A Laboratory Manual for

Electronic Devices and Circuits

(3134104)

B.E. Semester 3

Directorate of Technical Education, Gandhinagar,

Gujarat
 L. D. C.E. Ahmedabad
Certificate
This is to certify that Mr./Ms.
Enrollment
No. of B.E. Semester Electronics &
Communication Engineering of this Institute has satisfactorily
completed the Practical work for the subject Electronic Devices and
Circuits (3134104) for the academic year 2022-23.

Place:

Date:

Name and Sign of Faculty member

Head of the Department

 Preface

Main motto of any laboratory/practical/field work is for enhancing required skills as well as
creating ability amongst students to solve real time problems by developing relevant competencies in
the psychomotor domain. By keeping in view, GTU has designed competency focused outcome-based
curriculum for engineering degree programs where sufficient weightage is given to practical work. It
shows the importance of enhancement of skills amongst the students and it pays attention to utilize
every second of time allotted for practical amongst students, instructors and faculty members to
achieve relevant outcomes by performing the experiments rather than having merely study type
experiments. It is must for effective implementation of competency focused outcome-based
curriculum that every practical is keenly designed to serve as a tool to develop and enhance relevant
competency required by the various industries among every student. These psychomotor skills are
very difficult to develop through traditional chalk and board content delivery methods in the
classroom. Accordingly, this lab manual is designed to focus on the industry-defined relevant
outcomes, rather than old practice of conducting practical to prove concept and theory.

By using this lab manual students can go through the relevant theory and procedure in advance
before the actual performance which creates an interest and students can have basic idea prior to
performance. This in turn enhances pre-determined outcomes amongst students. Each experiment in
this manual begins with competency, industry relevant skills, course outcomes as well as practical
outcomes (objectives). The students will also achieve safety and necessary precautions to be taken
while performing practical.

This manual also provides guidelines to faculty members to facilitate student centric lab
activities through each experiment by arranging and managing necessary resources in order that the
students follow the procedures with required safety and necessary precautions to achieve the outcomes.
It also gives an idea that how students will be assessed by providing rubrics.

Basic Electronics is the fundamental course which deals with various components and circuits
for particular applications. It provides a platform for students to learn basic components used in
different circuits of all electronics as well communication circuitry. Students also learnt all
Fundamental instruments used for different measurements of the circuits.

Utmost care has been taken while preparing this lab manual however always there is chances
of improvement. Therefore, we welcome constructive suggestions for improvement and removal of
errors if any.

Note : It is possible that the instruments, components , equipment available at the institute may have
slightly different circuits and methodology presented here in the materials. Faculties are requested to
make proper corrections according to available resources. Virtual Lab is also an effective alternative
can be used as an extension to these practicals.
 Practical – Course Outcome matrix

Course Outcomes (COs):

CO-1 : Apply the principles of various electronics devices for building small projects.
CO-2 : Understand the concepts of different amplifiers.
CO-3 : Justify the need of diodes and transistors in semiconductor industries.

Objective(s) of Experiment CO CO CO
Sr. No. 1 2 3

1 Obtain I-V characteristic of PN junction Diode. √

2 To measure ripple factor at the output of

√
(a) Half wave rectifier with and without filter capacitor

3 To measure ripple factor at the output of

√
(a) Full Wave rectifier with and without filter capacitor
(b) Bridge rectifier with and without filter capacitor.

4
Obtain I-V characteristic of Zener Diode. √

5
To verify performance of various Clipper circuits. √

6 To verify performance of various Clamper circuits.

√

7 To obtain input and output characteristics and calculate gain of

√
CE configuration circuit.

8 To obtain input and output characteristics and calculate gain of

√
CB configuration circuit.
9 To obtain characteristics of a transistor as a switch circuit. √
√

10 To obtain the transfer characteristics of FET.

√

11 To obtain frequency response of a single stage CE transistor

amplifier. √ √ √

12 To test the performance of negative feedback amplifiers and

compare gain, BW with amplifiers without feedback.
√ √ √

13 Determine the efficiency of push pull power amplifier

√ √ √

14 Build/test transformer coupled class-A Power amplifier.

√ √ √
Industry Relevant Skills

The following industry relevant competencies are expected to be developed in the student by
undertaking the practical work of this laboratory.

1. Analog Design and Product analog circuit design

2. Support Hardware testing and Design validation
3. Product design verification and testing

Guidelines for Faculty members

1. Teachers should provide the guideline with demonstration of practical to the

students with all features.
2. Teacher shall explain basic concepts/theory related to the experiment to the
students before starting of each practical
3. Involve all the students in the performance of each experiment.
4. Teachers are expected to share the skills and competencies to be developed in the
students and ensure that the respective skills and competencies are developed in
the students after the completion of the experimentation.
5. Teachers should give opportunities to students for hands-on experience after the
demonstration.
6. Teachers may provide additional knowledge and skills to the students even
though not covered in the manual but are expected from the students by the
concerned industry.
7. Give practical assignments and assess the performance of students based on task
assigned to check whether it is as per the instructions or not.
8. Teacher is expected to refer to the complete curriculum of the course and follow
the guidelines for implementation.
Instructions for Students

1. Students are expected to carefully listen to all the theory classes delivered by the
faculty members and understand the COs, content of the course, teaching and
examination scheme, skill set to be developed etc.
2. Students shall organize the work in the group and make a record of all observations.
3. Students shall develop maintenance skills as expected by industries.
4. Students shall attempt to develop related hand-on skills and build confidence.
5. Students shall develop the habits of evolving more ideas, innovations, skills etc. apart
from those included in scope of manual.
6. Students shall refer to technical magazines and data books.
7. Students should develop a habit of submitting the experimentation work as per the
schedule and s/he should be well prepared for the same.

Common Safety Instructions

1. Students must obey the safety instructions during laboratory sessions.

2. Keep the working area neat and clean to access the instruments.
3. Students should follow the instructions given by Lab assistant / Lab technicians and
Faculty while performing practical.
4. Be careful while operating on equipments it is expected that more than one students or ,
lab assistant or faculty should remain present at the time of practicals
5. Keep the resources in their designated space after the completion of practical
6. Always make circuit connections or changes after switching off the supply for the
circuits/Kits.
 Index

(Progressive Assessment Sheet)

Objective(s) of Page No. Date of Assessment Sign. of Remarks

Sr. Experiment performance marks faculty
No.

1 Obtain I-V characteristic of PN

junction Diode.

2 To measure ripple factor at the

output of
(a) Half wave rectifier with and
without filter capacitor

3 To measure ripple factor at the

output of
(a) Full Wave rectifier with and
without filter capacitor
(b) Bridge rectifier with and
without filter capacitor.
4
Obtain I-V characteristic of Zener
Diode.

5
To verify performance of various
Clipper circuits.
6 To verify performance of various
Clamper circuits.

7 To obtain input and output

characteristics and calculate gain
of CE configuration circuit.

8 To obtain input and output

characteristics and calculate gain
of CB configuration circuit.

9 To obtain characteristics of a
transistor as a switch circuit.
10 To obtain the transfer
characteristics of FET.

11 To obtain frequency response of

a single stage transistor CE
amplifier.

12 To test the performance of

negative feedback amplifiers
and compare gain, BW with
amplifiers without feedback.

13 Determine the efficiency of push

pull power amplifier

14 Build/test transformer coupled

class-A Power amplifier.

