Module 1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

1. INTRODUCTION
Computer is an electronic device which accepts input, processes data, stores information and produces output.
Data: Raw facts/ figures
Information: Processed data

2. COMPUTER GENERATIONS

The computer of each generation is smaller, faster and more powerful than preceding generation. There arefive
computer generations.

 First Generation: The vacuum tubes were used for computation. Magnetic drums were used for
memory requirements. It consumed lot of space, power and generated lot of power. ENIAC (Electronic
Numerical Integrator and Computer) used 18000 vacuum tubes, 1800 acquired sq. ft. room space and consumed
180KW of power. The machine level language (0s and 1s) was used. Punched cards were used for input and
Paper for output. They were used for scientific work.

 Second Generation: The transistors was the most important component which replaced vacuum tubes.
Magnetic cores were used for memory. It were more reliable than first generation computer. The assembly or
symbolic language was used. The input and output mechanism remained same. The stored program concept
was introduced which stores both data and program.

 Third Generation: The Integrated circuits(IC) was the most important component. The transistors,
diodes, resistors, capacitors were integrated on a single chip. The high-level language was used like BASIC, C,
C++ and JAVA. Memory capacity increased and magnetic hard disk was used for secondary generation. The
third generation computers also had OS and computer could rum programs invoked by multi users.

 Fourth Generation: The Microprocessor was the most important component. With the help of LSI
(Large Scale Integration) and VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) the entire CPU is on a single chip. OS have
moved from MSDOS to GUI (Graphical User Interface) like windows. The networking technology has also
been improved. The size was reduced and the speed was increased.

 Fifth Generation: Artificial Intelligence and use of natural languages are the main features of this
generations. These systems are expected to interact with users in natural language. Speech recognition and
speech output should also be possible. Computers must be able to perform parallel processing. The quad-core
and octa-core was also introduced. Neural networks and expert systems have been developed.

3. COMPUTER TYPES

Apart from being classified by generations, computers can also be categorized by their size. The size of a
computer is often an indirect indication of its capabilities.

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 Supercomputers: These are huge machines having most powerful and fastest processors. It uses
multiple CPUs for parallel data processing. Speeds are measured in flops (floating point operations per second).
The fastest operates at 34 petaflops. They are used for weather forecasting, analysis of geological data. They
have enormous storage, uses more power and generate lot of heat. They are used by government agencies.

 Mainframes: These are multi-user machines that support many users using the feature of time sharing. It
can run multiple programs even with a single CPU. The processor speed is measured in MIPS (Million
instructions per second). It is used to handle data, applications related to organization and online transactions in
banks, financial institutions and large corporations.

 Minicomputers/Midrange computers: It was introduced by DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation).

They can serve hundreds of users and are small enough to partially occupy a room. They are used in smaller
organizations or a department of a large one. They are not affordable to be used in home.

 Microcomputers: The microcomputer or PC is introduced by Apple and endorsed by IBM. This is a

single-user machine powered by a single-chip microprocessor. They are very powerful machines having
gigabytes of memory. They are both used in standalone mode and in a network. A microcomputer takes the
form of desktop, notebook (laptop) or a netbook (smaller laptop). PCs today are powered by 3 types of OS –
windows (7, 8 or 10), Mac OS X (Apple) and Linux. They are used for engineering and scientific applicationsand
for software development.

 Smartphones and Embedded Computers: The smartphone is a general purpose computer i.e., capable
of making phone calls. It has a powerful processor, with multiple cores, supports GBs of memory, and runs
developed OS (Android or iOS). It can be operated with keyboard, touch or stylus.
Embedded Computers or micro-controllers are very small circuits containing a CPU, non-volatile memory,
input and output handling facilities. They are embedded into many machines that we use – cars, washing
machines, cameras etc. The processor here runs a single unmodifiable program stored in memory.

4. BITS, BYTES AND WORDS

 Computer can understand only two states: 0 and 1.

 A digit can have only two states or values known as a binary digit, abbreviated as bit (b).
 The name nibble was coined to represent four bits.
 The name byte (B) was coined to represent eight bits.
 The byte is the standard unit of measurement of computer memory, data storage and transmission speed.
 The CPU handles memory data in larger units, called words and it is usually even multiple of bytes (two
bytes, four bytes etc.).
 When referred to a computer it has 32-bit (4 bytes) machine i.e., size of word is 32 bits.

