south India, and flourished in great glory for three centuries

IS
(1336–1646). BL
EP S

In this Chapter, the major achievements of the prominent

R TB
U

emperors and the battle of Rakkasa-Tangadi (1565), which

BE @K

was the cause for the decline of the empire, have been
described. In addition, the contribution of the empire
towards literature and art are also described.
The Bahmani kingdom was founded (1347) shortly
TO

after the establishment of Vijayanagara empire (1336).

T

The river Krishna formed the common boundary for both

O

these kingdoms – the Bahmani kingdom was in the north

N

and the Vijayanagara empire in the south of the river.

The fertile land between the Krishna in the north and
the Tungabhadra in the south is the Raichur doab. The
two powers fought constantly to acquire the doab. Over a
period of time, there arose in - fighting for power among the
sultans of the Bahmani kingdom. As a result, the kingdom
broke into five Shahi dynasties (1489). Among them, the
Adil Shahi of Bijapur was prominent.

34
 The achievements of the Bahmani sultan Firuz Shah
and his famous prime minister, Mahamud Gavan, have
been described. In addition, the remarkable contributions
of the Bahmani dynasty and the Adil Shahis have been
explained.
Competencies
1 Understanding the achievements of the Vijayanagara
rulers.
2 Appreciating the greatness of the literary works,
music, architecture and sculpture of that time, and
lending a hand in protecting them.
3 Appreciating the significant work done by the

ED
Vijayanagara emperors towards preserving and

H
nourishing Dharma and culture.

IS
4 Marking on the map important places associated with
BL
EP S
R TB

the empire.
U
BE @K

5 Understanding the contributions of Firuz Shah and

Mahamud Gavan.
6 Appreciating the great contributions of the Bahmani
and Bijapur sultans to literature, art and sculpture.
TO

7 Marking on the map important historical places

relating to the Bahmani kingdom.
T
O
N

Emblem of Vijayanagara empire

Look at the map of the Vijayanagara empire. It is really
vast, isn’t it? It was one of the greatest empires of that time
in the world.

35
 THE VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE
DURING KRISHNADEVARAYA
[16th Century]

ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K
TO
T
O
N

Indian Ocean

36
 As a result of the military campaigns of the Sultans of
Delhi many prosperous kingdoms of south India declined.
The religious, economic and social lives of the people were
thrown into utter confusion. At this crucial juncture, the
Vijayanagara empire was established, and it took upon itself
the task of protecting and nourishing the Hindu Dharma
and culture. It ruled for about three centuries and upheld
the principle of Sarva-dharma-samabhava. Hampi, in Ballari
district, was its capital.
Harihara and Bukka
Harihara and Bukka, the sons of Sangama, founded the
empire on the southern bank of the river Tungabhadra.

ED
H
Harihara, Bukka, Kampana, Marappa and Muddappa were

IS
the sons of Sangama. The empire was ruled by kings of the
BL
EP S

Sangama, the Saluva, the Tuluva and the Aravidu dynasties.

R TB
U
The boar (varaha) was the royal emblem of the Vijayanagara
BE @K

empire. The family deity was Lord Virupaksha. Hinduraya

Suratrana was the title adopted by the emperors.
Harihara and Bukka were the first two kings of Vijayanagara.
TO

Harihara started building the new capital in Hampi.

During the reign of Harihara, the Bahmani kingdom was
T
O

established. Since then, there were frequent wars between

N

the Vijayanagara kings and the Bahmani sultans.

Devaraya II (Proudhadevaraya)
The reign of Proudhadevaraya, the well-known king of the
Sangama dynasty, is a very significant period. The fame of
the empire spread everywhere. Internal peace and prosperity
prevailed. Trade and commerce flourished.
Proudhadevaraya suppressed the revolts of the leaders of
the border areas. He fought against the sultans and expanded

37
his kingdom. He recruited Muslims to his cavalry. The Persian
ambassador, Abdul Razak, has recorded thus: "There is no
king like Devaraya in the whole of India". Further he stated
that the king's army had lakhs of soldiers.
Devaraya was an able administrator, a brave warrior and
a scholar. He got the beautiful temple of Hazara Ramaswamy
built at Hampi. Devaraya’s religious policy was Sarva-
dharma-sambhava. He constructed a mosque in the capital.
The Jaina and Vaishnava temples were also constructed
during his reign. The Veerashaiva sect became popular. A
rich literature flourished both in Kannada and Sanskrit.
Krishnadevaraya

ED
H
Krishnadevaraya, a ruler of the

IS
Tuluva dynasty, was a noble emperor
BL
EP S

and a valiant soldier. During his

R TB
U

reign, the boundaries of the empire

BE @K

extended upto the river Krishna in the

north and the sea coasts in the east,
west and south.
TO

Achievements: Krishnadevaraya
was a capable administrator. He
T
O

spent a quarter of the revenue of

N

the empire on charity and social

welfare. Agriculture and commerce Bronze sculpture
prospered in his time. Commodities of Krishnadevaraya
were inexpensive. with his wives
Krishnadevaraya was a scholar well-versed in both
Sanskrit and Telugu. He composed Amukta Malyada in
Telugu and Jambavati Kalyana in Sanskrit. His title was
Kannada-rajya-ramaramana.

38
Ramaraya
The Vijayanagara empire, which ruled gloriously for a long
time, lost its power after the death of Krishnadevaraya. But
the empire recovered its glory under Ramaraya, a mighty
general and an able administrator.
Battle of Rakkasa-Tangadi
Causes: Over a period of time, the Bahmani kingdom
became weak and split into five kingdoms. The sultans of
these kingdoms sought Ramaraya’s intervention in their
in - fighting. Ramaraya took advantage of the disunity among
the sultans, and extended the borders of his empire upto
the north of the river Krishna. This provoked the sultans to
engage in battle with him. Moreover, the sultans were envious

ED
of the prosperity of Vijayanagara. The sultans, who had till

H
then engaged in-fighting, forgot their political differences and

IS
united. They declared war on Vijayanagara. The resultant
BL
EP S

war is called the Battle of Rakkasa-Tangadi. It was the most

R TB
U
destructive battle in the history of south India. The battle
BE @K

field was between the villages of Rakkasagi and Tangadagi

on the banks of river Krishna.
Though he was eighty years of age, Ramaraya led the army
and faced his enemies with courage. In the first round, the
TO

Vijayanagara won. But later, a sudden volley of cannons from

the opposite side scattered the Vijayanagara forces. Besides,
T
O

Ramaraya’s Muslim commanders betrayed him and joined the

N

enemy forces along with their troops. Ramaraya was killed.

His soldiers ran away from the battlefield.
Ramaraya’s younger brother, Tirumala, rushed to the capital
and, with the immense royal wealth loaded on elephants,
escaped to Penugonda in Andhra Pradesh. Without anyone
to protect the capital, it fell into the hands of the enemies. The
sultans’ armies plundered the wealth of Vijayanagara. Later,
the Aravidu dynasty ruled from Penugonda, Chandragiri and
Vellore upto 1646.

39
 Consequences: Many important political changes took
place in south India after the decline of the Vijayanagara
empire. The northern areas of the empire became a part of
Bijapur and Golkonda kingdoms. In Karnataka, the Chieftains
in Keladi, Mysore and Chitradurga became independent.
The glory of the capital city as seen by the foreign
travellers
Many foreign travellers who visited the capital city Hampi
have been enchanted by its magnificence and economic
prosperity, and have praised it heartily.
• The Portuguese traveller, Domingo Paes, has this to
write about the capital: “There cannot be another city

ED
like this on earth which has such an abundance of all

H
kinds of commodities.” He has recorded that varieties

IS
of pearls, diamonds, rubies, emeralds, sapphires and
BL
EP S

expensive cloth used to be easily available there.

R TB
U

• The Persian (Iran) ambassador, Abdul Razak, who

BE @K

had visited the capital, was full of praise for the

noble nature of Devaraya. About Vijayanagara, he
exclaimed: “The eyes have not seen nor the ears heard
about another glorious city like Vijayanagara!”
TO

Society, Economy and Culture

T
O

Society: In the Grama Sabha, representation was given

N

to members of all castes. In towns, the Muslim organization

called Hanjaman existed. Its representatives were given a
high place in the city assembly.
Women were employed for writing accounts of the women's
quarters of the palace, keeping watch, serving the king and
the queen, and so on. There used to be female wrestlers who
gave public performances. The popular Navaratri festival
was celebrated with great pomp in the Mahanavami dibba
(hillock) of the capital.

40
 Economy: Agriculture was the main occupation of the
people. Vijayanagara was a centre for international trade.
Merchants from various parts of the world used to come there.
Foreign travellers have described that pearls and diamonds
used to be sold in heaps in shop. Goods used to be exported
and imported from many harbours along the east and west
coasts of the empire.
Religion: All religions received charities from the empire.
The rulers had granted freedom to the people to practise
their religion without any hindrance, mosques were built
for the Muslims who were also recruited into the army in
Vijayanagara. The Vijayanagara emperors had flourishing

ED
trade relations with the Portuguese. They encouraged

H
Christianity too.

IS
Literature: Sanskrit, Kannada and Telugu literature
BL
EP S
R TB

flourished during the Vijayanagara period. The great Kannada

U

poets, Kumaravyasa, Chamarasa and Ratnakara Varni, were

BE @K

of this period. The Vijayanagara period was a Golden Era of

Telugu literature.
TO

Kumaravyasa (Naranappa) was a poet of strong sentiments.

He wrote Karnata Bharata Katha Manjari. Chamarasa’s
T

Prabhulingaleele is the biography of Allamaprabhu. It is a

O
N

remarkable work. Ratnakaravarni’s Bharatesha Vaibhava

is a work written in an attractive style.
Music: The Vijayanagara emperors patronised dance,
painting and music. The name Carnatic music came to be
used from that time for the south Indian system of music.
The Saints of the period used music to preach the path of
Bhakti. This path came to be called the Dasa Pantha. Among
the Dasas Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa were prominent.

41
 Purandaradasa, who composed lakhs of songs, is known
as the Father of Carnatic Music (Karnataka Sangeeta
Pitamaha). Kanakadasa came from an ordinary background.
Mohana Tarangini, Ramadhanya Charitre, Nalacharitre and
Haribhaktisara are his important works.
Activity: Collect more information about the Haridasas who
propagated Bhakti Pantha in Karnataka and prepare an essay of
about a page.

Sculpture: During the Vijayanagara period, granite was

extensively used in the construction of buildings. Tall towers

ED
(Raya-Gopuras) and beautiful marriage halls (kalyana
mantapas) were built for all the existing temples in south

H
IS
India. Construction of hundreds of such structures provided
BL
EP S

employment to thousands of people.

R TB
U
BE @K

Hampi : There are many beautiful temples in Hampi. Some of

them are the Hazara Ramaswami temple, Vijaya Vittalaswami
temple, Krishnaswami temple and the Achyutaraya temple. It
is interesting to know that when the short pillars of Vittala
TO

temple are tapped, we can hear seven notes of music.

T
O
N

Hazara Ramaswamy temple, Hampi

42
 • The Vidyashankara temple of Sringeri, the Thousand-
pillared temple of Rameshwara and the Thousand-pillared
basadi of Mudabidri (Tribhuvana Tilaka Chudamani) belong
to the Vijayanagara period.

ED
H
Vidyashankara temple, Sringeri

IS
BL
• Monolithic Sculture: It was in this period that the style
EP S
R TB

of sculpting huge monolithic idols came into practice.

U
BE @K

The monolithic idols in Hampi are – Sasivekalu Ganesha,

Kadalekalu Ganesha and Lakshminarasimha. The monolithic
chariot in front of Vittalaswami temple is immensely beautiful.
The monolithic statues of Bahubali in Karkala and Venur are
TO

a testimony to the exquisite skill of the sculptors of this Age.

T
O
N

Sasivekalu Ganesha, Hampi Lakshminarasimha, Hampi

43
 ED
H
IS
Stone chariot, Hampi
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BAHAMANI KINGDOM
BE @K
TO
T
O
N

Fort, Bidar

44
 The city of Bidar is a historical place situated in the
northern-most part of Karnataka. It flourished as the capital
of the Bahmani Sultans for about a century. Look at the
magnificent fort of Bidar.
Look at the map of the Bahmani kingdom. It comprised
parts of modern Karnataka, Maharashtra and Andhra
Pradesh. The river Krishna formed its boundary in the south.
Initially Kalburgi, and later Bidar, became its capital.
The Bahmani kingdom and the Vijayanagara empire were
neighbours, and they often engaged in battles with each other.

ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K

Kalaburagi
Vijayapura
TO
T
O
N

Indian Ocean

45
Firuz Shah
Firuz Shah was the greatest emperor of the Bahmani
Dynasty. He was just, generous and pious.
Firuz Shah was a writer and a polyglot. He was an expert in
geometry and religious texts. He established an astronomical
observatory at Daulatabad in Maharashtra. He improved
the beauty of the capital, Kalburgi, and built a new city
called Ferozabad on the banks of the river Bhima. He gifted
a number of villages to the sufi saint Bandenawaz who had
visited him. He developed harbours. This gave impetus to
foreign trade.
Mahamud Gavan

ED
Mahamud Gavan was the prime minister of Mahamud III.

H
He achieved greater fame than the Bahmani sultans. Coming

IS
from a Persian background, he served selflessly.
BL
EP S

Achievements
R TB
U

• Being an expert in warfare, Gavan expanded the kingdom

BE @K

by his successful conquests.

• He provided a good administration which was based on
Muslim law.
TO

• He improved the tax collection and made postal system

more efficient.
T
O

• He fixed the land revenue, based on the fertility of the

N

soil and irrigation facilities.

• He abolished taxes which proved harsh.
• Being a scholar himself, Mahamud Gavan established
a Madrasa (college) at Bidar. It encouraged study of the
Islamic faith and law. Study of astronomy, mathematics,
history etc. was also carried on here.
• The students were given free education and hostel facilities.
There were around 3000 manuscripts in the Madrasa library.

46
 In short, Mahamud Gavan contributed much for the
growth and progress of the Bahmani kingdom. In spite
of this, the chieftains of the kingdom were envious of his
achievements. They hatched a plot against him and got him
executed. On his grave are engraved the words: Innocent
Gavan was murdered.
After Gavan’s death, there was in-fighting for power. As a
result the kingdom got divided into five new kingdoms.
These five kingdoms were: Adil Shahi of Bijapur; Barid
Shahi of Bidar; Kutb Shahi of Golkonda; Nizam Shahi of
Ahmadnagar; and Immad Shahi of Berar. Among these, the

ED
first two had capitals in Karnataka.

H
IS
Society BL
EP S
R TB
U
The administration was carried on according to the Islamic
BE @K

law. The Sultan was the head of administration and the chief
justice. He was also the chief of the army and religious head.
He was regarded as the representative of God on earth.
TO

Muslims were being appointed to most of the top positions

in the administration. The officials were given jahagirs (gifts
T
O

of land). But Hindu jahagirdars were small in number.

N

As per the traditional Hindu custom, the Sultans used

to collect one-sixth of the produce of the land as tax. Rice,
wheat, maize and pulses formed the staple food.
The members of the royal family and the chieftains led
a luxurious life. The conditions of the common people were
not good. There were Jain and Christian communities in the
kingdom. The Sufi Sect was very powerful.

47
Cultural contributions of the Bahmanis
Literature: The Bahmani Sultans patronized scholars from
foreign countries. As a result, Arabic and Persian literature
flourished. Bandenawaz, a famous Sufi Saint and writer,
belonged to this period. The language used by foreign scholars
came to be known as Dakhani. Later, this language led to the
development of Urdu.
Architecture: Bahmani history is noted for its architectural
contribution. Their buildings in Kalaburagi, Bidar and other
places combined both Hindu and Muslim styles. This style
has become famous as Dakhani style. Their first structure
was the Jami Masjid of Kalaburagi. It was constructed by

ED
Mahamud Shah. Its auditorium, with several small minarets
is very attractive. There are tombs of the Sultans near

H
Kalaburagi with huge domes. The tomb of Bandenawaz is

IS
another important structure. BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K
TO
T
O
N

The Madarasa of Gavan, Bidar

The Solahkhamb mosque and the beautiful palaces in

the fort of Bidar are famous. These buildings are decorated
with delicate wooden carvings. The twelve tombs in Ashtur

48
near Bidar are very impressive. The most important
structure of the Bahmani period is the madrasa built by
Gavan. It is 76 m. (250 ft.) long and has three storeys.
The mosque inside the madarasa is in good shape even today.
It proclaims its glory of more than five centuries.