Total
Course Outcomes:
CO-1 : Apply the principles of various electronics devices for building small projects.
CO-2 : Understand the concepts of different amplifiers.
CO-3 : Justify the need of diodes and transistors in semiconductor industries.
 Experiment No:1

Study of PN junction Diode

Date:

Competency and Practical Skills:

After this practical students are expected to develop following competencies and skills ,

1) Proper understanding PN junction Diode

2) Knowledge of diode cutting voltages and diode resistance
3) Practical hands on diode connections and understanding of Diode voltages and currents.

Relevant CO: CO-1 : Apply the principles of various electronics devices for building

small projects.

Objectives: 1) To perform an Experiment to Study forward bias and reverse bias

characteristics of P-N Junction Diode.

2) Observe and calculate diode voltages and current

Equipment/Instruments: Power supply, Patch cords, Digital Multimeters, PN junction

Diode, Resistors, bread board

Theory:

Forward bias
For the forward bias of a P-N junction, P-type is connected to the positive terminal while
the N-type is connected to the negative terminal of a battery. The potential at P-N junction can
be varied with the help of potential divider. At some forward volt1ge (0:3 V for Ge and 0.7 V
for Si), the potential barrier is altogether eliminated and current starts flowing. This voltage is
known as threshold voltage (Vth) or cut-in voltage or knee voltage. It is practically same as
barrier voltage VB, For Vin < Vth, the current flow is negligible. As the forward applied voltage
increases beyond threshold voltage, the forward current rises exponentially as shown in figure. It
should be remembered that if the forward voltage is increased beyond a certain safe value, it
produces an extremely large current which may destroy the junction due to overheating.

Reverse bias
For the reverse bias of P-N junction, P-type is connected to the negative terminal while
N-type is connected to the positive terminal of a battery. The reverse potential at P-N junction
can be varied with the help of potential divider. In this case the junction resistance becomes very
high and practically no current flows through the circuit. However, in practice, a small current of
the order of nA flows in the circuit due to minority carriers. This is known as reverse current.
The reverse current is shown in figure. As the reverse voltage is increased from zer6, the reverse
current quickly rises to its maximum or saturation value. 'The slight increase is due to minority
carriers.
Set up diagram:

Diode : 1N4007

Fig A . Forward bias Fig B. Reverse bias

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in above diagram for forward & reverse bias.
2. Apply the input voltage from the DC power supply. Vary the input voltage and measure the
forward voltage and forward current.( Fig: A)
3. Apply the input voltage from the DC power supply. Vary the input voltage and measure the
reverse voltage and reverse current.( Fig : B)
4. Fill the observation table as given below and plot the graph of ID v/s VD.

Observations:

Forward Bias:
 Sr. Input voltage Forward Voltage Forward
No. Vi (volt) VD (volt) Current
I D (mA)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Reverse Bias:
Sr. Input voltage Reverse Voltage Reverse Current
No. Vi (volt) VR (volt) IR (mA)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

Graph: Draw V-I characteristics

Calculation: Static resistance (DC resistance), R = V/I

Dynamic resistance (AC resistance), r = ∆V/∆I

Result: Cut in Voltage = V

Conclusion:

Quiz:

1) Discuss the current equation of PN junction Diode.

2) If PN junction diode suffers the breakdown it cannot be further used. State the correctness
of the statement and justify it.

Suggested Reference:

1. Electronics Principles by Albert Malvino [seventh Edition]

2. Electronics Device and circuits by S Salivahanan and N Suresh Kumar, McGraw Hill
Publication [Second Edition or Higher Edition]
 Experiment No:2

Study the output of Halfwave rectifier circuit

Date:

Competency and Practical Skills:

After this practical students are expected to develop following competencies and skills ,

1) Proper understanding Rectifier circuits

2) Knowledge of DC shift and filtered Output of rectifier
3) Practical hands of rectifier circuits

Relevant CO: CO-1 : Apply the principles of various electronics devices for building small projects.

Objectives: To observe the output waveform & measure ripple factor at the output of Half wave
rectifier with and without filter capacitor
Equipment/Instruments: Trainer kit, Power supply, Patch cords, CRO, CRO Probes, 1n4007
diodes , resistor 100k , step down transformer , electrolytic capacitor 10uF.

Theory: A rectifier is a circuit that converts a pure AC signal into a pulsating DC signal or a
signal that is a combination of AC and DC components.

Half wave Rectifier: An ac voltage is impressed in the circuit. During the positive half cycle of
input signal, the diode D1 is forward biased and conducts with a low voltage drop of the order of
0.6 to 0.7 Volts across it. The input signal will appear across the load. In the negative half cycle of
input signal, the diode is in reverse bias and does not conduct. So current through the load is zero
giving zero output voltage.

In this practical we will use Capacitor Filter.

Ripple Factor: Ripple factor is defined as the ratio of the effective value of AC components to
the average DC value. It is denoted by the symbol ‘γ’.

Rectification Factor: The ratio of output DC power to input AC power is defined as efficiency.
It is denoted by the symbol ‘η’
Set up diagram:

Fig A Half Wave rectifier

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the above diagram.

2. Apply the input voltage from mains and observe the input and output waveforms.
3. Now connect the capacitor filter across the load and observe the filtered output waveform.
4. Change the value of capacitor and see the effect on output waveform
5. Draw the input and output waveforms on the graph and calculate all the parameters of half
wave rectifier.
6. Repeat the above procedure for the full wave rectifier.

Observations:
Without filter

Vp-p( input Vm = Vdc Vrms = Ripple factor Efficiency

voltage) Vp-p /2 Vm /2 Theoretical Experimental Theoretical Experimental
(Peak
voltage)

With filter

Vp-p( Vrp-p (Peak to Vm (Peak Vdc= Vrms = Ripple factor

input peak ripple voltage) Vm-Vrp-p/2 Theoretical Experimental
Vrp-p/2√𝟑
voltage) voltage)
Calculation:

Without filter:
Theoretical calculation (without filter) :

Ripple factor:

𝑉𝑑𝑐 2
Efficiency= ( )
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠

Experimental calculation (without filter):

Calculate the ripple factor using the following formula.

𝑉 2
Ripple factor ( γ ) = √( 𝑉𝑑𝑐
𝑟𝑚𝑠
) −1

𝑉𝑑𝑐 2
Efficiency= ( )
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠

With filter:

Calculate the ripple factor using the following formula.( Theoretical)

Ripple factor ( γ ) = 1/2√3f RL C =

Calculate the ripple factor using the following formula.( Experimental)

Ripple factor ( γ ) = Vrms/ Vdc =

Graph : Trace the Input and Output waveform of half wave rectifier without and with filter observed in
DSO.

Result:

Ripple Factor without filter = and with capacitor filter =

Rectification Efficiency without filter = and with capacitor filter=

Conclusion:

Quiz:

1) What are the advantages of halfwave rectifier.

 Experiment No:3

Study the output of Fullwave rectifier circuit

Date:

Competency and Practical Skills:

After this practical students are expected to develop following competencies and skills ,

1) Proper understanding Full wave Rectifier circuits

2) Knowledge of DC shift and filtered Output of full wave rectifier
3) Practical hands of full wave rectifier circuits

Relevant CO: CO-1 : Apply the principles of various electronics devices for building small projects.