Unit Equivalent to Remarks

1 kilobyte (KB) 1024 bytes Space used by 10 lines of text
1 megabyte (MB) 1024 kilobytes Memory of the earliest PCs
1 gigabyte (GB) 1024 megabytes Storage capacity of a CD-ROM
1 terabyte (TB) 1024 gigabytes Capacity of today’s hard disks
1 petabyte (PB) 1024 terabytes Space used for rendering of film Avatar

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5. CPU (CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT)

Figure 1: Functional Components of Computer

The CPU comprises of following components:

i. ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit)

ii. CU (Control Unit)
iii. Special-purpose registers
iv. A clock

 The ALU is a “super calculator” carrying out all arithmetic tasks and Boolean operations.
 The CU controls the way data is moved between the various components of computer.
 Both ALU and CU use the service of clock for synchronizing their Operations.
 The CPU uses a few high-speed registers to store the current instruction and its data. One of the registers,
program counter, stores the address of next instruction to be executed.
 All program instructions are executed using the fetch-decode-execute mechanism.
 The CPUs are rated in GHz (gigahertz).
 Input Unit: It is used to give the input that is data to the computer. It is done with the help of input devices.
Ex: Mouse, Keyboard
 Output Unit: It is used to receive the output (information) from the computer. It is done with the help of
output devices. Ex: Printer, Speaker.
 Memory: Collection of chips on motherboard, where all computer processing and program instructions are
stored. There are two types: Primary Memory and Secondary Memory.

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6. PRIMARY MEMORY

Primary memory is the main memory, which stores data and programs, which are currently needed by CPU.The
size is less than the secondary memory and it is costly.
1. RAM (Random Access Memory): It is the main memory, where the user can write information into
RAM and read information from it. It is accessible to users. The RAM is randomly accessible by user. It
is a volatile memory, which means the data, or information is retained as long as power supply is ON.
There are two types of RAM: SRAM and DRAM.

SRAM (Static) DRAM (Dynamic)

Stores information as long as power supply is on, Loses data in a very short time.
reloads every 2ms.
Multiple transistors are used to store 1 bit. One transistor is used to store 1 bit.
It is expensive, faster, and bigger. It is inexpensive, slower, and smaller.
It requires more power. It requires less power.
It is not required to be refreshed. It requires refresh.

2. ROM (Read Only Memory): It is a permanent memory that can be read but not written. It is a
nonvolatile memory, which means the data or information is retained even power supply is not there. It
contains a startup program BIOS (Basic Input Output System) which transfers control to OS.

 PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory): It is programmed as per requirement of customer’s

choice. The programmer burns the data into PROM. The data once written cannot be changed.

 EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory): It can be rewritten (but only once) even
though it has been previously burned. It is erased by exposing it to UV-rays.

 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory): It can be erased and
rewritten multiple times. The electric voltage is used to erase the data. The pen drive we use today is
of EEPROM.

3. Cache Memory: It holds those portions of program that are frequently used by CPU. It acts as a buffer
between CPU and RAM. The CPU first looks for the instructions in cache. It executes faster than RAM,
expensive and limited in size. It has multiple levels:
 L1 (Level 1) – smallest and fastest – 32 KB
 L2 (Level 2) – present closer to CPU – 256 KB
 L3 (Level 3) – shared by cores – 8 MB

4. Registers: The small number of ultra-fast registers integrated into the CPU represent the fastest memory
of the computer. The CPU does all its work here. Each register has the length of the computer. The data is
loaded into register before processing. Registers are numbered and a program instruction specifies these
numbers. Ex: OR1R2R3 which means multiplication operation is performed on R1 and R2 is performed
and stored in R3.

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7. SECONDARY MEMORY
Secondary memory is not directly connected to CPU. It exists inside the machine and also externally. It is a
non-volatile, offline and long-term storage memory. It is slower, cheaper than primary memory but the capacity
is higher.
1. Hard disk/ Hard drive/ Fixed disk: It is the oldest secondary storage device. It has more capacity but,
the cost is less comparatively. It is commonly present in laptop with 500GB and desktop with 1TB. It
contains a spindle, which holds one or more platters made up of non-magnetic material. It has two
surfaces which is coated with magnetic material. Each surface has serially numbered tracks and further
broken into sectors or blocks. The disk runs with the speed of 5400 and 7200 rpm.