THE ADIL SHAHIS OF VIJAYAPURA

Among the Shahis, the Adil Shahi of Vijayapura is
prominent. The Adil Shahis ruled in Karnataka for about two
centuries.
Ibrahim II: Ibrahim II was an eminent ruler of Vijayapura.
The kingdom not only expanded during his time, but it also

ED
prospered immensely. Trade and commerce flourished. Being

H
a tolerant ruler, Ibrahim extended his patronage to many Hindu

IS
scholars, poets and musicians. He got the Datta temple in his
BL
EP S

fort renovated and made arrangements for regular worship

R TB
U

there. He worked towards Hindu-Muslim cultural unity. He

BE @K

wrote a book in Urdu named Kitab-i-Navras and attempted

to popularize Hindu music among Muslims. The book begins
with songs in praise of Hindu gods like Ganapati, Saraswati
and Bhairava. He himself was an excellent musician. Ibrahim
TO

Roza, a magnificent building, was his contribution.

T
O
N

Ibrahim Roza, Vijayapura

49
 Ibrahim’s successor Mahamud got the splendid structure
of Gol Gumbaz constructed at Vijayapura. Asar Mahal is
another structure built by him.

ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
Gol Gumbaz, Vijayapura
R TB
U

After Mahamud, the Vijayapura kingdom declined. The

BE @K

invasions of the Mughals in south India and the harassment

given by the Marathas to the Vijayapura kingdom were the
causes for this. When Aurangzib captured Vijayapura, the
Adil Shahi rule came to an end.
TO
T

Architecture
O
N

The Adil Shahi structures occupy an important place

in the architectural history of Karnataka. They are of three
kinds: palaces, mosques, forts and tombs.
• The Vijayapura fort is a massive structure with 96
bastions (towers) and six main entrances. Among the palaces,
Gaganmahal is magnificent. There are rooms with colourful
paintings in Asar Mahal. • The Juma Masjid in Vijayapura is
attractive.

50
 • Mausoleums are the most impressive among the Adil
Shahi structures. Among the twin structures of Ibrahim Roza,
one building is a mosque and the other one is a tomb. Roza
has been described as the Taj Mahal of the Deccan. Mohamud
wanted to build a structure bigger than the Roza and so he
constructed Gol Gumbaz around a tomb. At the centre of the
structure is a huge dome. Inside the dome is the ‘whispering
gallery’. Modern architects have been astonished at the ability
of the dome to repeat the ‘whispers’. The Gol Gumbaz is the
fourth largest structure in the world and the largest in India.
It is one of the architectural wonders of the world.
Chronology

ED
Establishment of the Vijayanagara Empire - 1336

H
IS
Period of rule of the empire
BL - 1336-1646
EP S
R TB

Krishnadevaraya’s reign - 1509–1529

U
BE @K

The Battle of Rakkasa-Tangadi - 23 January, 1565

The Bahmani kingdom - 1347–1489
Construction of the Bidar madrasa - 1461
TO

The period of reign of the Adil Shahis - 1489–1686

Construction of Ibrahim Roza - 1626
T
O

Construction of Gol Gumbaz - around 1650

N

New words
Fakir - Muslim saint.
bastion - the structures or towers for soldiers to stand
and keep watch on a fort.
Parsi - language of Persia.
Dakhan - an area in south India (Deccan).

51
 mausoleum - a structure built around a tomb.
polyglot - knowing or using several languages.
Exercises
Discuss in groups and answer
1 Which is the famous historical building in Bidar?
2 Who was Mahamud Gavan?
3 Where is Solahkhamb mosque located?
4 Who was the greatest among the Adil Shahi rulers?
5 Which structure of the Adil Shahis is referred to as
the Taj Mahal of the Deccan?

ED
6 Why is Gol Gumbaz famous?

H
IS
7 Who was the greatest king of the Sangama dynasty?
BL
EP S
R TB

8 Who was the greatest emperor of Vijayanagara?

U
BE @K

9 Which are the important temples of Hampi?

10 What is the name of Kumaravyasa’s work?
11 Name the works of Krishnadevaraya.
TO

12 Give the name of the Persian ambassador who visited

T

Vijayanagara. What did he say about Vijayanagara?

O
N

13 Name the foreigners who visited Vijayanagara.

Activities
1 Collect photographs of the Bahmani Shahi and the
Adil Shahi architecture, and write a short note on
each.
2 Prepare an album of pictures of the temples, church-
es and mosques in India which represent the remains
of Hindu, Christian and Muslim cultures.

52
3 Collect pictures of and information about the
architecture and sculptures of the Vijayanagara era.
4 Collect songs of Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa,
and poems from Gadugina Bharata and sing them in
groups.
5 Collect information about Haridasas of Bhakthi
Movement in Karnakata and write an essay about one
page.
6 Collect pictures of important monuments of the
Vijayanagara period and collect information about
them.

ED
7 Go on an educational trip to Hampi, and write an essay

H
IS
about your experiences.
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K


TO
T
O
N

53
Chapter
16 The Mughals and The Marathas

The Rise and Fall of the Mughal Empire

Introduction to the Chapter

Babur invaded India in 1526 and after overthrowing
the Delhi Sultanate, established the Mughal rule. In this
Chapter, the reign of Akbar and Aurangzib have been
described. Their administration and contributions to
culture are also delineated. At the end, the causes for the

ED
decline of the empire are mentioned.

H
The Chapter further describes Shivaji’s childhood and

IS
ideals and how he repulsed the Mughals and the Adil Shahis
BL
EP S

of Vijayapura by his spirit of courage and adventure and

R TB
U
built an independent Maratha kingdom. It also describes
BE @K

the main features of his administrative system and his

extraordinary personality.
Competencies
1 Appreciating Akbar’s liberal policies and achievements.
TO

2 Understanding how Aurangzib’s narrow-minded

T

policies led to riots in the country and ultimately to

O

the decline of the Mughal Empire.

N

3 Appreciating how the Mughal emperors enriched the

fields of literature and art.
4 Marking on the map historical places relating to the
Mughal era.
5 Appreciating the life, adventures, character and
achievements of Shivaji.
6 Marking on the map places associated with Shivaji.

54
Can you identify this monument?

ED
Taj Mahal, Agra

H
IS
This is the world-famous Taj Mahal. This architectural
BL
EP S

wonder in marble is a great contribution of the Mughals.

R TB
U
BE @K

The founder of the Mughal dynasty was Babur. He was

ruling a small region in Afghanistan called Kabul, and was
waiting for an opportunity to attack India which was rich
and prosperous.
TO

Babur belonged to the Mongol race. The word 'Mughal'

T

comes from 'Mongol'. Rose was introduced to India by Babar.

O
N

Taking advantage of the growing weakness of the Delhi

sultans, Babur invaded Delhi and ended their reign. But he
could not stop at that because the Rajputs and the Afghans
resisted him strongly. The brave warrior that he was, Babur,
with his powerful weapons, forced the opposing armies to
retreat.
Soon Babur conquered Delhi, Agra and the surrounding
areas and established his kingdom. But he died soon. His
son, Humayun, ascended the throne.

55
 Humayun: Though Humayun managed to overpower his
enemies in the beginning, he had to face defeat at the hands
of the Afghan chieftain, Sher Shah Suri. Having lost his
kingdom, he fled to Persia and stayed there for fifteen years.
When the Afghan rule in India weakened, Humayun invaded
India and conquered Delhi. However, he died within a short
period thereafter.
Akbar
Humayun’s son, Akbar, had always
aspired to build a vast empire in India. With
this intention, he tried to persuade the
mighty Rajput kings to support him. Some

ED
among them joined hands with him. But

H
Rana Pratap Simha of Mewad opposed

IS
Akbar tooth and nail. He was a proud and
BL
EP S

brave warrior. Later, a fierce battle between

R TB
U
the Rana and Akbar took place at Haldighat
BE @K

(Rajasthan). Though Rana Pratap Simha Akbar

was defeated in the battle, he did not bow
down to Akbar.
TO

A huge bronze statue of Rana

Pratap Simha riding on his favorite
T

horse, Chetak, and fighting in the

O
N

battlefield, was set up at Haldighat

after Independence. An ardent
patriot, Rana Pratap is loved by all
Indians.
Thereafter, Akbar engaged himself
actively in military compaigns for
many years. As a result, he conquered
Gujarat, Bengal, Kashmir, Kabul and
other areas, and built a vast empire. Rana Pratap Simha

56
Akbar’s achievements
Administration: Akbar was an able administrator and
a broad-minded ruler. He possessed many of the qualities
needed for a great king. He was not a despotic ruler. He
realized that in order to preserve his vast empire, it was
necessary to win the trust of his Hindu subjects who formed
the majority. He appointed Hindus to high posts in his court.
He withdrew the personal tax called jiziya which was imposed
by the earlier Muslim kings on Hindus, and also the tax levied
at pilgrimage centres. Akbar banned the slaughter of cows
and sati practice. He also opposed child marriage. Akbar’s
land revenue policy was well received by the people. It was

ED
framed by his revenue minister, Raja Todarmal.

H
Religious policy: Akbar was tolerant of other religions. He

IS
constructed a prayer hall (Ibadat Khana) in his new capital,
BL
EP S
R TB

Fatehpur Sikri, where he discussed religious matters with

U

leaders of various Islamic sects. He invited Hindu, Jaina,

BE @K

Buddhist, Parsi and Christian leaders to discuss their views

on religious issues. As a result of such discussions, he evolved
a new sect called the Din-e-Ilahi. It incorporated some of the
best principles of different religions. However, it could attract
TO

only a handful of followers.

T
O

Activity: Din - e- Ilahi did not take off and become popular as a religion.
N

Organise a symposium and collect reasons for its failure.

Patronage to arts: Akbar patronised literature and art.

Faizi, Abul Fazl and Birbal were the distinguished poets in
his court. The immortal singer, Tansen, adorned his court.
Akbar’s contributions to architecture and painting are also
remarkable.

57
 PRAYAG

ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K
TO
T
O
N

INDIAN OCEAN

Jahangir and Shah Jahan, who succeeded Akbar to the

throne, continued his policies to a great extent. Shah Jahan
achieved fame by getting the famous Taj Mahal built at Agra,
the mammoth Red Fort at Delhi and other stately palaces.

58
 Aurangzib
Shah Jahan’s son, Aurangzib, is the last well-known
Mughal emperor. He ruled for a long period of fifty years.
During this period, the empire expanded in all directions,
but at the end it declined rapidly.
Religious policy: Aurangzib was an orthodox Muslim. He
stayed away from drinking wine, gambling, entertainment
and music. He lived a simple life.
Aurangzib gave up the liberal policy of Akbar. He reimposed
the jiziya . He banned Hindu religious fairs, religious teaching
and celebrations. He ordered many temples to be destroyed.

ED
Among such temples were the famous Somanath temple
(Gujarat), the Shiva temple at Kashi (Uttar Pradesh) and the

H
IS
Krishna temple at Mathura (Uttar Pradesh). These measures
BL
EP S
created social unrest and led to rebellions.
R TB
U

The Sikh rebellion: The Sikhs were provoked by Aurangzib’s

BE @K

religious policiy. The Sikh Guru, Tegh Bahadur, was publicly

executed in Delhi. His son Guru Govindasimha organised
the Sikh community into a militant sect. The members were
designated as Singh (lion). They had to possess the five k’s at
TO

all times. These were: Kesh: long hair; Kanga: comb; Kirpan:
sword; Kachcha: a pair of knicker-bockers; and Kara: steel
T
O

bracelet. This custom is prevalent among Sikhs even today.

N

Rebellions: The Sikhs and the Rajputs strongly opposed

Aurangzib in north India. Shivaji rose in revolt in the Deccan.
The revolts continued for a long time and as a result Aurangzib
lost enormous wealth, a large part of his army and worst of
all, his prestige. Many provinces of his empire became free.
The Deccan wars sapped Aurangzib’s economic power as well
as military strength. Being exhausted, he died in the Deccan.
With his death, the Mughal empire was greatly weakened.

59
 Guru Govindasimha

ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K
TO
T
O
N

Golden temple, Amritsar

The Mughal Administration
The emperor and possessed all civil and military powers.
His judicial decision was final in all matters.
The empire was divided into provinces (subas), districts
(sarkars) and taluks (paraganas). The kotwal looked after law
and order in the cities.

60
 Revenue system: Akbar’s minister, Raja Todarmal, framed
the land revenue system. Under the system, the land revenue
was fixed on the basis of the fertility of the soil.
Cultural Contributions
Literature: The Mughals patronized Persian literature in
a special way. There were famous historians like Abul Fazl,
Nizamuddin and Badauni in Akbar’s court. Akbar-nama is
an important literary work of Abul Fazl. Darashukoh, the
Mughal prince, was an extraordinary scholar. He translated
the Bhagavadgita. Though Hindi literature did not receive
royal patronage, it flourished on account of the efforts of the
Bhakti saints. Ramacharitamanas, the well-known work of

ED
Tulsidas, is of this period.

H
Architecture: Humanyun’s tomb in Delhi was constructed

IS
BL
during the early period of Akbar’s reign. He built a new capital
EP S
R TB

near Agra and named it Fatehpur Sikri. The magnificent

U

palaces, mosques and pavilions of this place attract tourists

BE @K

from all over the world. The entrance to the Jami Masjid
(Bulund Darwaza) here is the tallest in India. It is 40 m. tall.
TO
T
O
N

Humayun’s tomb, Delhi

61
 The Mughal architecture attained its glory during the
reign of Shah Jahan. Moti Mahal, the palace that he built in
Agra fort, is extremely beautiful. The Taj Mahal at Agra shows
Mughal architecture at its best. This wonderful monument
was built in the memory of his queen, Mumtaz Mahal. It was
Shah Jahan who got the famous Red Fort built at Delhi.

ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB

Fort, Agra
U
BE @K
TO
T
O
N

Red fort, Delhi

Painting: A new school of painting known as ‘Chikani

painting’ emerged during the period of the Mughals. There
were more than a hundred artists in Akbar’s court. The art of
painting reached its peak under the patronage of Jahangir.

62
Aurangzib, who was orthodox in outlook, did not encourage
painting.
Music: Music received special patronage during Akbar's
reign. The large number of musicians in his court were divided
into seven groups. Each day a particular group gave a music
recital. Tansen was the most remarkable musician of Akbar’s
court. Jahangir and Shah Jahan also extended patronage to
music. But Aurangzib banned music. However, music lingered
in the hearts of people.
The Decline of the Mughal empire
The empire began to decline towards the end of Aurangzib’s

ED
reign. The reasons for the decline are:

H
IS
• The chieftains became corrupt.
BL
EP S

• Intense fighting took place among the claimants to

R TB
U

the throne.
BE @K

• The provincial governors took advantage of the

situation and declared their independence.
• Aurangzib’s desire to convert India into an Islamic
TO

state met with opposition everywhere.

T

• The prolonged warfare with the Sikhs, the Rajputs

O
N

and the Marathas fully exhausted the resources of

the empire.
• In the meanwhile, Nadir Shah, a Persian invader,
raided Delhi. He looted the wealth amassed by the
Mughals over a period of two centuries. He carried
away the world-famous Kohinoor Diamond and the
Peacock Throne of Shah Jahan. The treasury of the
Mughals became empty.

63
 The Marathas
Chhatrapati Shivaji
Shivaji is a well-known personality
in the history of India. He lived in the
17th century. It was an age when
the Hindu Dharma and culture were
being threatened by hostile forces.
In north India, the Mughal emperor
Aurangzib was ruling on religious
basis. At the same time, most parts
of Maharashtra and Karnataka were
under the dominance of the Adil

ED
Shahis of Vijayapura. Even under

H
these hostile circumstances Shivaji

IS
aspired to build an independentBL
EP S
Maratha kingdom. Chhatrapati Shivaji
R TB
U
Shivaji's childhood
BE @K

Shivaji was born in the hill-fort of Shivner near Pune

(Maharashtra). His father Shahji Bhosle was serving as a high
ranking officer at Vijayapura under the Adil Shahis. Hence
Shivaji grew up under the care of his mother Jija Bai who
TO

moulded his character. She infused in his mind the ideals of

Dharma and patriotism by narrating inspiring stories from
T
O

the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, the Puranas and kavyas.