Objectives: To observe the output waveform & measure ripple factor at the output of
(a) Full Wave rectifier with and without filter capacitor
(b) Bridge rectifier with and without filter capacitor.
Equipment/Instruments: Trainer kit, Power supply, Patch cords, CRO, CRO Probes, 1n4007
diodes , resistor 10k , step down transformer , electrolytic capacitor 10uF, 100 uF, 1000 uF.

Theory: A rectifier is a circuit that converts a pure AC signal into a pulsating DC signal or a
signal that is a combination of AC and DC components.

[A] Full wave Rectifier :Ac voltage applied across the primary of the transformer induces two
voltages out of phase with respect to the center tap in secondary. Hence, in any half cycle, one of
the diodes is positive while the other is negative and thereby conducting alternately. Thus, each diode
conducts for a half cycle. In positive half cycle of input signal, say the diode D1 is forward biased and diode
D2 is reverse biased. So D1 conducts and load carries current. In negative half cycle of input signal, the
diode D2 is forward biased and diode D1 is reverse biased, hence now diode D2 conducts. In the output we
get two identical rectified half cycles of input.

[B] Full wave Rectifier (bridge) :Four diodes arranged in a bridge form give the name Bridge
Rectifier. During the positive half cycle of the input signal, the diodes D1 and D3 are forward
biased while diodes D2 and D4 are reverse biased. So D1 and D3 conduct and feed the current to
the load. During negative half cycle of input signal, the diodes D2 and D4 are forward biased while
diodes D1 and D3 are reverse biased, So D2 and D4 conduct and feeds the current to the load. The
output voltage waveforms are identical and like positive half cycle of ac input. The current through
the load is zero at 0, π, 2 π, and so on. If a capacitor is put across the load (i.e. across the output
terminals), then the ac output wave is changed and there is no zero current instants.
In this practical we will use Capacitor Filter.
Ripple Factor: Ripple factor is defined as the ratio of the effective value of AC components to
the average DC value. It is denoted by the symbol ‘γ’.

Rectification Factor: The ratio of output DC power to input AC power is defined as efficiency.
It is denoted by the symbol ‘η’

Set up diagram:

Fig A Full Wave rectifier Fig B Full wave bridge rectifier

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the above diagram.

2. Apply the input voltage from mains and observe the input and output waveforms.
3. Now connect the capacitor filter across the load and observe the filtered output waveform.
4. Change the value of capacitor and see the effect on output waveform
5. Draw the input and output waveforms on the graph and calculate all the parameters of half
wave rectifier.
6. Repeat the above procedure for the full wave rectifier.

Observations:
Without filter

Vp-p( input Vm = Vdc Vrms = Ripple factor Efficiency

voltage) Vp-p /2 Vm /√𝟐 Theoretical Experimental Theoretical Experimental
(Peak
voltage)
With filter

Vp-p( Vrp-p (Peak to Vm (Peak Vdc= Vrms = Ripple factor

input peak ripple voltage) Vm-Vrp-p/2 Theoretical Experimental
Vrp-p/4√𝟑
voltage) voltage)

Calculation:

Without filter:
Theoretical calculation (without filter) :

Ripple factor:

𝑉𝑑𝑐 2
Efficiency= ( )
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠

Experimental calculation (without filter):

Calculate the ripple factor using the following formula.

𝑉 2
Ripple factor ( γ ) = √( 𝑉𝑑𝑐
𝑟𝑚𝑠
) −1

𝑉𝑑𝑐 2
Efficiency= ( )
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠

With filter:

Calculate the ripple factor using the following formula.( Theoretical)

Ripple factor ( γ ) = 1/4√3f RL C =

Calculate the ripple factor using the following formula.( Experimental)

Ripple factor ( γ ) = Vrms/ Vdc =

Graph : Trace the Input and Output waveform of half wave rectifier without and with filter observed in
DSO.
Result:

Ripple Factor without filter = and with capacitor filter =

Rectification Efficiency without filter = and with capacitor filter=

Conclusion:

Quiz:
1) Compare the parameters of all three rectifier circuits discussed.

2) The bridge rectifier is more commonly used than the center tap transformer rectifier.
Justify the statement.
 Experiment No:4

Study the Zener Diode.

Date:

Competency and Practical Skills:

After this practical students are expected to develop following competencies and skills ,

1)Proper understanding Zener diode

2)Practical hands of voltage regulation capabilities of zener diodes.

Relevant CO: CO-1 : Apply the principles of various electronics devices for building small projects.

Objectives: 1) TO verify VI characteristics of Zener diode

2) Observe the zener breakdown phenomena in practical application

Equipment/Instruments: Trainer kit, Power supply, Patch cords, CRO, CRO Probes, zener
diodes , resistor 1K,breadboards

Theory:

Zener Diode:

Zener diode is a heavily doped Silicon diode. An ideal P-N junction diode does not conduct in
reverse biased condition. A Zener diode conducts excellently even in reverse biased condition.
These diodes operate at a precise value of voltage called break down voltage. A Zener diode
when forward biased behaves like an ordinary P-N junction diode. A Zener diode when reverse
biased can undergo avalanche break down or zener break down.

Avalanche Break down:

If both p-side and n-side of the diode are lightly doped, depletion region at the junction widens.
Application of a very large electric field at the junction increases the kinetic energy of the charge
carriers which collides with the adjacent atoms and generates charge carriers by breaking the
bond, they in-turn collides with other atoms by creating new charge carriers, this process is
cumulative which results in the generation of large current resulting in Avalanche Breakdown.
Zener Break down:
If both p-side and n-side of the diode are heavily doped, depletion region at the junction reduces,
it leads to the development of strong electric field and application of even a small voltage at the
junction may rupture covalent bond and generate large number of charge carriers. Such sudden
increase in the number of charge carriers results in Zener break down.

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
Forward Bias Condition:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.C.
2. Vary VF gradually from 0 to 0.6 V in steps of 0.1 V and In each step record the current
flowing through the diode as IF.
3. Tabulate different forward currents obtained for different forward voltages.

Reverse Bias Condition:

1. Connect the Zener diode in reverse bias as shown in the fig.D. Vary the voltage across the
diode in steps of 1V from 0 V to 6 V and in steps 0.1 V till its breakdown voltage is reached. In
each step note the current flowing through the diode
2. Plot a graph between V and I. This graph will be called the V-I characteristics of Zener diode.
From the graph find out the breakdown voltage for the diode.
Observations:

Forward Bias:

Sr. Input voltage Forward Voltage Forward

No. Vi (volt) VD (volt) Current
I D (mA)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.
Reverse Bias:
Sr. Input voltage Reverse Reverse
No. Vi (volt) Voltage Current
VR (volt) IR (𝑢A)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13

14.

Graph:

1. Take a graph sheet and divide it into 4 equal parts. Mark origin at the center of the graph sheet.
2. Now mark +ve X-axis as VF, -ve X-axis as VR, +ve Y-axis as IF and –ve Y-axis as IR.
3. Mark the readings tabulated for forward biased condition in first Quadrant and reverse biased
condition in third Quadrant.
Results:

Cut in Voltage = V

Reverse Breakdown Voltage = V

Static Forward Resistance = Ω

Static Reverse Resistance = Ω

Conclusion:

Quiz:

1) Give applications of zener diode.

2) Differentiate zener breakdown & Avalanche breakdown voltage.