N

Shivaji's guru was Dadaji Kondadev and Tanaji Malasure

taught him the art of war and entrusted him with a great
mission.
Shivaji started his career by raising an army composed of
the Maratha leaders and the Mavals, the hardy youths from
the Sahyadri hilly regions.
Early adventures of Shivaji: At the age of 19, Shivaji
captured the fort of Torana which was under the Adil Shahis.
Soon he captured Raigad, Simhagad, Pratapgad and other

64
forts one by one. Enraged by this, the Vijayapura sultan sent
a large army under his commander Afzal Khan in order to
punish Shivaji. However, Shivaji avoided a direct fight with
the Khan and hid himself in the fort of Pratapgad. Failing to
bring him out of his stronghold, the Khan invited him to a
conference and plotted to kill him. However, Shivaji discovered
the plot of his enemy well in advance and killed him on the
spot.

When the two met, as they embraced

each other, Afzal Khan tried to thrust a
dagger into the body of Shivaji. But Shivaji
immediately killed his enemy by rendering

ED
his body with the steel claws (vyaghranakh)
which he had worn in self-defence.

H
Tiger Claws

IS
BL
Defeat of the Mughal commander: The growing power of Shivaji
EP S
R TB

disturbed the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb. He instructed

U

Shayista Khan, his governor in the Deccan, to suppress Shivaji.

BE @K

However, he was repulsed by Shivaji.

Accordingly, Shayista Khan proceeded against Shivaji with

a huge army. But Shivaji avoided opposing him openly. Hence
TO

he occupied Pune and went on waiting there for two years.

T

At last one day Shivaji, with his small group of followers,

O

entered the residence of the Khan at dead of night and made

N

a surprise attack. In the attack the Khan lost his thumb and
barely escaped from Pune with his life. This daring adventure
immensely enhanced the prestige of Shivaji
Raja Jay Singh sent to the Deccan: A year after this daring
incident, Shivaji besieged the rich port of Surat which was
under the Mughals, and collected huge wealth from the place.
At this Aurangzeb was disturbed. In order to capture Shivaji
he sent his Rajput commander Raja Jay Singh. In the military

65
conflicts between the two, Shivaji was defeated and compelled
to surrender several forts to the Mughals. After concluding
an agreement with the Mughals, Shivaji proceeded to Delhi
to visit Aurangzeb's court at Agra. Strangely, at Agra Shivaji
was imprisoned. However, Shivaji did escape from Agra and
returned to his capital.
How did Shivaji escape?
Being shrewd, Shivaji resorted to a grand plan to effect
his escape. He pretended to be ill and in that pretext began
sending out of his house baskets of fruits and sweetmeats
for the mendicants and the poor, as thanks-giving
offerings for his "recovery". After a few days, when the guards

ED
had relaxed their vigilance, Shivaji and his son concealed
themselves in two empty baskets and slipped out of Agra.

H
IS
After a long journey he reached his capital Raigad. It was
BL
EP S
indeeded a daring adventure!
R TB
U
BE @K
TO
T
O
N

Fort of Shivaji, Raigad

During the next two years, Shivaji strengthened his
position further. He recovered the forts surrendered to the
Mughals. He also besieged Surat again and amassed huge
wealth.

66
 Coronation of Shivaji: Shivaji crowned himself king at
Raigad with great pomp and splendour. He assumed the title
Chhatrapati. He called his kingdom Hindavi Swaraj. Later he
conquered Jinji, Vellore and parts of Mysuru kingdom. He
collected enormous wealth from these vast territories. But
Shivaji did not live long to witness the Maratha expansion.

ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K

Kalaburagi
Vijayapura
TO

Ballari
T
O
N

Mysuru

67
Shivaji's administrative system
In the smooth functioning of the administration,
Shivaji was assisted by a team of eight ministers known as
Ashtapradhans. The prime minister was called the Peshwa.
Revenue administration: The government gave loans to the
farmers to purchase cattle and seeds for sowing. Irrigational
facilities were provided to the agricultural lands. The state
collected one-third of the produce as land revenue.
Military administration: Shivaji paid special attention to
the military administration. His army composed of infantry,
cavalry, navy and artillery. Shivaji's army was known for its

ED
discipline. During the war, the Brahmanas and cows were
let free.

H
IS
Forts: Shivaji employed guerilla method of warfare. The
BL
EP S

forts were the excellent places of shelter for the guerillas. Out
R TB
U
of 240 forts under his command, 111 forts were built by him.
BE @K

• Guerilla warfare: a small group of soldiers fighting against

regular army by means of surprise attacks.
TO

• Women captured in the war had to be handed over to their

guardians. During the course of the war, the soldiers were
T

not to attack mosques. Copy of the Holy Quran when found

O
N

was required to be respectfully returned to the concerned.

Shivaji's personality and character
• Shivaji's life was marked by a high standard of
morality. His respect for other religions was worthy of
being imitated.
• Even from his childhood, Shivaji had imbibed great
leadership qualities. He fought force with force and
deceit with deceit.

68
 • Shivaji's military system was remarkable. He was an
expert in guerilla warfare. In brief, Shivaji was an
ideal ruler. D

Shivaji's guru Samartha Ramdas once begged for alms from

him. Shivaji, without a second thought, offered the kingdom
to the guru. Ramdas, after accepting the offer and then
returning it, blessed Shivaji and said, "Rule the kingdom on
my behalf". With the support of saint Ramdas about 1200
gymnasiums had been established in Maharashtra.

ED
Chronology

H
Babur - 1526–1530

IS
BL
EP S
Akbar - 1556–1605
R TB
U
Aurangzib - 1659–1707
BE @K

Shivaji - 1627-1680

New words
TO

jiziya - the tax that the Muslim kings levied on every

Hindu
T
O

kotwal - the person who guards the fort

N

Haindavi Swaraj - Hindu Swaraj

Chhatrapati - emperor
infantry - soldiers who fight on foot
cavalry - soldiers who fight on horseback
artillery - armed forces that use large guns

69
 Exercises
Discuss in groups and answer

1 Who is the famous Rana of Mewad who opposed Akbar?

2 Which emperor got Fatehpur Sikri constructed?
3 Who is Tansen?
4 Who wrote Ramacharitamanas?
5 Mention one of the causes for the decline of the Mughal
empire.
6 Where was Shivaji born?

ED
7 How did Jija Bai mould the future of Shivaji?

H
8 Why did the Bijapur sultan hate Shivaji?

IS
9
BL
Who was Shayista Khan? What was the result of his
EP S
R TB

conflict with Shivaji?

U
BE @K

10 Where was the coronation of Shivaji held? What was

the title he assumed on the occasion?
11 Write a note on the forts of Shivaji.
TO

12 What are the qualities you appreciate in Shivaji?

T

Activities
O
N

1 Collect pictures of the Mughal architecture and write a

short note on each.
2 Mark on the map the historical places of the Mughal
period.
3 Discuss the contradictions in the policies of Akbar and
Aurangzib, and prepare a report on it.
4 Mark on the map places associated with Shivaji.



70
 CIVICS
Chapter Directive Principles of State
17 Policy
Introduction to the Chapter
Our Constitution contains directions to the State in the
form of certain principles. The Chapter examines them.
Competencies
1 Understanding the importance of the Directive
Principles.

ED
2 Understanding how the Directive Principles are helpful
in achieving the ideal of a Welfare State.

H
IS
In order to achieve the ideal of a Welfare State, the Indian
BL
EP S

Constitution has specified certain principles. They serve as

R TB

guidelines to the State to frame policies. These principles are

U

known as Directive Principles of State Policy. Their intention is

BE @K

that whoever comes to power and governs the country must

keep these Directive Principles in mind.
Following are some of the Directive Principles to be followed
by the citizens of Republic of India.
TO

1. Social Justice: The State is

T

expected to be fair and

O

reasonable and assure social,

N

economic and political justice

to the citizens.
2. Social Justice to the weaker
sections of society: Social Justice
means providing adequate
means of livelihood; preventing
economic exploitation; giving
facilities for their educational Social Justice - a
and economic development; house to live in
and providing free legal aid.

71
 3. Women and child welfare: This includes equal pay for
equal work; maternity relief to women; protecting children
from exploitation and providing opportunities for their
healthy development; and giving free and compulsory primary
education.

ED
H
IS
Women and child welfare Free and compulsory
BL primary education
EP S

4. Labour welfare: The State has to promote the welfare

R TB
U

of workers: right to work; conducive atmosphere for work;

BE @K

minimum wages to the workers; and opportunities to

participate in the management of industries.
TO
T
O
N

Labour welfare Help to the needy

5. Help to the needy: It is the duty of the State to assure

means of livelihood to the aged, sick and unemployed.
6. Uniform Civil Code: The State will try to secure a
Uniform Civil Code for all the citizens.

72
 7. Prohibition of consumption of liquor:
The consumption of liquor affects the
health. It destroys the economic conditions
of the family especially of the poor and
leads to the exploitation of women. Hence
the State has been directed to prohibit the
consumption of liquor.
Prohibition of
consumption of liquor

8. Organisation of agriculture and

animal husbandry: "The State shall

ED
endeavour to organise agriculture
and animal husbandry on modern

H
and scientific lines and shall, in

IS
Cattle - the wealth of
particular, take steps for preserving and
BL
EP S

our nation
R TB

improving the breeds, and prohibiting

U

the slaughter, of cows and calves and other milch and draught
BE @K

cattle" states The Directive principle of The constitution.

Accordingly, The Karnataka Government has passed an Act
in 1964 for the prevention of slaughter of cattle. (Many States,
including Karnataka have enacted legislation to prevent the
TO

slaughter of cattle).
T
O
N

Development of agriculture Modern agriculture

73
 9. Environment: Environment protection and development
eg, Protection of Environment from
Mining and Industrial pollution.
10. Protection of places of historical
interest: Protecting and maintaining
places of historic interest is the duty of
the State. eg, Hampi, Beluru, Halebidu, Environment protection
Pattadakallu etc...
11. Promotion of international peace and amity is another
responsibility of the State.
What is Social Justice?
Social Justice means assuring protection to all citizens and

ED
treating them equally irrespective of caste, religion, sex, language,

H
colour, place of birth and status. Payment of minimum wages,

IS
eradication of bonded labour and exploitation of children and
BL
EP S

equal right and respect to the women come under the purview of
R TB
U
social justice.
BE @K

EXPLOITATION
TO
T
O
N

Exploitation
In this way, the Constitution has given directions and
suggestions to the State. If these are not implemented by
the State, the citizens cannot appeal to a court of law.
(For example, although six decades have elapsed since the
commencement of the Constitution, consumption of liquor
has not been prohibited throughout India). D

74
Activity: To what extent have the Directive Principles been put into
practice in our State? We have been experiencing various kinds of
exploitation of the weak. Organise a debate on the subject and make
a list of opinions which come out of the debate.

Exercises
Discuss in groups and answer
1 What is meant by Directive Principles of State Policy?
2 What are the directions given by the Constitution to
the State towards women and child welfare?
3 Why did the Directive Principles enjoin the State to
prevent the slaughter of cattle?
4 What is the need for a Uniform Civil Code for the

ED
citizens?

H
5 Why did the Directive Principles enjoin the State to

IS
prohibit consumption of liquor and intoxicating drugs?
BL
EP S
R TB

Discuss
U
BE @K

1 Social Justice to the weak.

2 Prohibition of consumption of liquor.
3 Protection of places of historical importance.
4 What are the steps to be taken to implement the right
TO

to education effectively?
Activities
T
O

1 Identify the persons in your locality who are social-

N

ly and economically weak. Discuss with your class-

mates why they happen to be weak.
2 Conduct a group discussion on the subject, "Ill-effects
of consumption of liquor and drug on the youth", and
collect opinions.
3 When the rights of the child are violated, we can call
the child helpline 1098. Conduct a group discussion
on the subject and collect opinions.


75
Chapter Fundamental Rights and
18 Duties

Introduction to the Chapter

Our Constitution has specified certain Fundamental
Rights and Duties of the Citizens. These have been
introduced in this Chapter.
Competencies
1 Understanding the difference between natural rights
and Fundamental Rights.

ED
2 Understanding the significance of the Fundamental

H
Rights given to the Indian citizens by the Constitution.

IS
3 Comprehending the eleven Fundamental Duties and
BL
EP S
R TB

preparing oneself for adopting them.

U
BE @K

4 Finding the methods to restore one's Rights when one

is deprived of them.
What are Rights? The privileges given to a citizen are his
rights. Some rights are natural rights (for example, right to
TO

live and right to self-protection); and some others are legal

T

rights (for example, right to equality and right to education).

O
N

For the growth of individuals and the progress of the

country, certain freedoms and fundamental rights are
inevitable. Hence the Indian Constitution has given six
Fundamental Rights to every citizen of India.
Fundamental Rights
Fundamental Rights are those rights specified as well as
protected by the Constitution. These Rights cannot be violated
by anybody.

76
 The six Fundamental Rights given to all citizens are:
1 Right to equality
2 Right to freedom
3 Right against exploitation
4 Right to freedom of religion
5 Cultural and educational rights
6 Right to Constitutional remedies
1 Right to equality: Under this Right, all are equal before
the law and that nobody is above the law. All should get equal
protection of the law.

ED
H
Equality
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K
TO
T
O
N

All are equal before the law

The Right to equality guarantees that all citizens should
be treated as equals irrespective of religion, race, caste, sex or
place of birth. No citizen shall be subjected to any restrictions
with regard to access to shops, public restaurants, hotels and
places of public entertainment. There should be no restriction
on the use of well, tanks, roads and places of public resort.

77
 Further, all citizens enjoy equal opportunity to take up
government service. No persons should be prevented from
entering public places of worship of their respective religions
and offering prayers.
2 Right to freedom: The Constitution has given six
freedoms, namely,
1 Freedom of speech and expression.
2 Freedom to assemble peacefully.
3 Freedom to form associations.
4 Freedom to move freely throughout the territory of
India.
5 Freedom to reside and settle in any part of India.

ED
6 Freedom to practise any profession, or to carry on any

H
occupation, trade or business.

IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K
TO
T
O
N

Freedom of Speech

Activity :To what extent is the right to speech important? It is grossly

misused. Organise a debate on the topic and prepare a brief report.
Although freedom is a Fundamental Right, no individual can
enjoy absolute freedom. The Constitution itself has specified
certain circumstances under which individual freedom may be
curtailed. For example, by taking shelter under the freedom
of speech, nobody can speak irresponsibly about others.

78
 3 Right against exploitation: The aim of this Right is to
prevent exploitation of women, children and the weak. The
Union and State Governments have enacted several laws to
prevent exploitation. For instance, both giving and receiving
dowry is punishable under the law; the system of bonded
labour is considered as a form of forced labour, and has been
prohibited; employment of children in mining, manufacture of
beedi and fire-works and such other dangerous occupations
are prohibited. Education to the children upto the age of
fourteen is made compulsory.

ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K

Child labour has been prohibited

4 Right to freedom of religion: Every citizen has a right to
practise his religion. But one has to keep in mind the interests
of public order, morality and health. The Constitution states
TO

that nobody should be converted to another religion by means

T

of force, fraud or allurement.

O
N

Freedom of Religion

79
 5 Cultural and educational rights: This Right protects the
interests of religious and linguistic minorities. They have the
right to protect their language, script or culture. They may
establish and administer their own educational institutions.
However, the minority educational institutions are bound by
the Government regulations.

ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K

Cultural and educational rights

TO

6 Right to Constitutional remedies: When rights are violated,

the citizens may appeal to the court of law for their protection.
T

This Right is known as the Right to Constitutional remedies.

O
N

On any matter relating to Fundamental Rights, a citizen

may file a petition in the High Courts or the Supreme Court.
Such petitions are known as Writ Petitions.

Fundamental Duties
The Fundamental Rights and Duties of Citizens are like two
faces of a coin. The Fundamental Duties are one's obligations
towards the country. When the citizens voluntarily perform
them, the country is sure to make rapid progress.

80
 Eleven Fundamental Duties of Citizens are given in the
Constitution. They may be summarised as follows:

1 To respect the Constitution,

National Flag and National
Anthem.

2 To follow the noble ideals

which inspired our National
Struggle for Freedom.

3 To protect the integrity of

ED
India.

H
4 To defend the Motherland

IS
when called upon to do so.
BL
EP S
Respecting the Constitution,
R TB

National Flag and National Anthem

U
BE @K
TO
T
O
N

Defence of the country

81
5 To promote the spirit of common brotherhood amongst
all the people of India.

We are all Indians

ED
6 To preserve our rich heritage and historical monuments.
7 To protect and improve the natural environment.

H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K
TO
T

Protection of environment
O
N

Activity: “Role of students in the protection of the environment”. Organise a

group discussion on this topic and collect the opinions of the speakers.

8 To develop scientific temper and the spirit of inquiry.

9 To safeguard public property.
10 To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual
and collective activities.
11 To provide opportunities for education by the parent
or guardian to his child/ward between the age of six
and fourteen years.

82
 The Government cannot legally enforce Fundamental
Duties when the citizens are found not performing them.
For the progress of the country, all citizens are expected to
voluntarily perform the Fundamental Duties.
New words
fraud - criminal deception to gain money or personal
advantage.
alluring - tempting.
Exercises
Discuss in groups and answer
1 What is meant by Fundamental Rights?

ED
2 Why should we voluntarily perform Fundamental
Duties?

H
IS
3 What is meant by Right to Equality?
BL
EP S

4 How does the social and economic exploitation take

R TB

place? Give examples.

U
BE @K

5 State any three Fundamental Duties of Citizens.

Discuss
1 Importance of Fundamental Rights.
2 The duties to be performed by the students in the
TO

school.
3 Right to information.
T
O

Activities
N

1 Asking the students to speak for a minute or two on

Fundamental Rights and Fundamental Duties.
2 Asking the students to narrate instances of citizens
failing to perform Fundamental Duties. (For example,
throwing waste materials in the public tank; stealing the
stones of ancient fort, or not exercising voting rights).
3 In our culture duties are given more importance than
rights. Is this acceptable to you? Discuss.


83
Chapter
19 National Integration

Introduction to the Chapter

From ancient times, Indians were patriotic. Building upon
nationalism and patriotism that were inspired during the
Freedom Struggle, we have to fill the hearts of the Indians
with love for the nation and achieve national integration. In
this chapter, various facets of national integration, concepts
of diversity and unity; and the challenges to national unity

ED
have been explained.

H
Competencies

IS
1 Understanding that the concept of national integration
BL
EP S
R TB

includes the idea of national unity and solidarity.

U
BE @K

2 Understanding the significance of national integration.

3 Understanding that national integration is possible in
spite of differences in sect, religion, language, gender
etc.
TO

4 Understanding the challenges thrown up by casteism,

T

communalism and regionalism to national integration.

O
N

Meaning of National Integration: National integration is

being free from hatred, jealousy and prejudice towards other
persons or communities. It involves respecting each other and
living in harmony. It refers to an attitude that we all belong
to one nation and to one family as equals.
Diversity
In India diversity is manifested in the form of geographical
diversity, bio-diversity and human diversity.

84
  Geographical Diversity: There are high mountain ranges,
long rivers and vast plains in India. Some regions are too cold
and some are too hot. Besides, there are scorching deserts,
thick forests, cool lakes, cascading waterfalls, lovely sea coasts
and hundreds of small islands. These are the gifts of nature
to us.

ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K

Geographical diversity
TO

• Bio-diversity: India's bio-diversity is enormous. Only a

T

few countries of the world have been endowed with such a

O
N

diversity.

To date, 47,000 plant species have been identified and

described. There are about 90,000 species of animals. This
figure includes 1,232 species of birds and 2,546 species of
aquatic animals. A colourful family of birds is the priceless
possession of India.

85
  Human diversity: In this vast land, there are people
belonging to different communities. They differ in their
appearance, build, language, clothing, food habits, customs
and traditions, castes and religions. One has to go round the
length and breadth of the land to understand and appreciate
the variety. Truly, Indians are a colourful people.
Unity in Diversity
There is a cultural awareness among us that we are all
one. In this country we see a worshipful attitude towards rivers
and mountains. People who live in south India consider Kashi,
the Ganga, Badari, Kedar holy. People from the north too

ED
consider the river Kaveri, Tirupati, Shreeshaila, Rameshwara
and Kanchipuram holy. It is a common practice throughout

H
IS
the country to worship snakes and cows and trees like the
BL
EP S
Banyan and others.
R TB
U

Sanskrit was a prominent literary language of ancient

BE @K

India. The scripts of all languages of Indian origin have

evolved from the Brahmi script which is as ancient as the
Ashokan period. The influence of Sanskrit can be seen on
TO

Hindi, Kannada, Telugu and other languages. In fact, during

the course of the debate in the Constituent Assembly, Dr. B.
T

R. Ambedkar argued that if there was any language worthy

O

of being considered as national language, it was Sanskrit.

N

The Ramayana and the Mahabharata are two great epics

of India. They have influenced deeply our drama, music,
sculpture, literature, folklore and art. Treating elders and
women with respect, being hospitable to the guests, and
showing brotherly love are some of the values practised
throughout India.

86
 ‘Live and let live’ is the motto of the Indians. There is no
intolerance about any religion. Minority communities like the
Parsis and the Jews have learnt the regional languages and
mingled well with the people around them. Yet, they have not
given up their religious practices.
India is known for its Principle of Tolerance. This quality
has fostered emotional unity. What strikes us is that all sorts
of differences and diversities have been harmonised by a
single principle of Oneness.
Threats to National Integration

ED
• Casteism: Casteism is considering one's caste superior

H
to others and opposing other castes. Unfortunately, casteism

IS
BL
has spread to all fields. (You might remember what you learnt
EP S
R TB
U
about casteism and communalism in the earlier class.)
BE @K

• Communalism: Communalism is a conviction that one's

religion is superior to all others and fighting for one's religion.
Communalism destroys peace. It also brings harm to life
TO

and property of individuals. More importantly, it destroys

T

trust and harmony among people. By preventing people

O

of different religions from coming together, communalism

N

retards national progress.

• Regionalism: Regionalism is another threat to national
integration. The individuals’ concern for and loyalty towards
their own region and narrow-mindedness is called regionalism.
We should always feel that ‘We are Indians first’. If regional
interests are allowed to grow, national unity will greatly
suffer. D

87
 Exercises
Discuss in groups and answer

1 What is meant by Unity in Diversity?

2 What are the factors which promote national unity?
3 What are the factors which threaten national unity?
Discuss

What are the measures that may be taken to promote

national integration?
Activities

ED
1 Make a list of the problems in your area which prevent

H
IS
unity among the people, and find solutions to them.
BL
EP S

2 We all know that in India we are facing several

R TB
U
problems relating to national integration. How to
BE @K

overcome them? How to really promote integration in

the country? Organise a debate and prepare a list of
suggestions offered.
TO
T
O


N

88
Chapter
20 National Symbols

Introduction to the Chapter

In this Chapter, our National Flag, National Emblem,
National Anthem, National festivals and important days of
celebrations are introduced.
Competencies
1 Understanding the significance of the National Flag.
2 Understanding the code of the National Flag and
following it.

ED
3 Understanding and appreciating the meaning and

H
significance of the National Emblem.

IS
BL
EP S
4 Understanding the background and significance of the
R TB

National Anthem and National Song.

U
BE @K

5 Competency of singing the National Anthem and

National Song properly.
6 Understanding the importance of National festivals
and important days of celebrations.
TO

National symbols: Generally, a country adopts certain

T

symbols to represent its culture, traditions and values.

O

These are called national symbols. The national flag and the
N

national emblem are the main national symbols of a country.

Similarly, every country has its own national anthem. Some
countries have a national animal, national bird and also a
national flower. All these symbols inspire and promote feelings
of patriotism and unity in the citizens.
Our National Flag
The flag is an emblem of the country. It is a symbol of
freedom, patriotism, unity and loyalty. The heart of every
citizen is filled with pride when he/she sees the flag flying
high on the flag-mast.

89
 Description of India’s tricolour flag: Our flag consists
of three colours. It has bright saffron at the top, white in
the middle and dark green at the bottom. There is a blue-
coloured wheel in the centre of the white band. The wheel
has 24 spokes. The diameter of the wheel is the same as the
width of the white band.

ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K
TO
T

National Flag
O
N

The flag is rectangular in shape. The proportion of its

breadth to its length is 3:2. All the three bands are of the
same width. The flag should be of either cotton or silk, and
hand-woven out of hand-spun yarn.

Importance of the National Flag: What do the colours of our

flag denote? Saffron colour stands for sacrifice and
selflessness. White stands for truth, peace and purity. Green
stands for green earth and symbolises agricultural and
industrial prosperity. The wheel is a replica of the wheel in

90
the Asoka pillar at Sarnath. Asoka Chakra is Dharmachakra;
it is also a symbol of continual movement.
Code of the National Flag
• The flag should not be dirty or torn.
• When hoisting the flag, care should be taken to ensure
that saffron color is at the top.
• No other flag should fly higher than the National Flag.
• The flag should be hoisted upto the top of the flag
pole.
• The National Flag should be hoisted after sunrise,
and should be lowered before sunset, and thereafter

ED
kept folded.
• The flag should be flown at half-mast at the time of

H
IS
national mourning. BL
EP S

• The flag should be held in the right hand while

R TB
U
marching.
BE @K

• The flag should not touch the ground.

Plastic flags should not be used.

Our National Emblem

TO

Observe our National Emblem. It is an

T
O

adaptation from the Sarnath Lion

N

Capital of Ashoka. Capital means top

part of a pillar. Since there are lions at
the top of Ashoka's pillar, the capital
of the pillar is known as Lion capital.
The lion capital of Sarnath pillar is our
National Emblem.
In the original capital, there are four
lions standing back to back mounted
on an abacus. There are four wheels
National Emblem

91
on the abacus facing four directions. In between the wheels
are sculptures of an elephant, a galloping horse, a bull and
a lion. The wheel on the abacus is called the Dharmachakra
(Wheel of Law). A similar wheel is found on the white band
of our National Flag.
The Government of India adopted the National Emblem
on 26 January, 1950. In the Emblem, only three lions are
visible. Below the abacus are inscribed the words Satyameva
Jayate (Truth alone triumphs) from Mundaka Upanishad in
Devanagari script.
Our National Anthem
The song Jana-gana-mana is our National Anthem. It

ED
was composed by Rabindranath Tagore in 1911 in Bengali

H
language. Only the first five stanzas of this lengthy song were

IS
adopted as the National Anthem by the Constituent Assembly
BL
EP S

on 24 January, 1950. The full version of the National Anthem

R TB
U

is sung in 52 seconds. A short version consisting of first and

BE @K

last lines of the stanza is also sung on certain occasions. This

takes approximately 20 seconds.
It is the duty of every Indian to honour the National
TO

Anthem. Showing disrespect or obstructing its playing is a

punishable offence under the law.
T
O

• While singing the National Anthem, we should stand

N

in attention.
• It should be sung with correct pronunciation and in
proper tune.
Our National Song
Vande Mataram is given importance equal to the National
Anthem in our Constitution. During national programmes,
Vande Mataram is sung as a prayer in the beginning and
Jana-gana-mana is sung at the end.

92
 Vande Mataram was composed by the famous writer
Bankimchandra Chatterji. This song, which appears in his
novel ‘Anandmath’, achieved the status of National Anthem
during the Freedom Struggle. It describes the beauty of
our Motherland and our love towards it. The song inspired
intense patriotism among millions of Indians during Freedom
Struggle.
There have been many patriots who laid down their lives
for the sake of the nation, with the song Vande Mataram on
their lips. It was not just a song for the Indians then; it was
a flame which lit their hearts. However, some leaders were
against adopting it as National Anthem. In the Constitution
it was adopted as National Song.

ED
National Animal, Bird and Flower

H
IS
The tiger is our National Animal. It is very attractive and
BL
EP S
R TB

enormously powerful. The peacock is our National Bird. With

U

a glistening blue breast and neck, and a fan-shaped crest of

BE @K

feathers in bronze-green, it is an attractive and colourful bird.

The lotus, which occupies a special place in Indian culture,
is our National Flower.
TO
T
O
N

National Animal National Bird National Flower

Tiger Peacock Lotus
National Calendar: Several calendars are in use in India.
They are based on different traditions. Therefore, the
Government of India introduced a common calendar applicable
to the entire country on 22 March, 1957. The uniform calendar
is known as the ‘National Calendar’ (Rashtriya Panchanga).

93
 The well-known scientist Meghnad Saha played a major role
in the preparation of the National Calendar. The National
Calendar is based on the Saka era which commences 78
years after the Christian era. Chaitra is the first month
according to this Calendar. The New Year begins on 22 March
in a normal year, but in a leap year, it begins on 21 March.
• The Government of India uses dates according to both the
National and the Christian calendars in its communications
and records.

National Festivals

ED
The festivals that are uniformly celebrated all over the
country are known as National Festivals.

H
IS
• Republic Day: The Constitution of India came into effect
BL
EP S

on 26 January, 1950. This day is celebrated every year as

R TB
U

the Republic Day. People who have rendered meritorious

BE @K

services to the nation in different fields are given awards on

that day. After the President hoists the flag in the presence
of distinguished guests, the parade begins. The parade held
TO

in New Delhi is majestic. Important programmes are held in

the capitals of all States.
T
O

• Independence Day: India celebrates its Independence

N

Day on the 15th of August every year. A special function is

arranged at the Red Fort in New Delhi. This is done because
when India was declared Independent, its flag was hoisted
here for the first time. Every year the Prime Minister of India
hoists the flag on the Red Fort. Thereafter, he addresses the
the people gathered there and the countrymen. Independence
Day is celebrated all over the country. Flags are hoisted in all
cities, towns and villages, and people salute them.

94
 ED
Republic Day Parade

H
Gandhi Jayanti: Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, popularly

IS
known as ‘Mahatma’, is honoured all over the world. Under
BL
EP S

his leadership, the Freedom Struggle received a new impetus.

R TB
U
As a tribute to his memory his birthday on 2nd October
BE @K

is celebrated as the Gandhi Jayanti all over the country.

The birthday of our former Prime Minister Shri Lalbahadur
Shastri, who was born on the same day, is also celebrated on
the same day.
TO
T
O
N

Mahatma Gandhi

95
 Celebrations

• Ambedkar Jayanti : Bhimrao Ramji

Ambedkar was the Chairman of the
Drafting Committee of the Constitution
of India. He performed his role
brilliantly. In his memory, 14th of
April is celebrated as Ambedkar
Jayanti every year.

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar

ED
H
• Teacher’s Day:

IS
Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, the second
BL
EP S
R TB

President of India, was a great

U
BE @K

scholar and teacher. In memory

of this noble teacher and
philosopher, 5th of September is
celebrated as Teacher’s Day in
TO

India every year.

T

Dr. S. Radhakrishnan
O
N

• Children’s Day: The birthday of Pandit

Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime
Minister of India, is celebrated as
Children’s Day on November 14 every
year. Nehru was a nature lover. The red
rose was his favourite flower.
Jawaharlal Nehru

96
 • The Youth Day - Swami Vivekananda

By inspiring the youth, Swami

Vivekananda (1863-1902) led the
nation towards a new horizon. He
removed blind faith being followed in
the name of religion, and spread
progressive thoughts. By establishing
Ramakrishna Mission, Swamiji gave a
new dimension to monastic life. He
called upon the Indians thus: “Let the

ED
Swami
poor, ignorant, illiterate and sick be Vivekananda

H
IS
thy God. Understand that serving
BL
EP S

them is the highest form of Dharma”.

R TB
U
BE @K

The Central Government has declared January 12 as

Youth Day. The Karnataka Government has announced a
new youth policy for their advancement.
TO

• Karnataka Rajyotsava: The Kannada areas in the States

T

of Bombay, Madras and Hyderabad, and Kodagu and Mysore

O
N

states were brought under a single administration, and a

Kannada-speaking State was created on 1st November, 1956.
It was then called Mysore State. This day is celebrated every
year as Karnataka Rajyotsava Day. On November 1, 1973
Devaraj Urs, who was the Chief Minister at that time, renamed
the Mysore State as Karnataka State.