 Experiment No:5

To study various Clipper circuits.

Date:

Competency and Practical Skills:

After this practical students are expected to develop following competencies and skills ,

1)Proper understanding various clipper circuits

2) Knowledge of series and shunt clippers
3)Practical hands of biased clippers

Relevant CO: CO-1 : Apply the principles of various electronics devices for building small projects.

Objectives: 1) To Study Positive clippers

2) Negative clippers

3) Combination and biased clippers

Equipment/Instruments: Trainer kit, Power supply, Patch cords, CRO, CRO Probes, zener
diodes , resistor 1K,breadboards

Theory:

[A] Positive Clipper

The Clipper which removes complete or a part of the positive half cycle of the input is known as

positive clipper. When Vin ≥ Vref. : The diode is ON so Vout = Vref. (constant)

When Vin ≤ Vref. : The diode is OFF so Vout = Vin

[B]Negative Clipper

The Clipper which removes complete or a part of the negative half cycle of the input is known as
negative clipper.

When Vin ≥ (-Vref.) : The diode is OFF so Vout = Vin

When Vin ≤ (-Vref.) : The diode is ON so Vout = -Vref. (constant)

[C]Combination Clipper.:

In combination clipper depending upon the DC battery voltage, a part of the input cycle is
clipped during positive half cycle and, likewise in negative half cycle. If the voltage of both the
batteries is made zero, then the output is only that equal to the diode drop in each half cycle.

Note: (Vref1 > Vref2) & Vref1/Vref2= 0 to 5V.

When Vin ≥ Vref1 : The diode D1 is ON & D2 is OFF so Vout =+ Vref1 (constant)

WhenVref1 ≥ Vin ≥ (-Vref2) : The diode D1 is OFF & D2 is OFF soVout = Vin

When Vin ≤ (-Vref2) : The diode D1 is OFF & D2 is ON so Vout = -Vref2 (constant)

Set up diagram:
Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.

2. Before putting on the ac mains get the circuit checked.

3. Apply 1 KHz, 10V P-P input signal freq. to Function generator.

4. Observe the input & Output Waveforms.

5. Draw the input and output waveform on the graph paper.

6. Repeat the same procedure for the Negative and Combinational Clipper circuit.

Observations: Draw the graph for series and Shunt clippers. Also Apply appropriate biasing and
draw the waveform.

Conclusion:

Quiz:

1) Compare biased Positive series and Shunt clippers

2) Draw the waveform for changed polarities of above given circuits.

3) Re-draw the waveform for combination clippers. I/p 10 vp-p , V+ = 5 v , V- = 3 v (

battery voltages )
 Experiment No:6

Study clamper circuits

Date:

Competency and Practical Skills:

After this practical students are expected to develop following competencies and skills ,
1) Proper understanding clamping phenomenon
2) Knowledge of clamper circuits
3) Practical hands of clamping circuits

Relevant CO: CO-1 : Apply the principles of various electronics devices for building small projects.

Objectives: 1)To verify performance of various Clamper circuits.

2) Observer the changes happening in waveform after clamping

Equipment/Instruments: Trainer kit / ( PN junction Diode , Resistor ,Capacitor, bread board) ,

function generator, C.R.O., Patch cords.

Theory:

Positive Clamper

Often we need to shift ac signal above or below the x-axis. This is done by the clamper circuit.
When ac signal is shifted above the x-axis, then it is known as positive clamper. When ac signal
is shifted below the x-axis, then it is known as negative clamper. As shown in fig below, during
negative half cycle, the diode is forward biased and charges the capacitor to the peak value of ac
input signal neglecting diode drop. This charges the capacitor to Vm, the voltage across the load
is zero (or equal to diode drop). During positive half cycle, the diode is reversed biased (open
circuited) and does not conduct. The capacitor charged to Vm behaves as a battery. This raises
the ac voltage to (Vm + Ep sin ωt). The peak voltage level is equal to 2Vm.
Negative Clamper
During positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased and charges the capacitor to the peak
value of ac input signal neglecting diode drop. This charges the capacitor to -Vm, During
negative half cycle, the diode is reversed biased and does not conduct. The capacitor charged to
-Vm volt behaves as a battery. This lowers the ac voltage to (-Vm - Ep sin ωt). The peak voltage
level is equal to -2Vm
Set up diagram:

Procedure: 1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.1.

2. Apply 1 KHz, 10V P-P input signal from Function generator.

3. Observe the input & Output Waveforms.

4. Draw the input and output waveform on the graph paper.

5. Repeat the same procedure for the Negative Clamper shown in fig-2.

Observations:

Graph:
Draw the input -output waveforms of positive and negative clamper.
Conclusion:
Quiz:

1) Discuss what will happen if you change the capacitor and resistor combinations for the
above circuits ?

2) “Clamper is a non linear waveshaping circuit.” State the correctness of the sentence.
 Experiment No:7

Study the Common Emitter amplifier circuit for Input and Output
Characteristics

Date :
Competency and Practical Skills:

After this practical students are expected to develop following competencies and skills ,

1) Proper understanding of CE configuration of BJT circuits.

2) Knowledge of biasing of CE configuration for both NPN and PNP transistors.

3) Knowledge of Ideal input output characteristics for CE configuration of transistor circuit .

Relevant CO: CO-1 : Apply the principles of various electronics devices for building small projects.

Objectives:

1) To perform an Experiment to Study Input Output characteristic of Common Emitter transistor

configuration .

2) Observe change in input parameters(V and I) by keeping output parameter constant.

3) Observe change in output parameters(V and I) by keeping input parameter constant.

Equipment/Instruments: Trainer kit / (BJT (BC 107) , Resistors , bread board) ,Regulated
power supply, Patch cords, Digital Multimeters

Theory:

The configuration in which the emitter is connected between the collector and
base is known as a common emitter configuration. The variation of Base current(IB)
with Base-Emitter voltage(VBE), keeping Collector Emitter voltage(VCE) constant gives
input characteristics and variation of collector current(IC) with Emitter-collector
voltage(VCE), keeping Base current(IB) constant gives output characteristics
Circuit Diagram:

Model graph :

1. Plot the Input characteristics by taking IB on y-axis and VBE on x-axis.

2. Plot the Output characteristics by taking IC on the y-axis and VCE on x-axis.

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS: OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

Procedure:

TO FIND THE INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Connect the circuit as in the circuit diagram.

2. Keep VBB and VCC in zero volts before giving the supply
3. Set VCE = 1 volt by varying VCC and vary the VBB smoothly with fine control such that base
current IB varies in steps of 5μA from zero upto 200μA, and note down the corresponding
 voltage VBE for each step in the tabular form.
4. Repeat the experiment for VCE =2 volts and 3 volts.
5. Draw a graph between VBE Vs IB against VCE = Constant.

TO FIND THE OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Start VBB and VCC from zero Volts.

2. Set the IB = 20μA by using VBB such that, VCE changes in steps of 0.2 volts from zero upto
10 volts, note down the corresponding collector current IC for each step in the tabular form.
3. Repeat the experiment for IB = 40μA and IB = 60μA, tabulate the readings.
4. Draw a graph between VCE Vs IC against IB = Constant.
Observations:

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS;

Sr. No. VCE= V VCE= V VCE= V

VBE (V) IB (µA) VBE (V) IB (µA) VBE (V) IB (µA)

10

11

12

13

14
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS;

Sr. No. IB = µA IB = µA IB = µA

VCE (V) Ic (mA) VCE (V) Ic (mA) VCE (V) Ic (mA)

10

11

12

13

14

15

Graph:

Draw the graph for both input and output characteristics on separate graph paper.