97
 Exercises
Discuss in groups and answer
1 What does the white colour in our National Flag
symbolize?
2 What is the significance of the writing below our
National Emblem?
3 Who composed our National Song?
4 What are the guidelines given in the of Flag Code?
5 Which are our National Festivals?
6 Name some of the important days of public celebration.

ED
Activities

H
IS
1 Collect the national flags of different countries.
BL
EP S
R TB

2 Listen to the national anthems of other countries.

U
BE @K

3 Sing the full version of the National Song.

4 Identify the local festivals of your area.
TO


T
O
N

98
 GEOGRAPHY
Chapter
21 ASIA

Introduction to the Chapter

Study of location, extent and physical setting - Regional
divisions of Asia - Physiography - Major rivers and
agriculture - Climate and natural vegetation - Important
minerals - Population growth, distribution and density.
Competencies
1 Understanding the location, extent, physical setting

ED
and contrasting features of Asia.

H
2 Understanding the regional divisions and highlights of

IS
their contrasting features.
BL
EP S
R TB

3 Describing the major physiographic divisions of Asia.

U
BE @K

4 Understanding the relationship between the rivers and

agricultural activity.
5 Knowing the relationship between climate and natural
vegetation of Asia.
TO

6 Understanding the occurrence of major minerals,

T

growth, distribution and density of population.

O
N

1. Location, Extent and Physical Setting

Introduction: Asia is the largest of all the continents.
Hence it has the greatest variety in terms of physical features,
climate, vegetation, wild life, soils, etc. It has the highest
mountains, plateaus, vast fertile plains, deserts, river systems
and lakes. There is diversity in languages, religions, uneven
distribution of population and density. That is why it is often
called a ‘‘land of contrasts’’.

99
Activity: Asia is a continent of contrasts. Do you know why it is called
so? Discuss this topic in groups and prepare a report.

Location: Asia lies between 1o.16' North to 77o.41' North

latitudes and 26o.04' East to 169o.40' West longitudes. The
Equator passes just south of Malaysia. The Tropic of Cancer
passes through Arabia and India.
Extent: Asia’s total geographical area is approximately 44
million km2. It covers 33% of the land surface of the world.
Asia almost wholly lies in the northern hemisphere.

ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K
TO
T

Location of Asia in the world

O
N

Physical setting: The continent of Asia is bounded by

oceans on three sides and by land on one side. It is bounded
by the Arctic Ocean in the north, the Pacific Ocean in the east
and the Indian Ocean in the south.
The border between Asia and Europe is traditionally drawn
as a zig zag line passing down the spine of the Ural mountains,
and through the Caspian Sea, Caucasus mountain and the
Black Sea.
Europe & Asia together are known as 'Eurasia'

100
 ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB

Location, and Physical Setting of Asia

U
BE @K

The boundary separating Asia and Africa is along the Suez

canal and the boundary between Asia and Australia is usually
placed between the island of New Guinea and Australia.
2. Regional Divisions Of Asia
TO

There are 48 countries in Asia. They are usually grouped

T

into following five major regional divisions.

O
N

1. East Asia includes China, North Korea, South Korea,

Japan, Hong Kong, Taiwan and Mongolia. They are between
the vast expanses of Russia to the north and the countries
of South Asia and South-East Asia to the south.
2. South-East Asia comprises of Myanmar, Laos, Vietnam,
Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia,
Philippines and Brunei. This is a region of Peninsulars and
islands, i e., Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, Borneo, Papua etc.
To the west of it lies the Indian Ocean and to the east of it
the Pacific Ocean.

101
 ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K

Regional Divisions of Asia

3. South Asia includes the countries of India, Bangladesh,

TO

Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan, Srilanka and the Maldives. India

is a giant among these countries. The Bay of Bengal, the
T

Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean are the water bodies which
O

are to the south. To the north are the Himalayan mountains.

N

Myanmar is to the east and Afghanistan is to the west.

4. South West Asia includes the following countries:
Afghanistan, Bahrain, Cyprus, Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Israel,
Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Qatar, Syria, Palestine,
Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.) and Yemen. This
region is to the south of the Black Sea with the Mediterranean
Sea to the west and India to the east. This regional division
includes desert and semi-desert areas. They are rich in
petroleum and natural gas.

102
 5. Central Asia extends from the Caspian Sea in the west
to China in the east, and from Kazakhstan in the north to Iran
and Afghanistan in the south. It comprises of Kazakhstan,
Kirghizia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Siberia
(Rassia).
3. Physiography
The physiography of Asia comprises of a series of high
mountains. They are the dominant landforms. Besides, there
are alluvial lowlands and islands arcs.
Major Physical Divisions: On the basis of structure and
relief features, Asia can be divided into five major physical
divisions.

ED
1 The North-Western Lowlands.

H
2 The Central Highlands.

IS
3 The Southern Plateaus. BL
EP S

4 The Great Plains of Rivers.

R TB
U

5 The Island Groups.

BE @K

1. The North-Western Lowlands: They are the most

outstanding relief features of Asia. They extends from Bering
Strait to the Caspian Sea. They are between the Arctic Ocean
and the central highlands. They are vast triangular lowlands
TO

known as the ‘Siberian Plain’. The general slope is towards

the north. This plain is crossed by the Lena, the Ob, and the
T
O

Yenise rivers. They flow northwards into the Arctic Ocean.

N

2. The Central Highlands: They form the second great

physical division. They lie to the south of the North-western
lowlands. The Central Highlands stretch from Asia Minor
to Bering Strait. Various mountain ranges radiate from the
Pamir Knot in all directions. The eastern ranges include
the Himalayas, the Kunlun, the Karakoram, the Tienshan,
the Altai, the Sayan, the Yablonovy, the Khingan and the
Stanovoy. The western ranges comprise of the Hindukush,
the Sulaimans, the Kirthars, the Elburz, the Zagros, the
Caucasus, the Pontine and the Taurus mountains.

103
 The Himalayas are fold
mountains which extend south-
west from the Pamirs. They are
the loftiest mountains in the
world. Mt. Everest, in the
Himalayas, is the highest peak
in the world.
There are many plateaus
in between mountain ranges. Mt.Everest
Examples: Tibet, Mangolia, Iran, Anatolia etc. Many rivers of
Asia originate in these highlands.

ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K
TO
T
O
N

Physiographical Divisions

104
 3. The Southern Plateaus: They are the old plateaus made of
hard crystalline rocks. They comprises the Plateau of Arabia,
the Deccan plateau (India) and the Plateau of Yunnan (Indo-
China) and Shan Plateau (Myanmar).
The Plateau of Arabia occupies the entire Arabian
Peninsula. It is dry region.
The Deccan Plateau occupies a large part of the Indian
peninsula. It lies between the central mountains, the Western
Ghats and the Eastern Ghats. It slopes to the east and most
of its rivers flow in that direction.
The Yunnan Plateau is situated to the South-West of
China. It is a high block consisting of lime-stone. The Shan
Plateau is a continuation of Yunnan Plateau.

ED
4. The Great Plains of rivers: This region consists of plains

H
of the rivers of Asia which either flow into the Indian Ocean or

IS
the Pacific Ocean. All these rivers have their sources located
BL
EP S
R TB

in the central highlands. They form fertile plains by depositing

U

alluvium. The major plains in this division are the Tigris-

BE @K

Euphrates in Syria and Iraq, the Indo-Gangetic plain in India

and Pakistan, the Irrawady plain in Myanmar, the Menam and
the Mekong in Indo-China, the Si-Kiang, the Yang-tse-Kiang
(Chiang-Jiang) and Hwang Ho Plains in China. Since these
TO

plains are fertile they are densely populated.

T

5. The Island Groups: Numerous islands are found in

O

South-East Asian and the Pacific coast of the continent. They

N

extend from Kamchatka peninsula in the north to Philippines

and Borneo in the south. They are arranged in festoons.
They enclose five seas, namely, the Sea of Okhotsk, the Sea
of Japan, the Yellow Sea, the East China Sea and the South
China Sea.
The island festoons are - (i) the Kurile Islands, (ii) the
Japanese Islands, (iii) the La Chu Islands and (iv) the Borneo
and Philippines Islands. These islands are of volcanic origin
and have fertile soil, deep valleys and steep conical peaks.

105
 4. Major Rivers and Agriculture
Rivers of Asia: Asia is a land of mighty rivers. Asia is
surrounded by the Arctic, the Pacific and the Indian Oceans.
The majority of rivers of this continent flow into any of these
three oceans. Thus the rivers of Asia can be divided into four
groups;
1. Indian Ocean Rivers System: The major rivers of this
groups are: the Tigris and the Euphrates of Syria and Iraq,
flow into the Persian Gulf. The Sindhu, the Ganga and
the Brahmaputra of India, rises in the Himalayas and flow
southward into the Indian Ocean. Rivers Sittang, Salween
and Irrawadi of Myanmar flow into the Bay of Bengal.
2. Pacific Ocean Rivers System: It includes the rivers of

ED
Amur (Russia), Hwang Ho, Chiang Jiang (Yangtse Kiang)

H
and Sikiang of China, which drain eastward into the Sea

IS
of Okhotsk, the Yellow Sea and the China Sea respectively.
BL
EP S

Mekong and Menam of Indo-China flow into South China Sea.

R TB
U
BE @K
TO
T
O
N

Rivers of Asia

106
 3. Arctic Ocean Rivers System: It includes Ob, Yenisei and
Lena which are the three biggest rivers of this group. These
rivers rises in the Central Highlands, flow northwards, and fall
into the Arctic Ocean.
4. Inland Rivers System: The major rivers which drain into
inland seas are the Volga and the Ural which flow into the
Caspian Sea, the Amu Darya and Syr Darya which flow into
the Aral Sea.
Agriculture of Asia
Agriculture is the most important occupation in Asia. About
three-fifth of the people are engaged in agriculture. Agricultural
products account for a major share of Asia’s export.

ED
There is a close relationship between the river systems and
farming in Asia. Agriculture is largely practised in river basins

H
(except in Siberia) because of fertile soil and water supply

IS
through irrigation. BL
EP S
R TB

In many Asian countries, most of the farmers use hand

U

tools and animals for cultivation. They follows the intensive

BE @K

farming. Other types of farming are also in practice, e.g.,

irrigation farming, dry farming, plantation farming, mixed
farming etc. In recent years modern implements, fertilizers,
high-yielding varieties of seeds etc. have become widespread in
TO

some countries. But still there are many countries which have
low-yield per hectare due to many reasons.
T
O

Crops: A variety of crops are

N

grown in Asia. Rice and wheat are

the chief staple food crops. China
and India are the leading producers
of rice and together they produce
more than 90% of the world rice.
Japan, Bangladesh, Thailand and
South East Asian countries are
other major producers of rice. Rice Crop
China, India, Pakistan and Asian
Russia are the leading wheat producing countries.

107
 Most of the world’s natural rubber and tea come from
Asia. Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand are the top natural
rubber producers. The leading tea producing areas are China,
Indonesia, India, Malaysia and Thailand.

ED
Tea estate Coffee estate

H
The other important crops of Asia include cotton, jute

IS
(fibre crops) and sugarcane. China, India, Pakistan, Turkey,
BL
EP S

Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan are the leading producers of

R TB
U

cotton. Jute comes mainly from Bangladesh, China and

BE @K

India. The sugarcane producing areas are in India (second

largest producer in the world), Indonesia, Philippines and
Bangladesh.
TO

Asia is also famous for the production of coffee, cocoa,

millets and variety of pulses, spices, oil seeds etc.
T
O

5. Climate and Natural Vegetation

N

Climate: As mentioned earlier, Asia is a very vast continent.

It extends from the Equator to the Polar region. As a result,
Asia has a wide variety of climates. Asia has some of the
coldest lands in the world (Polar), as well as some of the
hottest areas (Central and Southwest), the driest as also the
wettest. The varied climate of the continent is due to several
factors such as size, latitudinal extent, physical features,
monsoon winds etc.

108
 ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K

Distribution of Annual temperature

Temperature: It varies from one region to another and from
one season to another. In January, the southern countries
TO

are less cold, but the northern countries experience bitter

cold. Verkhoyansk in Siberia is the coldest place.
T
O

In July, a greater part of the continent is hot, with the

N

exception of northern Siberia and the high mountains and

plateaus of Central Asia. In some places the temperature
rises beyond 40o c.
Distribution of Rainfall: Most of the rainfall in Asia is caused
by the summer (southwest) monsoons (a warm moist winds).
But the monsoons do not reach the central part of Asia,
which is dry throughout the year. In winter the Westerlies
cause rainfall in the Western Asian countries. Eastern parts
of China, the Philippines, Malaysia etc. receive rainfalll from
tropical cyclones.

109
 ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U

Distribution of Annual rainfall

BE @K

Winter Season: The period from October to March is winter

in most parts of Asia as a greater part of Asia lies in the
northern hemisphere. The rays of the sun are slanting in the
TO

northern hemisphere during this season. So, most of Asia

experiences very low temperature and become extremely cold.
T
O

The atmospheric pressure is high in central Asia and low

N

over the Indian Ocean. Winds, therefore, blow from the land
to the sea. They are dry and do not cause rainfall. Hence
there is little rainfall in winter.
Summer Season: The conditions are reversed during
summer. It starts in April and ends in September. The sun
shines vertically in the northern hemisphere. So most of Asia
has high temperature and it causes low pressure in Central
Asia. Winds therefore blow from the sea towards the land.
They cause heavy rainfall to most parts of the Asia.

110
 o o
• Verkhoyansk in Siberia has - 51 c and Omyakni has -71 c
temperature in January.
• Mawsynram in Meghalaya (India) receives highest rain
fall in the world (1187 cm).

Natural vegetation
Natural vegetation of Asia is closely associated with climate.
But other factors such as landforms, soils and interference
of human beings also have influence on types of vegetation
and its distribution. There is great diversity in the vegetation
of Asia. It can be divided into seven major types as follows:

ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K
TO
T
O
N

Natural vegetation

111
 1 The Tundra vegetation is found in a narrow belt along
the Arctic coastal areas. This belt is mostly covered by snow
and ice. So plant growth is limited and restricted to mosses
and lichen.
2 Coniferous forests are found to the south of the Tundra
and is also known as ‘Taiga forests’. Fir, spruce, larch and
pine are the common trees found here. They are soft wood
trees.

ED
H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K
TO
T
O
N

Taiga forest

3 Temperate grasslands (steppes) are found mainly to

the west of Central Asia and in a fringe of deserts and semi-
deserts. The low rainfall encourage low growth of grass.
4 Desert vegetation occurs in tropical and temperate
deserts of Asia, e.g., Arabia, Iran, Thar desert etc. Only
some thorny plants, bushes and poor grass grow here. Near
the oasis date and palm trees are found.

112
 Monsoon forest
5 Monsoon forests are found in the South, South-East

ED
and East Asia. Since this region has high temperature and

H
sufficient rainfall, forests grow here. Teak, sal, banyan,

IS
bamboos, sandal and many varieties of hardwood trees are
BL
EP S
found here. They shed their leaves in autumn.
R TB
U
6 Equatorial forests are mainly found in the East Indies
BE @K

and heavy rainfall areas of the monsoon lands. They are

evergreen and trees are quite tall. Mahogany, ebony, rubber,
bamboo and rosewood are the main trees.
TO
T
O
N

Equatorial forest region

113
 7 Mediterranean vegetation occurs in South-West Asia.
The important trees are olive, figs and oak. They are short
trees. Shrubs also grow here.
6. Important Minerals
Since Asia is the largest continent, it has a large and varied
mineral deposits. The important minerals are as follows:
Iron ore is the main raw material for the production of
iron and steel. Asia is rich in iron ore reserves and has about
30% of world’s reserves. China is the leading producer. India,
Turkey, Philippines, Malaysia, Thailand , Myanmar, Indonesia,
Vietnam, Kazakhstan and Pakistan are the other important
iron ore producers. Korea, Taiwan, Sri Lanka, Japan, and the

ED
countries of South-West Asia are poor in iron ore reserves.

H
IS
BL
EP S
R TB
U
BE @K
TO
T
O
N

Important minerals

114
 Manganese is considered to be the most important of the
ferro-alloy metals. It is essential for the production of good
quality steel. In Asia, manganese is found in abundance in
Transcaucasia, Central Asia, Siberia, China and India. China
is a leading producer of manganese in Asia.
Bauxite is the main source of aluminium which is one of
the non-ferrous metals. The largest bauxite reserves are
found in Kazakhstan and South Central Siberia. Fairly large
bauxite areas are also located in China, India, Indonesia,
Turkey and Malaysia.
Coal is a fossil fuel mineral of plant origin. It is an
important source of energy. Asia is rich in coal reserves.

ED
But they are unevenly distributed. The largest reserves are

H
found in China, India, Indonesia, Siberia and the Central

IS
Asian countries. BL
EP S

China is the largest possessor and producer of coal in

R TB
U

the world. India is the second largest producer of coal in

BE @K

Asia. Recently the Kuznetsk Basin in South Central Siberia

has become a big producer of coal. Smaller deposits of coal
are found in Uzbekistan, Kyrgystan, Japan, Tajikistan and
Pakistan.
TO

Petroleum is a mineral oil and a very important source

T
O

of power for automobiles, railways, ships and aeroplanes.

N

Southwestern Asia has the largest petroleum reserves which

are located in Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Kuwait, Iran, Bahrain, Qatar
and United Arab Emirates (UAE). These countries have about
half of the world’s petroleum deposits and produce nearly
25% of the world’s petroleum.
Some countries of Eastern and South Eastern Asia also
have petroleum reserves, i.e. Indonesia, Malaysia, China,
Taiwan, Myanmar, Saravak, India, Vietnam etc. Recently
Siberia has increased its production of petroleum.

115
 • The term ‘petroleum’ is derived from two Latin words:
‘Petra’ means ‘rock’ and 'oleum' means oil. So petroleum is
rock oil.
• Saudi Arabia is the largest producer of petroleum in the
world.

Central Asia also posseses considerable deposits of

petroleum, i.e., in Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakstan, etc.
Major Industrial Regions
Despite its large size and rich mineral and agricultural
resources, the continent of Asia is generally less industrialized
than Europe. The main reasons for this situation are

ED
lack of technology, capital, conservative attitude towards

H
industrialization and large population which is engaged in

IS
agriculture. BL
EP S

An area dominated by industries and industrial activities

R TB
U

is called “Industrial Region”. Industries are concentrated

BE @K

in some areas where there are favourable factors for their

location. Major industrial regions of Asia are as follows:
Japan: There are four major industrial regions in Japan.
TO

1 The Keihin Region is the greatest industrial region of

T

Japan. It includes Tokyo, Kawasaki and Yokohama

O

cities. The important industries are textiles,

N

engineering, shipbuilding, paper and cement.

2 The Hanshin Region includes Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto. It is
dominated by textiles.
3 The Ise Bay Region spreads around Nogoya city and is
dominated by textiles and engineering industries.
4 The Kita Kyushu Region includes Yawata, Kokura
and Moji. The industries are steel, ship-building,
machinery, chemicals and textiles.

116
 China: Since it is an agriculture country industrial
development is limited. After the communists came to
power, attempts were made to industrialise China. Its major
industrial regions are:
1 Manchuria region is dominated by iron and steel,
engineering and chemicals.
2 Beijing region has developed metallurgical,
engineering, shipbuilding, textiles and chemical
industries.
3 Shanxi-Baotou region has Iron and Steel and farm
machine producing industries.
4 Chang-jiang region is dominated by textiles, shipyards,

ED
steel plants and engineering.

H
5 Wuhan region is famous for the metallurgical and

IS
heavy industries. BL
EP S
R TB

India: Its major industrial regions are: (1) Hooghly-

U

Kolkata region, (2) Mumbai-Pune region, (3) Ahmedabad-

BE @K

Vadodara region, (4) Madurai-Coimbatore-Bengaluru

region, (5) Chotanagpur region, (6) Delhi-Meerut region,
(7) Vishakapatnam region and, (8) Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram
region.
TO

The other Asian industrial regions are located in South

T
O

Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore and Malaysia.

N

7. Population of Asia
Growth: Nearly 4.2 billion people live in Asia, constituting
60% of the world’s population. So Asia is densely populated.
In 1950 the population of Asia was 1.4 billion. The rate of
growth was high until recently. Now it has been decreasing.
Distribution and density: The distribution of population in
Asia is very uneven. Look at the population map of Asia (Map
11.10). You will find that a greater part of Asia is very sparsely
populated but some areas are very densely populated.

117
 The average density of population of Asia is 150 persons
per Km2, but it is not uniform all over the continent.
The sparsely populated areas includes the northern and
eastern parts of Siberia which are very cold, the deserts of
Arabia, Iran and Thar in India (too dry) and the highlands of
Central Asia.
The densely populated parts of Asia include the great
plains of India, Bangladesh, China, Japan, Korea and Java
island in Indonesia. Most of these are fertile level land or
river basins. Also high density of population is found in
Myanmar, Thailand, Philippines, Iraq, Sri Lanka, Vietnam,
Malaysia and Cambodia.

ED
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Density of Population in Asia

118
New Terms
autumn, billion, coniferous, fossil fuel, folded mountains,
knot, limestone, lichens, mosses, oasis, raw materials, taiga,
tundra.
Do you know?
 The highest point of Asia is Mt. Everest (8,848 m).
 The lowest point of Asia is the Dead Sea (305 m
below sea level).
 The Karakoram Range contains the largest glaciers
of the world.
 Tibet is the highest plateau in the world and is often

ED
called the ‘Roof of the World’.

H
 Caspian Sea is the world’s largest inland water

IS
body.
BL
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 Lake Baikal in southern Siberia is the world’s

U
BE @K

deepest lake.
 The smallest country in Asia (both area and
population) is the Maldives.
TO

Exercises
T
O

Discuss in groups and answer

N

1 ‘Asia is a land of contrasts’. Why?

2 What is the physical setting of Asia?
3 Which are the major physical divisions of Asia?
4 Which are the highest mountains and plateaus in Asia?
5 In which season are the rains plentiful in Asia?
6 Which are the major staple food crops of Asia?

119
 7 Which is the most important fossil fuel in Asia?
8 Which parts of Asia are very sparsely populated? Why?
9 What are the industrial regions of Japan?

Activities

1 Study the map of Asia from your Atlas and list out the
mountains, plateaus, plains and rivers.
2 Collect information and pictures on major rivers of Asia
and their details: sources, length, tributaries, dams,
deltas etc., and mark them on the outline map.

ED
3 Observe your surroundings and list the crops,

H
vegetation and water bodies, if any.

IS
BL
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
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120
 Chapter
22 Europe

Introduction to the Chapter

Study of location, extent and physical setting -
Physiographic and climatic divisions - Natural vegetation,
farming, dairying and fishing - Mineral and industries -
Population growth, distribution and density of Europe.
Competencies
1 Understanding the location, size and physical setting
of Europe.

ED
2 Identifying the physical and climatic divisions of

H
Europe.

IS
3 Understanding the influence of climatic regions on
BL
EP S

natural vegetation.
R TB
U
4 Knowing how the minerals determine the industries
BE @K

of Europe.
5 Interpreting the factors affecting the uneven
distribution, density and migration of population.
Introduction: Europe is one of the most densely populated
TO

and urbanized continents of the world. It is also a prosperous

T

and highly industrialized continent. In area, it ranks sixth

O

among the continents. It has a complex and diverse physical

N

setting and socio-cultural and political situation. Europe has

56 large and small countries.
1. Location, Extent and Physical Setting
Location: Europe lies between 10° West and 60° East
longitude and from 36° North to 72° North latitude.
Extent: Europe (including the European portion of Russia)
is the second smallest continent with a total area of 10.4
million Km2. It is about three times the size of India. This
continent occupies about 7% of the Earth’s surface, but it
has a quarter of the world’s total population.

121
 Physical Setting: Europe is a peninsula of Asia. Water
bodies surround Europe on three sides: to the north is the
Barents Sea, to the west is the Atlantic Ocean and to the
south is the Mediterranean Sea.

ED
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Location of Europe in the world

U
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TO
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Location, extent and physical setting

122
 To the east of Europe lies the continent of Asia which
is separated from it by the Ural mountains, the Caucasus
mountains, and the Caspian Sea. To the south of it lies Africa.
The above mentioned boundaries are not barriers between
the Asia and Europe. Hence together Asia and Europe are
known as ‘Eurasia’.
2. Physiography
The physiography of Europe is unique. The western and
southern parts are mountainous, characterized by snow
covered peaks, gorges, valleys, plateaus and plains. But
the eastern part of the continent consists largely of a stable

ED
platform with limited change in relief.

H
The highest point of Europe is

IS
Mt. Elbrus (5633 mt.) in the BL
EP S
R TB

Caucasus mountain. The lowest

U

point of the continent is the

BE @K

shore of the Caspian Sea which

is 28 meters below sea level.
Actually, Europe is a
TO

large peninsula of the Asiatic

land mass. It has numerous Mount Elbrus
T
O

peninsulas, such as the Scandinavian, the Iberian, the

N

Jutland, the Balkan Peninsula, etc. Thus, very often Europe

is known as the ‘Peninsula of Peninsulas’.
Europe has a highly indented irregular coastline of
80,500 km, which is longer than that of Asia. Thousands of
islands lie off the coast of the continent. Two of the largest
islands are Britain and Ireland. Other important islands are
Shetland, Foeroes, Orkneys, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Crete
and Channel island.

123
Physiographic Divisions
On the basis of topography the continent of Europe is
generally divided into four major divisions. They are -
1 The Northwestern Highlands.
2 The North European Plains.
3 The Central Uplands.
4 The Southern Mountains.
1 The Northwestern Highlands: This region includes
the oldest mountains located in Finland, Sweden, Norway
and extending to Britain and Iceland. These are really the
relic mountains which have undergone glacial erosion and

ED
become low mountains. They are made of ancient rocks. The
general elevation is 2000 m. in Scandinavia and 600 m. in

H
IS
Ireland and Scotland. Goldho Piggen (2469 m) in Norway is
BL
EP S
the highest peak in Northern Europe. The Ben Nevis (1343
R TB

m) in Scotland and Snowdon (1085 m) in Wales are the other

U
BE @K

peaks. This region has gentle slope in the north and are
crossed by many rivers.
2 The North European Plains: It is also known as the
Central Lowlands. It extends from the Ural Mountains in the
TO

east to the Atlantic Coast in the west. It occupies a greater

part of Europe. It includes European Russia, Poland, Northern
T
O

Germany, the Netherlands (Holland), Denmark, Belgium,

N

Northern France and the eastern parts of England.

It is broad in the east and narrow in the west. In the
Netherlands and Belgium, some parts of this plain are below
sea level. It is a depositional plain formed by the deposition
of sediments brought by various rivers.
This region is not flat like the Indo-Gangetic plain of India.
In certain places there are gently rolling areas and at other
places it is broken by low mountain chains and hills. It has
some of the world’s most fertile farmlands.

124
 ED
H
IS
BL
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Physical divisions
BE @K

3 The Central Uplands: This upland consists of old rocks,

eroded old mountains, hills and high plateaus. Their average
height is not more than 600 mt. above the sea level.
TO

The uplands extend from Ireland in the west to Russia

in the east. They include the Meseta plateau in Spain and
T

Portugal, the Massif Central and Vosges in France, the Black

O

Forests in Germany and several low ranges in Czech and

N

Slovakia Republics.
Some parts of this region are forested. Most of the land is
rocky and has poor soil for farming. But river valleys provide
the best farm lands.
4 The Southern Mountains: They are also known as the
‘Alpine Mountain System’. It includes several mountains - the
Sierra Morena in Spain as well as the Pyrenees which form
the boundary between France and Spain.

125
 These mountains run parallel to one another from the
Atlantic Coast in the west to the Caspian Sea in the east.
They are young folded mountains like the Himalayas.
The famous Alps are the most
important. Mount Blanc is the
highest peak (4807 m) in the
Alps. The Alps cover parts of
Southeastern France, Northern
Italy, most of Switzerland and a
part of Germany, Austria and
Slovania. The Apennines, cover
much of Italy, the Dinaric Alps
cover Croatia, Bosnia and
Yugoslavia and the Balkans of Mount Blanc

ED
Bulgaria, the Carpathians are in Northern Slovania.

H
3. Climatic Regions and Natural Vegetations
IS
BL
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Most of the continent of Europe has ‘Temperate Climate’.

R TB
U
The main factors affecting the climate are latitude, relief,
BE @K

winds and position. However, the winds that blow across the
continents from the Atlantic Ocean have great effects on the
climate of the continent. This is because of the Gulf Stream,
a warm ocean current and also the strong westerlies.
TO

In general, Northern Europe has longer but colder winter

and shorter but cooler summers than Southern Europe.
T

The winters are also longer and colder and the summers are
O

shorter and hotter in the east than in the west.

N

Climatic regions
Europe can be divided into four climatic regions:
1. Maritime Northwest Europe: This climatic region extends
from the coast of Norway to northern Spain and inland towards
Central Europe. The mild winters, cool summers, and ample
rainfall, cloudy and foggy days are the main characteristics of
this type of climate. There is moderate temperature in both
summer and winter (18° C and 10° C) and well distributed
rainfall (75 cm.)

126
 ED
H
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Distribution of temperature
U
BE @K
TO
T
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Distribution of Annual rainfall

127
 2 Continental Climate: This climate mainly prevails in
Poland, Slovakia, Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania and
Bulgaria. This climate is characterized by cold winters and
warm summers (-12° C and 10° C). The average rainfall is 50
cm. Rainfall is maximum in early summer as convectional
rain.
3 Mediterranean climate: This type of climate is characterized
by hot, dry, sunny summers and mild winters with some rain.
The average winter temperature is 8° C and summer temperature
is 22° C. The average annual rainfall varies from 75 to 100
cms. This type of climate is mainly found in southern-most
part of Europe adjoining the Mediterranean Sea.
4 Mountainous Climate: The Alps and Caucasus mountains

ED
have this type of climate. It is controlled by altitude, angle of

H
the sun rays, and winds. The temperatures range from -4°c

IS
in winter to 16° C in summer. The average rainfall is 50 cm
BL
EP S

on the leeward side and above 200 cms on the windward side
R TB
U

of the mountains. At high altitudes the temperature is below

BE @K

freezing point.
Natural Vegetation
Europe has been settled by man for a long time and is
TO

very densely populated. Hence, the natural vegetation has

been almost entirely removed, except in the higher and more
T

unfavourable areas. There are six types of vegetation in Europe

O

as given below.
N

1 Tundra vegetation consists of lichens and mosses. It

occupies a narrow zone in Iceland and northern parts of
Norway, Sweden and Finland. Vegetation of similar type is
found at higher altitude in the Alps and northern Urals.
2 Taiga forests is also called Coniferous forests. It occurs
mainly in high latitudes, covering Norway, Sweden and Finland.
Only a few varieties of trees are found here, e.g., Scots pine,
spruce and larch. They are cone - shaped trees and have
needle-shaped leaves.

128
 3 Mixed forests are found in the south central regions.
These include deciduous and coniferous trees. The main
species are oak, ash, elm, poplar, willow, beech etc.
4 Mediterranean vegetation is common along the
Mediterranean Sea coast. This is broad leaf evergreen type.
The trees do not shed their leaves in autumn. Trees of this
type include the cork oak, olive, laurel etc.
5 Grasslands are found in the areas south of the deciduous
forests, e.g. in Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania and European
Russia. It is scattered wooded and steppe type grass.
6 Alpine vegetation covers the highlands of Southern
Europe such as the Alps, Pyrenees, Balkan, Carpathian and

ED
the Dinaric mountains.