Results:

2) Input Rsistance ri = ΔVBE / ΔIB = Ω

3) Output Rsistance ro = ΔVCE / ΔIC = Ω
4) Current amplification factor □ = ΔIc / ΔIb =
 Conclusion:

Quiz:

1) Enlist the input output terminals for Common Emitter configuration of BJT.

2) Which parameters should keep constant while measuring input characteristics inCE
configuration?

3) Which parameters should keep constant while measuring output characteristics inCE
configuration?

Suggested Reference:

1) David A. Bell, “Electronic Devices and Circuits”, Oxford University Press, Fifth edition
2) Albert Malvino & David, “Electronic Principles”, Tata McGraw-Hill, Seventh edition
 Experiment 8
Study the common base amplifier circuit for Input and Output characteristics

Date:
Competency and Practical Skills:

After this practical students are expected to develop following competencies and skills ,

1) Proper understanding of CB configuration of BJT circuit.

2) Knowledge of biasing of CB configuration for both NPN and PNP transistor.

3) Knowledge of Ideal input output characteristics for CB configuration of transistor circuit .

Relevant CO:

CO-1 : Apply the principles of various electronics devices for building small projects.

Objectives:

1) To perform an Experiment to Study Input Output characteristic of Common Base

transistorconfiguration .

2) Observe change in input parameters(V and I) by keeping output parameter constant.

3) Observe change in output parameters(V and I) by keeping input parameter constant.

Equipment/Instruments: Trainer kit / (BJT (BC 107) , Resistors , bread board)

,Regulatedpower supply, Patch cords, Digital Multimeters

Theory:

In CB Configuration, the base terminal of the transistor will be connected

common between the output and the input terminals. The variation of emitter current(IE)
with Base-Emitter voltage(VBE), keeping Collector Base voltage(VCB) constant gives
input characteristics and variation of collector current(IC) with Base-Collector
voltage(VCB), keeping emitter current(IE) constant gives output characteristics
Circuit Diagram:

Model graph :

1) Plot the Input characteristics by taking IE on y–axis and VEB on x–axis.

2) Plot the Output characteristics by taking IC on y–axis and VCB on x–axis.

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS: OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

Procedure:

TO FIND THE INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Connect the circuit as in the circuit diagram.

2. Keep VEE and VCC in zero volts before giving the supply
3. Set VCB = 1 volt by varying VCC. and vary the VEE smoothly with fine control such that
emitter current IE varies in steps of 0.2mA from zero upto 20mA, and note down the
corresponding voltage VEB for each step in the tabular form.
4. Repeat the experiment for VCB =2 volts and 3 volts.
5. Draw a graph between VEB Vs IE against VCB = Constant.
TO FIND THE OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Start VEE and VCC from zero Volts.
2. Set the IE = 1mA by using VEE such that, VCB changes in steps of 1.0 volts from zero upto 20
volts, note down the corresponding collector current IC for each step in the tabular form.
3. Repeat the experiment for IE = 3mA and IE = 5mA, tabulate the readings.
4. Draw a graph between VCB Vs IC against IE = Constant.

Observations:

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS;

Sr. No. VCB= V VCB= V VCB= V

VEB (V) IE (mA) VEB (V) IE (mA) VEB (V) IE (mA)

10

11

12

13

14

15
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS;

Sr. No. IE = mA IE = mA IE = mA

VCB (V) Ic (mA) VCB (V) Ic (mA) VCB (V) Ic (mA)

10

11

12

13

14

15

Graph:

Draw the graph for both input and output characteristics on separate graph paper.

Results:

1) Input Rsistance ri = ΔVEB / ΔIE = Ω

2) Output Rsistance ro = ΔVCB / ΔIC = Ω
3) Current amplification factor 𝜶 = ΔIc / ΔIe =
Conclusion:

Quiz:

1) Enlist the input output terminals for Common Base configuration of BJT.

2) Which parameters should keep constant while measuring input characteristics in CB

configuration?

3) Derive relation between 𝜶 and □.

 Experiment No:9

Transistor as a

Switch

Date:

Competency and Practical Skills:

After this practical students are expected to develop following competencies and skills ,

1) Proper understanding of BJT circuit working.

2) Knowledge of biasing of BJT circuits .

Relevant CO:

CO-1 : Apply the principles of various electronics devices for building small projects.

Objectives:

1) To make the load ON or OFF as per the switching effect of BJT.

2) To observe the required current to drive any application load.

Equipment/Instruments: BJT (BC547) , Resistors , Switch , LED, bread board

,Regulatedpower supply, Digital Multimeters, Connectors

Theory:

A transistor is a semiconductor device has three terminals emitter-base and collector.

There are many uses of this electronic component but most common is it used as switch
and amplifier. Here, we will have discuss use of transistor or BJT as Switch, application,
circuits and differentparameters related to it.
BJT as Switch

In the below figure the circuit shown explains the operation of BJT as a switch. In the
first circuit, the transistor is in the cutoff region because the emitter-base junction is not
forward biased condition. In this state, there is no connection between emitter and
collector of a transistor as shown like an open switch. In the second circuit, a transistor is
in a saturation state as both base-collector and the base-emitter junction is in forward
biased state. The value of base current is such large that it makes collector current such
level that transistor is in saturation state. In a saturation state, there is a short circuit
between emitter and collector as it is shown in a circuit like closes switch configuration.
In real, a minor voltage loss across the transistor of up to some 10th of a volt usually
exits, thatis the saturation voltage, VCE(sat).

Transistor Cutoff Mode

The state where both junctions of transistor base-emitter and base-collector are in
reverses biased condition called a cutoff mode of a diode. In this case voltage across the
base-emitter is less that does not allow current to flow from collector to emitter. In this
state, VCE is equal to the VCC.

VCE(cutoff) = VCC

Transistor saturation Mode

In this mode of operation, their base-emitter junction is in forward biased condition due to
that base current generated that results in the production of collector current.
The expression for saturation collector current is given here.
IC(sat)=VCC-VCE(sat)/RC
As the value of VCE(sat) is less as compare to the VCC so it can be ignored. The minimum
value of the base current required to generated saturation is given here. IB(min)= IC(sat)/ βDC
Usually, IB must be significantly larger than IB(min) to confirm that the transistor is saturated.
Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in circuit diagram.

2. Connect current meter between Switch and RB.
3. When the switch at the base terminal is open, no current flows through the base so the
transistor is in the cutoff state. Therefore, the transistor acts as an open-circuit and the
LED becomes OFF.So current meter deflection will be zero.
4. When the switch is closed, base current starts flowing through the transistor and then
drives into saturation, which results in LED to turn ON.
5. Note down the reading of current meter.
6. Resistors are placed to limit the currents through the base and LED. It is also possible to
vary the intensity of LED by varying the resistance in the base current path.

Observations:

Switch position IB (mA) IC (mA) LED On/OFF?

ON

OFF

Results:

1. Minimum Current IB required to ON the LED is mA

Conclusion:

Quiz:

1) Derive the equation for the output loop to find the output/ load current for NPN transistor.