H
IS
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Natural vegetation

129
 4. Farming, Dairying and Fishing
Farming : Agriculture is still a very important occupation
in Europe even after industrialization. The continent is
fortunate in having a vast level, fertile and well irrigated land.
The climatic condition is also favourable for agriculture.
Most of the countries have more than 50% of their land
under farming except the Scandinavian countries. The
average size of holdings in Europe is 10 hectares.
Mixed farming is practised in West European countries. It
involves the cultivation of crops and the keeping of livestock.
The arable land is used for growing fodder crops for cattle,
poultry farming, piggery and the growing of a variety of fruits

ED
and vegetables. The cultivation of food grains is also very

H
important. Intensive farming is practised.

IS
In southern Europe, because of Mediterranean climate,
BL
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R TB

the type of farming is different. There is a combination of

U

cereals, fruits, vegetables and livestock farming.

BE @K

Depending upon a vast market specialized type of

farming has developed. The agriculture is commercial and
well organised near densely populated urban areas. On the
TO

whole less than 10% of the people are engaged in agricultural

activities.
T
O

Depending upon relief, soil and climatic conditions, the

N

availability of market and farm labour a great variety of crops

are grown in different parts of Europe.
Wheat is the important staple food crop of Europe. The
Paris basin, the great plains of Europe, the plains of Hungary,
the lowland countries and the Po river basin in Italy are the
main wheat producing areas of Europe.
Maize is the second major cereal crop of Europe. France,
Romania, Italy, Hungary, Germany and Spain are the major
producers of maize. Rye is another food crop, which is largely

130
used for making bread and liquor. The leading producers
of rye are Poland, Germany, Czech and Slovakia Republics.
Europe is an important producer of barley. It is used as food
grain, feed for cattle and for liquor. Oats is also grown in some
nations. Rice is grown to a small extent as a summer crop.
Sugar beet and potatoes are the two root crops of Europe.
Sugar beet is used both for the production of sugar and as
fodder for cattle.
Potatoes grown mainly in the plains of Central and Eastern
Europe. Europe is leading producer of potatoes in the world.
Flax is the fibre crop of Europe.
Fruits such as grapes, apples, figs, oranges, lemons,
plums, pomegranates, chestnut etc. are grown on the

ED
hill slopes. Bulgaria is famous for roses, vegetables and

H
horticultural crops.

IS
BL
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Dairying: It is highly organised in the mixed farming
R TB

system of Europe. The cool humid climate, dense urban

U
BE @K

population, good means of rail and road transportation, great

bio-technological development, refrigeration, mechanization
of commercial dairying and ample pastures have encouraged
the development of dairying in Europe.
TO
T
O
N

Dairying

131
 Dairying is greatly developed in Denmark, the Netherlands,
Switzerland, Germany and Britain. But Denmark is more
important for dairying. The European countries export
their dairy products, e.g., cheese, condensed milk, butter,
chocolate. etc.
Fishing: Throughout history fishing has been an
important part of European diet. Fishing is particularly
important in the shallow seas. The main fishing grounds are
near North-West Europe. The most intensively fishing region
is the North Sea and the countries include Norway, Britain,
Denmark, Sweden and Germany. The two most famous
fishing grounds of the North Sea are the Dogger Bank and the
Great Fisher Bank. The people of Norway are great fishermen.

ED
Seals and whales are caught in the polar regions. Norway

H
is the largest producer and exporter of fish in Europe. The

IS
shortage of farm land and food grains have encouraged fishing
BL
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in Europe.
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TO
T
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N

Fishing grounds of Europe

132
 5. Minerals
Europe has a variety of minerals and power resources.
Europe produces a large amount of iron ore. Nearly all
European countries have iron ore reserves. It has 5% ore
resources of the world. France, Germany, Spain, Britain and
Sweden are the outstanding iron ore producing countries.
Copper is mainly produced in Bulgaria and Poland.
Europe is poor in petroleum and natural gas. The major
oil producing areas of Europe are the North Sea, France, Italy,
the Netherlands and Germany.
Coal is the major source of power in Europe. Its deposits

ED
are found all over the continent, except in Scandinavian and

H
the Mediterranean countries. The bauxite and potash are also

IS
found in same places. BL
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Distribution of Important minerals

133
Important Industries
Iron and Steel Industry: Modern age is the age of iron and
steel. This heavy industry produces iron and steel which
is basic for a large number of subsidiary industries. The
important iron and steel producing areas are - (1) Germany:
Ruhr, Saar, Weser river basins and Berlin area; (2) Britain:
Black country, Sheffield, North-eastern Coastal and South
Wales area; and (3) France: Lorraine, North Western and
Eastern border areas, and upper Silesia of Poland, Po Valley
and Lombardy plain of Italy.
Cotton Textile: Europe has also developed many agro-
based industries. Cotton textile industry is one of them. It is

ED
widely distributed throughout Europe using raw cotton which

H
is imported from other countries. Britain is the birth place

IS
of modern cotton textile industry. Lancashire, Cheshire and
BL
EP S

Derbyshire are important centres of cotton textiles. Germany

R TB
U
and France are other major producers of cotton textiles.
BE @K

Britain, Germany, France, Belgium and Italy are famous

for high quality silk and woollen textiles and synthetic fibres.
Ship - building: This is a branch of heavy engineering and
TO

essentially an assembling industry. The main favourable

factors for ship - building are: technological excellence, good
T

harbour sites, industrial progress etc.

O
N

Germany is Europe’s leading ship - building country.

Sweden, Britain, and France are the other ship - building
countries of Europe.
Automobile Industry: The industry includes manufacturing
of cars, trucks, buses, scooters etc., and any other vehicles
which are run with a motor engine. Automobile industry is
an assembling industry. It is highly technical and expensive
industry. Germany, France, Italy and Britain are the major
producers of automobiles in Europe.

134
 6. Major Industrial Regions of Europe
There is a sort of triangle in which the major industries
of Europe are located. It is known as the Industrial Heart of
Europe.
This triangle extends from the North Sea to the middle of
Poland and from the Po valley of Italy in the South to Sweden
in the north. Following are the industrial regions of Europe:
1 The Industrial Regions of Britain.
2 The Western Triangular Industrial Region.
3 The Paris Industrial Region known as the Industrial
Heart of Europe.
4 The Lorrain-Saar Industrial Region.

ED
5 The Upper Rhine Region.

H
6 Eastern Germany to North-West Czech and Slovakia.

IS
7 The Upper Silesia, includes Western Poland and
BL
EP S
R TB

middle part of Czech Republic area.

U

8 Southern Scandinavia consists Stockholm.

BE @K

9 Northern Italy situated in Po Valley.

7. Population
The population of Europe is quite large as compared to its
TO

size. It has 11% of the world’s land area (excluding Russia)

T

but has one fifth of the world’s population. Its total population
O

is 738.2 million (2010). The population is mostly urban.

N

Distribution: The pattern of population distribution in

Europe is not uniform. The most populous countries are
Germany, Britain, Italy and France. Northwest Europe has low
density of population. The Alps, Caucasus and the semi - dry
land of the South Eastern parts are also sparsely populated.
The densely populated countries among the countries of
Europe are Belgium, Luxemburg, the Netherlands etc. This
is due to industrialization, transportation facilities, natural
resources and technological progress.

135
 Growth: European countries are characterized by low and
declining growth of population. The growth rate varies from
place to place.
Migration: During the last 200 years, some Europeans have
left for the other countries. And the people of other countries
have migrated to Europe for various reasons and settled here.
After the Second World War people from other continents
and countries started migrating to the Britain. Most of the
immigrants have been Italians.
Germans had migrated to many countries before the
Second World War. Germans can be seen as a minority in

ED
Poland, Hungary, Romania, Czech and Slovakia Republics

H
and Yugoslovakia.

IS
BL
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U
BE @K
TO
T
O
N

Density of population

136
 Density: The average density of population in Europe is
950 persons per km2 whereas in Iceland it is 3 persons per
km2. The northern European areas are more populated.
The most densely populated areas in Europe are - the
industrial districts, Belgian and German coal fields, the
Greater London, the Netherlands, the Rhine Valley, North
Italy and the coastlands of Spain.
The sparsely populated areas are - Central France,
mountainous areas, Balkan belt and the highlands of
Scotland.
New terms

ED
Alpine, Alps, Taiga, automobiles, flax, foggy, maritime,

H
Massif, Meseta, migration, peninsula, textiles.

IS
BL
EP S

Let's know
R TB
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BE @K

 Scandinavia: region of North Europe, usually

defined as comprising of Norway, Sweden and
Finland.
 Britain or Great Britain is the largest island in
TO

Europe comprising of England, Scotland and Wales.

T

With Northern Ireland, it constitutes the United King-

O

dom (UK).
N

 For more than 500 years Europe has been the heart of
the world.
 Black Forest is not a forest, it is a mountain re-
gion in southwestern Germany. Its name comes
from its dark interior, the higher parts being thickly
forested.

137
 Exercises
Discuss in groups and answer
1 What is the geographical location of Europe?
2 ‘Europe is known as a Peninsula of Asia’. Why?
3 Name the physiographic divisions of Europe.
4 Mention the names of important mountains and
peaks in Europe.
5 What are the major climatic regions of Europe?
6 Mention the major types of natural vegetation of
Europe.

ED
7 Name the countries which are famous for dairying in

H
IS
Europe.
BL
EP S

8 What are the staple food crops of Europe?

R TB
U

9 Mention the major fishing grounds in Europe.

BE @K

10 Mention the important minerals in Europe.

Activities
TO

1 On the outline map of Europe mark the

physiographic divisions of Europe.
T
O

2 With the help of your teacher locate the important

N

mountains and peaks of Europe.

3 Observe your surroundings and list out the
landforms, vegetation and crops cultivated.
4 On the outline map of Europe show respective na-
tion's capitals, places of tourism and Industrial
areas.


138
Chapter
23 Africa

Introduction to the Chapter

Study of location, extent and physical setting of
Africa - Physiography of the continent - Water resources:
Rivers - Climate, natural vegetation and animal life -
Agriculture and industries - Precious minerals - Growth,
distribution and density of population.
Competencies
1 Understanding the location, size and physical setting

ED
and physical divisions of Africa.
2 Highlighting the major river systems, climatic regions,

H
natural vegetation and animal life of Africa.

IS
BL
3 Describing agriculture, industries and precious
EP S
R TB

minerals.
U
BE @K

4 Knowing the growth, distribution and density of

population.
Introduction: Africa is the second largest continent after
Asia. It is also second in respect to population. It was called
TO

‘dark continent’, not because of the predominance of black

people (Negroes), but because of the obstacles to explorate
T

its interior. The plateau rim extends to the coast and in the
O
N

north, the Sahara desert was a formidable obstacle to reach

the interior. There are 52 countries in Africa.
1. Location, Extent and Physical Setting
Location: Africa lies between 37° North and 35° South
latitude and 17° West and 50° East longitude. It is very
interesting to note that the Equator almost passes through the
centre of Africa. Hence, it is known as ‘the Central Continent’.
Both the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn passes
through Africa. The prime meridian cuts across Africa on its
western side.

139
 ED
Location of Africa in the world

H
IS
BL
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U
BE @K
TO
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N

Location, physical setting of Africa

140
 Extent: The total area of Africa is 30.4 million km2. The
continent measures about 8000 km from north to south and
about 7400 km from east to west. Its northern extremity is
Al-Ghiram point (Tunisia) while its southern-most point is
Cape Agulhas (South Africa).
Physical Setting: Africa is bounded on the west by the
Atlantic Ocean, on the north by the Mediterranean Sea, on
the east by the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean.
In the northeast, Africa is joined to Asia by Sinai Peninsula,
though it is now separated by the Suez Canal. Africa is
separated from Europe by the Strait of Gibraltar and the
Arabian Peninsula by the Red sea. The coast line of Africa

ED
is 30,500 Km. long.

H
2. Physiography

IS
BL
EP S
The physiography of Africa is largely a reflection of its
R TB

geological structure. The whole continent can be considered

U
BE @K

as a vast plateau made of ancient crystalline rocks. It rises

steeply from narrow coastal
fringe. Hence it is difficult to
enter the interior of the
TO

continent. The plateau is

higher in the southeast and
T

slopes gently towards northeast.

O

When compared to its size

N

Africa has fewer high mountains

and fewer lowlands than any
other continents.
The coast line of Africa is
almost straight and it includes
a few large basins, estuaries
and natural harbours. There
are no bays and inlets that cut
The Great Rift Valley deeply into the coast.

141
 The Great Rift Valley : A flat-bottomed valley formed by the
sinking of the land between two normal faults or deep slopes
is called Rift Valley. The rift valley of Africa (Map:15.3) is long
(6900 km.) and therefore, known as the Great Rift Valley. It
is in Y-shaped and is one of the most striking and distinct
topographical features of Africa. It stretches from Mozambique
in the south, through Malawi, Tanzania, Kenya and Ethiopia
into the Red Sea, Gulf of Aquaba, the Dead Sea, the Sea of
Galilee and ends in the Valley of Jordan in Syria.

ED
H
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Physiography of Africa

142
 The Basins of Africa: There are five important basins in
Africa. They are as follows:
1 The Sudan basin is drained by the White Nile and Blue
Nile rivers. This is world’s most extensive marshland
known as ‘Sudd’.
2 The Chad basin is occupied by Lake Chad. This basin is a
swampy area and the Sahara desert encroaches upon it.
3 The Djouf basin consists of Western Sahara Desert and is
found along Mauritania-Mali boundary. It is drained by
River Niger.
4 The Congo (Zaire) basin is a great structural basin and
occupied by a plateau. River Congo and its tributaries

ED
flows across it. It is a forested area.

H
5 The Kalahari basin is mostly a desert and Steppe area. It

IS
is surrounded by plateau rims.
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Lakes: Africa has numerous

U

lakes of great economic

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potential. There are eight

large lakes. These lakes are
of aesthetic attraction to the
tourists. The largest and
TO

deepest lakes are found in

T

East Africa. These lakes are

O

generally associated with the

N

Great Rift Valley. Lakes Albert,

Edward, Kivu, Tanganyika
and Nyasa lie to the west
of the rift valley. And lakes
Rudolf (Turkana), Natron and
Eyasi are to the east of the rift
Major basins of Africa valley.
Lake Tanganyika is the second deepest lake in the world.
It is about 1,436 m deep. Lake Victoria, which lies between

143
the two limbs of the Great Rift Valley, is the largest lake of
Africa with an area of 69,481 km2. River Nile has its source
from it.
Mountains: The continent of Africa does not have many
mountains. However some small ranges break the monotony
of the flatness of Africa. Atlas Range, Drakensberg and
Kilimanjaro range are major mountains of Africa.
Atlas range: These are fold mountains like the Himalayas
and are a continuation of the mountains of southern Europe.
They stretch across parts of Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia.
Its highest peak is Mt. Toubkal.

ED
Drakensberg mountain: They are found along the

H
southeastern coast. They are not true mountains but the

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tilted edge of the plateau. BL
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Kilimanjaro range: It is in East Africa. It has the highest

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peak of Africa with a height of

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5,895 m. Although situated

close to the Equator its peak is
always snow covered because of
TO

its great height. Besides these

the Ahaggar, the Tibesti, the
T

Ruwenzori, the Cape range and

O
N

the east African mountains are

other mountain ranges in Africa. Mt. Kilimanjaro
The highest point of Africa is Mt. Kilimanjaro and lowest
point is Lake Assal (Djibouti).

Isthmus of Suez: A narrow strip of land joining two large

landmasses is called ‘Isthmus’. The Isthmus of Suez is very
important. It lies between the Mediterranean Sea and the Red
Sea, linking the continents of Africa and Asia.

144
 Port Said MEDITERRANEAN SEA
LAKE
MANZALA

El Qantara

SUEZ CANAL
Date constructed : 1869
Altitude : sea level
Length : 162 metres
Ismailia Depth : 10 metres
Width : 60-65 metres
Cairo Lake Travelling time between
Timsa Port Said and Suez 12 hours

Great
Bitter
Lake
Little

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Bitter
Lake SINAI
PENINSULA

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Suez
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railways
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GULF
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km
miles OF SUEZ
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Isthmus of Suez Suez Canal

It is located in Egypt (Africa) and the famous Suez Canal

is cut through it. This canal connects Africa with Asia. This
TO

is the biggest man made canal linking the Mediterranean

Sea and Red Sea. The Suez canal is one of the busiest ocean
T
O

routes in the world and connecting Europe with Asia by short

N

distance.
3. Water Resources
Rivers of Africa
The river systems of Africa have their own peculiarities.
Most of the rivers have cut deep gorges in their upper courses.
There are water falls, rapids etc. Many rivers are nonperennial
due to seasonal variations in rainfall. This makes river
navigation difficult. Few rivers are perennial. Inland rivers
are many.

145
 Africa has four mighty rivers: the Nile, the Congo, the
Niger, and the Zambezi the Senegal, the Orange and the
Limpopo are the other important rivers of Africa.

R. Senegal

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Blue Nile

White nile

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Rivers of Africa
The Nile: The Nile is the longest river in the world with a
length of 6,650 km. It originates in Lake Victoria as White Nile

146
flows northwards through the Sahara Desert and empties into
the Mediterranean Sea. The basin of the Nile is very fertile.
It provides life for millions of people who use its water for
irrigation. Its major left bank tributary is the Al-Ghazal and
the largest right bank tributaries are the Sobat, Blue Nile
and Atbara.

The Blue Nile rises in Lake Tana in Ethiopia and joins the
White Nile at Khartoum. Among the dams constructed across
river Nile, the longest is the Aswan dam. The Nile forms the
world’s famous delta.

The Congo: Congo (Zaire) is the second longest river in

ED
Africa. The people of Africa call it by different names. At its

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head waters it is called Luapula and elsewhere it is known

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as Lualaba. It flows for about 4640 km. across the middle
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of Africa through the huge equatorial forest. It empties into

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the Atlantic Ocean without creating a delta. It has the famous
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Livingstone Falls.

The Niger: It is the third longest river in Africa. The source

of this river is in the highlands on the West Coast. It also
TO

empties into Atlantic Ocean. It is non-perennial river. It is

about 4000 km. long.
T
O

The Zambezi: It is the fourth

N

longest river in Africa and

one of the major rivers in the
southern part of Africa. It rises
in central Africa and flows
southeastwards. It empties
into the Indian Ocean. It
has numerous rapids and
Victoria Falls
waterfalls along its course.
The most spectacular of which is the Victoria Falls. The river

147
flows through many deep gorges of which Kariba Gorge is the
most famous. This river is about 3500 km. long.
The Senegal river rises in the Fouta Djallon plateau of
Guinea. Then it flows northwestward for about 1640 km.
and joins the Atlantic Ocean. It marks the border between
Mauritania and Senegal.
4. Climate, Natural Vegetation and Animal Wealth
Climate
Africa is called central continent. It lies both in the
Northern and the Southern hemisphere. The Equator passes
through the middle of the continent and divides Africa into
two parts. Because of the direct rays of the sun, the climate

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of Africa is predominantly tropical.

H
A number of factors influence the climate of Africa, i.e.,

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ocean currents, the absence of mountains, east-west extent
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and location. The cold ocean currents that flow along the
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western Sahara (Canaries current) and on the western coast

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of the Kalahari (Benguela currents) modify the temperature

of the adjoining coastal lowlands. These two cold currents
do not pick up much moisture. But the southeast coast is
washed by the warm Mozambique current, would carry more
TO

moisture and causes rainfall.

T

The absence of high mountains and other weathers divides

O

permit the free circulation of tropical air. Hence change in

N

climate occurs very gradually.

Rainfall also plays a dominant role in Africa’s climate.
Rainfall is heaviest along the Equator. Here the mean
annual rainfall exceeds 200 cm. and decreases away from
the Equator. In the Sahara, the Kalahari and the Namibia
deserts, the rainfall is only 15 cms whereas Cameroon is the
wettest place of Africa, with 1016 cm of rainfall.

148
Climatic Regions
On the basis of climatic condition, Africa can be divided
into eight climatic zones. They are given below:
1 The Wet Equatorial Climatic Region.
2 The Savanna Type Climatic Region
3 The Tropical Desert Climatic Region.
4 The Mediterranean Climatic Region.
5 The Temperate Grassland Type
6 The Highland Climatic Region.
7 Humid Sub-tropical Climatic Region.
8 Dry winter Subtropical Region.

ED
1 The Wet Equatorial Climatic Region: It is found in the

H
low lands, on either side of the Equator and extends from

IS
the Congo basin to Guinea. The climate of this region is hot
BL
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and wet throughout the year. There is heavy downpour of
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rain every afternoon. Rain is of convectional type. Hot and

U

humid conditions result in unpleasant climate.

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2 The Savanna Climatic Region: It covers parts of Somalia,

Ethiopia, Sudan, Chad and Niger. Because a large area of
Sudan is in this region, it is also known as Sudan type. It has
TO

high temperature and heavy rainfall in summer. Temperature

is lower in the eastern highlands than in the lowlands.
T

3 The Tropical Desert: Africa’s Northern and Southern

O

hemispheres have deserts. In this region summers are hot

N

and winters are cool. There is great difference between day

and night temperature than between summer and winter
seasons. Climate is too dry. Rainfall is scanty. There are
rarely any clouds.
4 The Mediterranean Climatic Region: Northern coast and
southern tip of Africa has this type of climate. It includes
Morocco, Northern Algeria and Cape Province. It is hot and
dry in summer and wet in winter. This is the only climatic
region which gets rain only in winter.

149
 ED
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IS
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TO

Climatic Regions of Africa

T
O

5 The Temperate Grassland Region: It is also known as

N

‘High Veldts’. In Dutch, Veldts means field. It is situated in

the interior of South Africa. Because of the distance from the
sea it experiences great difference between the summer and
the winter temperature. Summers are hot and winters are
cold, both seasons have scanty rainfall.
6 The Highland Region: This region, is found in the
Ethiopian highland and East Africa. Due to high elevation
the climate is cooler in this region. Rainfall is scanty and
occurs mainly in summer.

150
 7 Humid Sub - tropical Region: It is situated along the
Drakensberg mountains and extends upto the coast, including
Madagascar. During summer the weather is too hot and it
rains and during the winter it is cold and dry.
8 Dry Winter Sub - tropical Region: It is found in South
east Africa. Summers are hot and wet whereas winters are
mild and dry. Rainfall is similar to that of the Wet Equatorial
Climate. But temperatures are modified by altitude and frost.
Natural Vegetation

ED
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TO
T
O
N

Natural Vegetation

151
 There is great diversity in the natural vegetation of Africa
because of differences in climate, soil, topography and
interference of human beings. In many parts of the continent
natural vegetation has been modified by human interference.
Most of the forests and grasslands have been cleared and
burned for many purposes. So, at present, in Africa natural
vegetation is not all ‘natural’.
Due to the hot and wet climatic conditions, the Equatorial
region has dense forest. Trees grow to greater heights. The
salient characteristics of Equatorial evergreen forests are its
broad leaves and epiphytes.

ED
Individual species of trees are scattered but among
them are valuable tropical hardwood, tree such as rubber,

H
rose wood, ebony, cinchona, oil-palm, teak and silk cotton.

IS
BL
Mangrove swamps clog many estuaries.
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To the north and south of the Equatorial evergreen forests
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are the Savannas with their Acacia trees and Baobabs.

As a rainfall decreases, the Savannas give way to scrubby
grassland, thorn bush and eventually in the Mediterranean
climatic zone to pine, juniper, cork, cedar, fig and olive trees.
TO

Mountain vegetation is found

T

in the higher parts of the plateau

O
N

and desert vegetation is mainly

found in the Sahara and the
Kalahari deserts. The Karoo area
of South Africa is famous for
shrub land. A special type of
vegetation called ‘Sudd’ (means
barrier) is found in the river
valleys of the Nile and other rivers.
Bottle - shaped tree (Baobab)

152
Animal Wealth
Africa is best known for the enormous diversity and
richness of its wild life. This is due to the great variation in
climatic conditions, soils, relief features, forests and land
connections with Asia and Europe.
The rain forest is the home of many animals. Chimpanzee,
a variety of monkeys, Gorillas, Bison, Leopard and other
hoofed animals are found here.

ED
H
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BL
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BE @K

Important wild animals

Crocodiles and Hippopotamus are found in rivers, swamps

and bright colourful birds, e.g., kingfishers, ostrich, shoebill,
TO

eagles, etc. are commonly found here.

T

The zebras, wilder beasts, giraffes, rhinoceros, elephants,

O

impala, cheetahs, and African lions are found in the tropical

N

grassland. A large number of aquatic life is also found in Africa.

Impala and Addax

153
 In desert areas scorpions, lizards, desert fox, various kinds
of insects, donkeys, horses and addax are found.
The camel is the most important and the best known
desert animal. It is often called the ship of the desert.

Ostrich

This is the native species of South Africa

found in the plains and the Kalahari
desert, and is the largest living bird. Its
egg is large. It cannot fly. But, it is the
fastest running bird. It is the only bird
that has only two toes on each foot.

ED
Ostrich

H
IS
5. Agriculture and Industries
BL
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Agriculture is one of the most important economic activity

U

in many countries of Africa. Nearly 75 per - cent of the work

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force is engaged in agriculture.

Other than the Equatorial region, agriculture in most
of the countries of Africa is of subsistence type. The use
TO

of modern gadgets like machines, chemical fertilizers and

pesticides is limited. Most of the agricultural activities are
T
O

done by manual labour. The yield per hectare is also low.

N

The staple food crops occupy most of the cultivated areas.

Maize, millets, rice, cassava, sweet potato, peanuts and starch
crops dominated the cropping pattern. Plantation agriculture is
important in the countries with Equatorial climate. Coffee, for
example, is a major export item of Burundi, Cocoa of Cote-D-
Ivoire, Ghana and peanuts of Gambia. Other major cash crops
includes cotton, sugarcane, banana, tea, oil-palm, tobacco and
citrus fruits. These are produced on large estates and plantations.

154
 The countries of Sahel (Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, Niger,
Chad, Northern Sudan, Ethiopia, and Somalia) frequently
suffer from droughts and starvation.
Africa has large varieties of fruit crops. In the tropical and
Mediterranean regions citrus fruits like olives, lemon, orange,
grapes are common. In East Africa cashew trees are grown.
Zanzibar islands and Tanzania are the largest producers of
cloves.
Maize is the only cereal which is important here. Rice and
sugarcane are grown in small areas. Cash crops like coffee,
palm tree, groundnut are grown in Central, Eastern and
other parts of Africa. Coffee has been cultivated in Ethiopia

ED
for thousands of years. Egypt produces good quality cotton.

H
Commercial cattle rearing is most advanced in the areas

IS
of European settlements, such as South Africa, Kenya, and
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Zimbabwe. Africa possesses about 15% of the total cattle

U

population.
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Reasons for the backwardness of agriculture in Africa are:

old methods of farming, which is purely subsistence in nature,
outdated implements, illiteracy, tribalism, lack of capital and
TO

foreign investment.
T

Industries - Reasons for poor development

O
N

The continent of Africa is rich in water, forest and mineral

resources. But the distribution of these resources is, however,
not uniform. The economy of most of the countries is agrarian
in character.
The process of industrialization is slow. In fact up to the
middle of the last century the resources of Africa used to
be drained from Africa by the Europeans. This is the major
reason for the poor development of industries.

155
 The countries in which the process of industrialization has
accelerated during the few decades are Zimbabwe, Nigeria,
Egypt, Algeria and South Africa.

The inadequacy of infrastructural facilities, insufficient

capital, technology, unskilled labour force, a small purchasing
power and political turmoil are the main barriers in the
development of the industrial sector in most of the African
countries.

After achieving independence, most of the African

countries have concentrated on light industries including
textile, pharmaceuticals, food processing, leather products

ED
and beverages.

H
Heavy industries including manufacture of petro-

IS
chemicals, iron and steel, rubber products and cement are
BL
EP S
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concentrated in South Africa. There are integrated iron

U

and steel plants in Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt and Zimbabwe.

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Other industries of Africa include electric motor, transport

equipments, tractors and battle aeroplane assembling.

6. Precious Minerals
TO
T

Africa is very rich in minerals. It is the world’s largest

O

producer of diamond, gold and platinum.

N

Diamonds: Nearly 80% of the diamonds found in the world

come from Africa. Botswana, Zaire and South Africa are the
producers. The other leading producers of diamond are
Angola, Namibia and Ghana. Diamonds are divided into two
types - Gem diamonds and industrial diamonds. Industrial
diamonds are mainly used for abrasive purposes and cutting
tools.

156
 Gold: South Africa has about half of the gold reserve of
the world. The main area is Witwatersrand (Transvaal) and
in Orange Free State. More than 50% of the world’s gold
production comes from South Africa, Zimbabwe and the
Democratic Republic of Congo.

ED
H
IS
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TO
T
O
N

Important minerals

157
 7. Population: Growth, Distribution and Density
Africa is considered as the birth place of human beings
and the use of tools. According to the anthropologists and
scientists, the Homoesapiens appeared for the first time in
the continent of Africa to the east of Lake Victoria in Kenya
and Ethiopia. At present Africa has people of diverse races
and ethnic groups. In fact Africa contains mostly Negroid
race and its sub - groups. It has also many different people
of Negroids and their languages and cultures.

Nearly 1051 million people live in Africa. Nigeria, Egypt,

Ethiopia, Zaire and South Africa are the most populous

ED
states. The death rate has declined in most of the countries

H
of Africa during the last few decades due to improvement of

IS
BL
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food and medical facilities and sanitary conditions. But the
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birth rate is fairly high. Consequently there is explosion of
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population. The population of Africa is now increasing at a

rate equal to or perhaps slightly above, the average for the
world as a whole.
TO

In some of the countries like Ethiopia, Somalia, Chad,

T

Niger, Mali etc., the life expectancy is even less than 50 years.
O
N

The outstanding feature of the population of the continent

is that it is most unevenly distributed. The highest densities
occur along the coast of the Gulf of Guinea, in the lower
valley of river Nile (Egypt), in the highlands of East Africa and
Madagascar, along the northern coast and in the urban and
mining areas of South Africa, Zimbabwe and Zaire.

158
 The lowest densities are found in the deserts, high
mountains and thick equatorial forests. In the deserts of
Sahara, Liberia and Algeria, the density of population is as
low as one person per 15 km2.

ED
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T
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N

Distribution of Population

159
 The People of Africa belong to four groups: (1) Pygmies,
Bushmen and Masai who live to the South of Sahara desert.
(2) The Arabs who live in North Africa. (3) The Indians who
live in South Africa and East Africa. 4. The Europeans who
live in the fertile land of river basins.

New terms
Precious, Swamp Bay, Desert, Rift Valley, Capricorn,
Cancer, Isthmus, Savanna, Prime Meridian, Life expectancy,
Sudd, Sahel.
Let's know

ED
H
 Though the Nile river flows mostly in the Sahara

IS
Desert, the water never dry up in its course because of
BL
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plenty of rain in its catchment areas.

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U
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 The Sahara is the largest desert in the world, covering

northern part of Africa.

 The highest temperature recorded has been 58°c in

TO

El Azizia, Libya.
T
O

 Addax is a kind of antelope with long and twisted

N

horns. It never drinks water. It gets water from the

plants and the food its eats.

 The Baobab tree is a bottle shaped tree. The trunk of

this tree is swollen to store water. It can store water
from 1000-12000 litres. Thirsty travelers often drink
waters from this tree.

160
  Africa produces 24% of the world's coffee.

 More than 50% of world cocoa is produced by Africa.

 Pygmies are among the shortest people in the world.

They live in the Congo basin.

 Africa has the highest fertility rate and the lowest life
span in the world.

 There are more tham 800 languages in Africa.

 Africa is rural in nature. It is the least urbanized

ED
continent.

H
IS
Exercises
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Discuss in groups and answer

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1 Why was Africa called the Dark Continent?

2 Africa is known as the Central Continent. Why?

TO

3 What is Isthmus?
T
O

4 Name the basins of Africa.

N

5 Which is the highest peak of Africa?

6 Mention the types of natural vegetation of Africa.

7 Which is the longest river of Africa?

8 Name the important food crops of Africa.

9 Which African countries are rich in diamond reserves?

161
Activities

1 On outline map mark the important lakes found in the

Great Rift Valley of Africa.
2 On outline map show the important rivers and
mountains.
3 Collect pictures of Baobab trees found in Karnataka.
4 Compare the African addax and our Indian deer and
write a note.

ED
H


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N

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