2) Draw the circuit for transistor working as a switch to ON-OFF another device (except LED)

Suggested Reference:

1) David A. Bell, “Electronic Devices and Circuits”, Oxford University Press, Fifth edition
2) Albert Malvino & David, “Electronic Principles”, Tata McGraw-Hill, Seventh edition
 Experiment No:10

Characteristics of FET

Date:

Competency and Practical Skills:

After this practical students are expected to develop following competencies and skills ,

1) Proper understanding FET terminals .

2) Knowledge of biasing of CS configuration FET .

3) Knowledge of Drain Resistance, Trans-conductance and Amplification factor of FET circuit.

Relevant CO:

CO-1 : Apply the principles of various electronics devices for building small projects.

Objectives:

1) To plot the transfer characteristics and Drain characteristics of CS FET configuration.

2) To find Drain Resistance, Trans-conductance and Amplification factor of FET circuit.

Equipment/Instruments: Trainer kit / (JFET BFW11 , Resistors , bread board) ,Regulated

power supply, Digital Multimeters, Connectors

Theory:

A JFET is called as Junction Field effect transistor. It is a unipolar device because the flow of
current through it is due to one type of carriers i.e., majority carriers where as a BJT is a Bi -
Polar device, It has 3 terminals Gate, Source and Drain. A JFET can be used in any of the three
configurations viz, Common Source, Common Gate and Common Drain. The input gate to
source junction should always be operated in reverse bias, hence input resistance Ri = ∞, IG ≈ 0.
Pinch off voltage VP is defined as the gate to source reverse bias voltage at which the
output drain current becomes zero.
In CS configuration Gate is used as input node and Drain as the output node. A JFET in
CS configuration is used widely as an amplifier. A JFET amplifier is preferred over a BJT
amplifier when the demand is for smaller gain, high input resistance and low output resistance.
Any FET operation is governed by the following equation.

The drain current equation and trans-conductance is given as

ID = IDSS [ 1- VGS/Vp]2 gm = ∆ Iout/∆ Vin = ID / VGS
Where 𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆 is called as Drain to Source Saturation current & Vp is called as the Pinch off voltage

Characteristics of JFET in Common Source

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
Transfer Characteristics:
1) Connect the circuit as shown. All the knobs of the power supply must be at the minimum
position before the supply is switched on.
2) Adjust the output voltage VDS to 4V by adjusting the supply VDD.
3) Vary the supply voltage VGG so that the voltage VGS varies in steps of -0.25 V from 0 V
onwards. In each step note the drain current ID. This should be continued till ID becomes
zero.
4) Repeat above step for VDS = 8 V.
5) Plot a graph between the input voltage VGS and output current ID for output voltage VDS in
the second quadrant. This curve is called the transfer characteristics.

Drain Characteristics:
1) Connect the circuit as shown in figure. Adjust all the knobs of the power supply to their
minimum positions before switching the supply on.
2) Adjust the input voltage VGS to 0 V by adjusting the supply VGG
3) Vary the supply voltage VDD so that VDS varies in steps of 0.5 V from 0 to 4 V and then in
steps of 1 V from 4 to 10 V. In each step note the value of drain current ID.
4) Adjust VGS to -1 and -2 V and repeat step-3 for each value of VGS.
5) Plot a graph between VDS and ID for different values of VGS. These curves are called drain
characteristics.
6) Mark the various regions in the drain characteristics graph and calculate the drain
resistance.
Observations:

Transfer Characteristics:
VDS = 4V VDS = 6V

VGS(V) ID(mA) VGS(V) ID(mA)

Drain Characteristics:

VGS = 0V VGS = -1V VGS = -2V

VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS(V) ID(mA)

Graph:

1. Plot the drain characteristics by taking VDS on X-axis and ID on Y-axis at a constant VGS.

2. Plot the transfer characteristics by taking VGS on X-axis and taking ID on Y-axis at constant
VDS.

Model graph :

Transfer Characteristics Drain Characteristics

Calculations from Graph:

1. Drain Resistance (rd): It is given by the relation of small change in drain to source voltage
( VDS) to the corresponding change in Drain Current ( ID) for a constant gate to source
voltage ( VGS), when the JFET is operating in pinch-off region.
2. Trans Conductance (gm): Ratio of small change in drain current ( ID) to the corresponding
changein gate to source voltage ( VGS) for a constant VDS.

gm at constant VDS (from transfer characteristics). The value of

gm isexpressed in mho’s ( ) or Siemens (s).
3. Amplification factor (µ): It is given by the ratio of small change in drain to source voltage
( VDS) to the corresponding change in gate to source voltage ( VGS) for a constant drain
current (ID).
Results:

1. Drain Resistance rd=

2. Transconductance gm =
3. Amplification Factor µ =
Conclusion:
Quiz:

1) What are the advantages of FET?

2) What is transconductance?

3) Relation between µ, gm and rd?

 Experiment No:11

Frequency response of single stage (CE) amplifier

Date:

Competency and Practical Skills:

After this practical students are expected to develop following competencies and skills ,

1) Proper understanding Amplifier circuit.

2) Knowledge of biasing of CE configuration Amplifier.

3) Knowledge of Frequency response, Bandwidth and gain of amplifier circuit.

Relevant CO:

CO-1 : Apply the principles of various electronics devices for building small

projects. CO-2 : Understand the concepts of different amplifiers.

CO-3 : Justify the need of diodes and transistors in semiconductor industries.

Objectives:

1) To plot the frequency response of a Common Emitter BJT amplifier.

2) To find the cut off frequencies, Bandwidth and calculate its gain.

Equipment/Instruments: Trainer kit / (BJT (BC 547) , Resistors , Capacitors, bread board)
,Regulated power supply, Digital Multimeters, Function generator, C.R.O.,Patch cords,
Connectors

Theory:

An amplifier is an electronic circuit that can increase the strength of a weak input signal
without distorting its shape. The common emitter configuration is widely used as a basic
amplifier as it has both voltage and current amplification with 1800 phase shift. The factor by
which the input signal gets multiplied after passing through the amplifier circuit is called the
gain of the amplifier. It is given by the ratio of the output and input signals.

Gain = output signal / input signal

A self bias circuit is used in the amplifier circuit because it provides highest Q-point stability
among all the biasing circuits. Resistors R1 and R2 forms a voltage divider across the base of
the transistor. The function of this network is to provide necessary bias condition and ensure
that emitter-base junction is operating in the proper region.

In order to operate transistor as an amplifier, the biasing is done in such a way that the
operating point should be in the active region. For an amplifier the Q-point is placed so that the
load line is bisected. Therefore, in practical design it is always set to Vcc/2. This will confirm
that the Q-point always swings within the active region. Output is produced without any
clipping or distortion for the maximum input signal. If not reduce the input signal magnitude.

Rc

V2

Characteristics of CE Amplifier:

· Large current gain.

· Large voltage gain.
· Large power gain.
· Current and voltage phase shift of 180°.
· Moderate output resistance.

Design Procedure: (Students have to write down as per design parameters given to them)
Design Parameters: VCC = + 12 V, ICEQ = 1 mA, β = 300

Step 1: Define the Q-point (DC Operating point)

VCEQ = VCC/2 = +6 V ICEQ = 1 mA given.
Step 2: From the output loop design the RC and RE
ICEQ = (VCC - VCEQ)/(RC + RE )
RC + RE = (VCC - VCEQ)/ ICEQ
RC + RE = (12- 6) V/1 mA kΩ = 6 kΩ ………(3)
The emitter resistor RE is usually set as 10% of the resistor RC:
RC + 0.1 RC = 6 kΩ
RC = 5.45 kΩ ≈ 5.5 kΩ
RE =550 Ω
Step 3: Find base current IB
Now, IC ≈ IE = 1 mA and IC = βIB
IB = IC /β = 1 mA/300
IB = 3.33 μA

Step 4: Determine RB1 and RB2

For a transistor, VBE ≈ 0.7 V.
Using the IB and IC values, the emitter current IE
Taking KVL in the input loop,
V2 = VBE + IE RE = 0.7 V + (1 mA)(550 Ω)
V2 = 1.25 V
With the help of approximation,
RB2 << 0.1βRE = (0.1)(300)(550 Ω) = 30 kΩ
R2 << 16.5 kΩ
Let us choose RB2 = 10 kΩ
Therefore, I2 = V2 / RB2 = 1.25 V/ 10 kΩ
I2 = 125 μA
Now, IB is much smaller than I2.
I1 = IB + I2
I1 ≈ I2 = 125 μA (neglecting IB)
RB1 = (VCC – V2)/ I1 = (12 – 1.25) V/125 μA
R1 = 86 kΩ
We can approximate RB1 to nearby standard value, let us choose RB1 = 82 kΩ
Circuit Diagram:

CE BJT AMPLIFIER

Experimental Procedure:
Add two coupling capacitors C1 and C2 with the value of 2.2 μF, CE with the value of 47 μF or
higher and a load resistance RL of 15 kΩ and connect the function generator at the input and
CRO to the output terminals as shown in Fig. 12.4.
1. Set the amplitude of the input sine wave Vin to 10 mV and initial frequency fVin to 10 Hz.
2. Measure the output voltage Vout.
3. Now, in each step increase the fVin by 100 Hz up to 20 MHz and repeat the step 2.
4. Calculate the voltage gain (AV) as per Eq. (1) and in dB as Eq. (2) for each reading.
5. Plot the frequency response of the CE amplifier in semi-log paper.

Note: Each student has been given the different value of voltage gain (AV) for designing. You
have to separately design the CE amplifier accordingly and plot the frequency response.
Observations:
Sr. Input Voltage Input Frequency Output Voltage Voltage Gain Voltage Gain
No. (Vin) (fVin ) (Vout) (AV) (dB) 20 log10 AV
1

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17
 Model graph :
In the usual application, mid band frequency range is defined as those frequencies at which the
response has fallen to 3dB below the maximum gain (|A| max). These are shown as f L, fH and are
called as the 3dB frequencies or simply the lower and higher cut off frequencies respectively. The
difference between the higher cut off and lower cut off frequency is referred to as the bandwidth (fH -
fL).

Frequency Response Curve of RC coupled BJT CE Amplifier

Graph:

Draw the graph for frequency on X-axis and Gain (dB) on Y- axis on a semilog paper.

Results:

1. Lower cutoff frequency, fL = …………….

2. Higher cutoff frequency, fH = ……………
3. Bandwidth = fH – fL = ……………………

Conclusion:
Quiz:

1) What is cut off frequency?

2) What is Bandwidth for amplifier?

3) What are the applications of CE amplifier?

 Experiment No:12

Study the negative feedback amplifiers

Date:

Competency and Practical Skills:

After this practical students are expected to develop following competencies and skills ,

1) Proper understanding Negative feedback amplifier

2) Practical hands of Feedback amplifiers

Relevant CO:

CO-1 : Apply the principles of various electronics devices for building small projects.

CO-2 : Understand the concepts of different amplifiers.

CO-3 : Justify the need of diodes and transistors in semiconductor industries.

Objectives: 1) To test the performance of negative feedback amplifiers

2) compare gain, BW with amplifier without feedback.

Equipment/Instruments: Trainer kit / (BJT (BC 107) , Resistors , bread board) ,Regulated
power supply, Patch cords, Digital Multimeters

Theory: When any increase in the output signal results into the input in such a way as to
cause the decrease in the output signal, the amplifier is said to have negative feedback. The
advantages of providing negative feedback are that the transfer gain of the amplifier with
feedback can be stabilized against variations in the hybrid parameters of the transistor or the
parameters of the other active devices used in the circuit. The most advantage of the negative
feedback is that by proper use of this, there is significant improvement in the frequency
response and in the linearity of the operation of the amplifier. This disadvantage of the
negative feedback is that the voltage gain is decreased.

Single Stage CE amplifier with feedback

Figure 12.1 shows a single stage CE amplifier with the effect of –ve feedback. A single
transistor BC107/BC547 act as an active device responsible for amplification along with the
collector and emitter resistances (RC & RE). Resistances R1 and R2 serve a voltage divider
bias. A small signal ac input to be amplified is fed to the base of the transistor through
coupling capacitor. The CE amplifier produces an amplified output signal at the collector
which is 180° out of phase to input signal. This output signal can be coupled to next stage or
load via coupling capacitor.

Fig.12.1 Circuit diagram of a single stage RC coupled CE amplifier with -ve feedback.

Resistance RE provides a –ve feedback mechanism; wherein, ac and dc voltage drop

developed across it (VE) causes reduction in the effective input voltages acting at the base
terminal of the transistor. The –ve feedback mechanism eventually reduces the overall gain of
the amplifier; however, increases the stability of the amplifier. The voltage gain (Av) of the
amplifier can be given as

Av=-(Vout/Vin)

Av = -20 log10 (Vout/Vin)

Frequency Response:
A single stage CE amplifier with –ve feedback exhibits lower overall voltage gain (AV);
however, the bandwidth of the amplifier is generally larger. The lower cut-off frequency (fL)
and higher cut-off frequency (fH) are points where the AV is 3 dB down with respect to the
mid-band gain as shown in Fig. 2.2. The lower frequency voltage gain is primarily controlled
by the coupling capacitive reactance XC; whereas, the higher frequency voltage gain is
controlled by the transistor’s capacitive reactance XC.
 Fig. 12.2 General frequency response of the CE amplifier.

Design Procedure: (Students have to write down as per design parameters given to them)
Design Parameters: VCC = + 12 V, ICEQ = 1 mA, AV ≈ 5, β = 300

Fig. 12.3 Designing of a DC biasing for a CE amplifier with the help of DC load-line.

Step 1: Define the Q-point (DC Operating point)

VCEQ = VCC/2 = +6 V ICEQ = 1 mA given.
Step 2: From the output loop design the RC and RE
ICEQ = (VCC - VCEQ)/(RC + RE )
RC + RE = (VCC - VCEQ)/ ICEQ
 RC + RE = (12- 6) V/1 mA kΩ = 6 kΩ ………(3)
AV = 5 given,
AV ≈ RC / RE
RC = RE AV = RC = 5RE ………… (4)
Substituting eq. (4) into (3),
5RE + RE = 6 kΩ
6 RE = 6 kΩ
RE = 1 kΩ
RC = 5 kΩ
Let us choose RC = 5.1 kΩ (near to standard resistance value)

Step 3: From the input loop design the R1 and R2

Now, IC ≈ IE = 1 mA and IC = βIB
IB = IC /β = 1 mA/300
IB = 3.33 μA
For a transistor, VBE ≈ 0.7 V.
Taking KVL in the input loop,
V2 = VBE + IE RE = 0.7 V + (1 mA)(1 kΩ)
V2 = 1.7 V
With the help of approximation,
R2 << 0.1βRE = (0.1)(300)(1 kΩ) = 30 kΩ
R2 << 30 kΩ
Let us choose R2 = 10 kΩ
Therefore, I2 = V2 / R2 = 1.7 V/ 10 kΩ
I2 = 170 μA
Now, IB is much smaller than I2.
I1 = IB + I2
I1 ≈ I2 = 170 μA (neglecting IB)
R1 = (VCC – V2)/ I1 = (12 – 1.7) V/170 μA
R1 = 60.58 kΩ
We can approximate R1 to nearby standard value, let us choose R1 = 56 kΩ
 Fig. 12.4 Experimental setup of a single stage RC coupled CE amplifier with -ve feedback.

Experimental Procedure:
Add two coupling capacitors C1 and C2 with the value of 2.2 μF and a load resistance RL of 15
kΩ and connect the function generator at the input and CRO to the output terminals as shown in
Fig. 12.4.
1. Set the amplitude of the input sine wave Vin to 100 mV and initial frequency fVin to 10 Hz.
2. Measure the output voltage Vout.
3. Now, in each step increase the fVin by 100 Hz up to 20 MHz and repeat the step 2.
4. Calculate the voltage gain (AV) as per Eq. (1) and in dB as Eq. (2) for each reading.
5. Plot the frequency response of the CE amplifier in semi-log paper.

Note: Each student has been given the different value of voltage gain (AV) for designing. You
have to separately design the CE amplifier accordingly and plot the frequency response.
Observations:

Sr. Input Voltage Input Frequency Output Voltage Voltage Gain Voltage Gain
No. (Vin) (fVin ) (Vout) (AV) (dB) 20 log10 AV
1

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

Calculation:

Result: Bandwidth(with feed back) = fH-fL

Conclusion:

Quiz:

1) State the merits and Demerits of negative feedback in amplifiers.

2) One of the effects of an negative feedback in amplifier is

a) Increase the noise
b) Increase the Harmonic Distortions
c) Decrease the Bandwidth
d) Decrease the harmonic distortions
 Experiment No:13

Study the Push-Pull amplifier

Date:

Competency and Practical Skills:

After this practical students are expected to develop following competencies and skills ,

1) Proper understanding Class - B Push-Pull amplifier

2) Practical hands of Class - B Push-Pull amplifier circuits

Relevant CO:

CO-1 : Apply the principles of various electronics devices for building small

projects.CO-2 : Understand the concepts of different amplifiers.

CO-3 : Justify the need of diodes and transistors in semiconductor industries.

Objectives: 1) Understand the working principle of Push-Pull amplifier

2) Verify the efficiency of amplification

Equipment/Instruments: Power Supply 0-30 V , CRO/DSO , Digital Multimeter ,

KIt/BC107 transistor , Resistor, Capacitors, Signal Generator , Center tap transformer

Theory: An amplifying system consists of several stages in cascade. The input and the
intermediate stages amplify small signal excitations to a value large enough to drive the final
device .The out put stage feeds the final device .The output stage feeds a transducer such as a
CRO,loudspeaker or servomotor. Thus the final stage must be capable of delivering a large
voltage or current or appreciable amount of power. This requires an amplifier which is
referred as a power amplifier.

In class B complimentary symmetry class _B amplifier one n-p-n and p-n-p is

used.Hence the circuit is called class-B complimentary symmetry amplifier. This circuit is
transformer less circuit .But with common emitter configuration it becomes power transfer
without output impedance for maximum power transfer without an output transformers. Hence
the matched pair of complementary transistors are used in common collector configuration
This is because in common collector configuration has lowest output impedance and hence the
impedance matching is possible.
Set up diagram:

Fig. 1 With Distortions

Fig. 2 Without Distortions

Procedure:

1. connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram

2. apply 10v p-p with 1KHZ frequency using function generator

3.observe the output in CRO .

4.note the cross over distortion in output.(outputVp-p)

Observations:

VCC = __________V i/p = ________V o/p = _________

Connected Load =
I/P signal frequency = 1 Khz , Maximum i/p signal giving undistorted O/P= mV

I/P - O/P waveforms

Model Waveform

Result: Observe Waveform Distortions and calculate Distortions.

Conclusion:
Quiz:
1) Discuss why power amplifier is also a large signal amplifier
2) State the difference between a voltage amplifier and a power amplifier
3) Discuss how a step-down transformer is used in the output of a power amplifier.
 Experiment No:14

Study transformer coupled class-A Power amplifier

Date:

Competency and Practical Skills:

After this practical students are expected to develop following competencies and skills ,

1) Proper understanding A power amplifier

2) Practical hands of transformer coupled power amplifier

Relevant CO:

CO-1 : Apply the principles of various electronics devices for building small projects.

CO-2 : Understand the concepts of different amplifiers.

CO-3 : Justify the need of diodes and transistors in semiconductor industries.

Objectives: 1) Understand the working principles of Class - A Power amplifier

2) Observe the Output amplification of transformer coupled power amplifier

3) Calculate the efficiency of amplification

Equipment/Instruments: Power Supply 0-30 V ,CRO/DSO ,Digital Multimeter , KIt/BC107

transistor , Resistor, Capacitors, Signal Generator , transformer

Theory: The amplifier is said to be class A power amplifier if the q point and the input signal
are selected such that the output signal is obtained for a full input cycle. For this class the
position of q point is approximately y at the mid point of the load line. For all the values of input
signal the transistor remains in the active region and never entirely into the cutoff or saturation
region. The collector current flows for 3600 (life cycle) of the input signal in other words the
angle of the collector current flow is 3600. The class a amplifiers or furthers classified as directly
coupled and transformer coupled and transformer coupled amplifiers in directly coupled type
.The load is directly connected in the collector circuit while in the transformer coupled type, the
load is coupled to the collector using the transformer.
Set up diagram:

Procedure:

1. CONNECT the circuit as per the circuit diagram

2. Connect multi ammeter at the ammeter terminals

4. By keeping the input voltage constant, vary the frequency from 0 to 1MHz in regular steps .

5. Note down the corresponding output voltage from CRO/DSO

6. Calculate the DC input power using the formula Pdc = Vcc x Ic

7. Calculate the AC output power using the formula Pac = Vo2/8R

8. Calculate the efficiency n = Pac /Pdc

9. Plot the graph between Gain (db) and frequency.

10. Calculate bandwidth from the graph.

Observations: VO = VI = VCC = RL =

S.NO Frequency (Hz) OutputVoltage Gain A = Vo/Vi Gain in dB

(Vo) 20log(Vo/Vi)

Calculation: Efficiency (Pac/ Pdc) =

Pac = Vcc Ic , PDC = Vm/2RL =( Vpp)2/8RL

Percentage efficiency , n =( Pac/ Pdc) X 100

Result: Gain and frequency as observed of Class A power amplifiers.

Percentage efficiency , n = ( Pac/ Pdc) X 100 =

Conclusion:
Quiz:

1) Discuss why Class B is more popular than Class - A

2) Draw the frequency response of a Class - A Power amplifier for above circuits.