2. Magnetic tape: The magnetic tape is made up of plastic film with one side coated with magnetic
material. It supports 1 TB or more, but 200 TB are also expected. The device is not fully portable
though because, a separate tape drive is required. The data is accessed sequentially. This makes it
unsuitable for backup.

3. Optical Disks (CD-ROM, DVD ROM, Blu-ray Disk): It is non-volatile read-only memory. The CD-
ROM and DVD-ROM, can hold large volumes of data (700MB to 8.5 GB). The Blu-ray disk has the
capacity upto 50 GB. A laser beam in their drives controls the read and write operations. A laser beam is
used to construct pits and lands by burning selected areas along its tracks.
CD-R, DVD-R: Data can be recorded only once.
CD-RW, DVD-RW: Data can be recorded multiple times.

4. Flash Memory: It doesn’t have any moving parts, is based on the EEPROM. It is available in various
forms- pen drive, magnetic card (SD Card), solid state disk (SSD). They are portable, need little power
and quite reliable.
The memory stick or pen drive is the most common type of flash memory used on the
computer. It is a small, removable piece of circuit and it connects to the USB port of computer.
The solid state disk is a bigger device meant to replace the traditional magnetic hard disk.
The magnetic card is used mainly in cameras and the most popular is the micro-SD card.

5. Floppy Diskette: This is represented by a rectangular plastic case containing a thin magnetic disk. It
was available in two sizes (5.25” and 3.5”), offering capacities of 1.2 MB and 1. MB. It is unsuitable for
backup purpose.

 Difference between Primary memory and Secondary memory

Primary Memory Secondary Memory

The size of the primary memory is small. The size of the secondary memory is larger.
Stores the programs and data currently needed by It is used to store large amount of data and
the CPU. programs
Expensive. Inexpensive.
Volatile in nature. Non-volatile in nature.
Ex: RAM, ROM Ex: Hard disk, Optical disk

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8. PORTS AND CONNECTORS

Devices like scanners, printers are connected to a computer through docking points called ports. It is
impossible to use wrong connector for a port. At present systems offer only fewer types compared to old ones.
 USB (Universal Serial Bus): This replaced serial and parallel ports in motherboard. Most computers
offer four USB ports to support scanners, printers and mice. It has four lines, two each for data and power.
The current USB 3.0 can transfer 1 GB file in 20 seconds. The smaller variant, the micro-USB port is used in
smartphones.

 SERIAL PORT: This port transfers one bit at a time serially. They are offered in 9-pin and 25-pin
configuration. They were used for connecting keyboard, mice, and modems.
 PARALLEL PORT: This port is used to transfer data parallelly 8 bits at a time. This is implemented
using 25 pins and usually for printers.

 VGA (Video Graphics Array): This 15-pin port allows transfer of analog video data to the monitor.
This is replaced with DVI (Digital Video Interface) which uses digital data i.e. used by flat LCD panels.

 RJ45 port: This port is used by Ethernet network. Even though computer connects wirelessly, the
wired RJ45 remains as a useful option.

 PS/2 port: This port has replaced serial port. It has 6 pins but occurs as a pair in two different colors.
The ports and connectors for keyboard are purple, while the mouse uses green port. USB has invaded this area
also.

 HDMI (High Definition Multimedia Interface): This is used for transferring audio and video between
computers and HDTVs, projectors and home theaters.

9. INPUT DEVICES
Input devices are needed to interact with the OS to perform tasks. Ex: Keyboard, Mouse, Joystick, Stylus,
Scanner etc.
 Keyboard: Every computer supports a keyboard – either a physical or touchscreen. The keyboard has
QWERTY layout and contains large number of symbols. Each letter, numeral or symbol is known as a
character, which represents smallest piece of information. Each character has a unique values called the ASCII
(American Standard Code for Information Interchange) value.

 Pointing Devices: GUI (Graphical User Interfaces) like windows need a pointing device to control the
movement of cursor on the screen. This is implemented as mouse in desktop and touchpad in laptop. The
earliest form has a rotating ball and two buttons. The left button is used for selecting (by clicking once) and
execute (by clicking twice). The right button is used to check and change attributes. The optical mouse uses
infrared laser/LED, the wireless mouse uses radio frequency technology.

 Scanner: A scanner is a device that creates a digital image of a document by optically scanning it. The
flatbed scanner doesn’t exceed more than A4 size. It is operated with by using special software. The document to
be scanned is placed on a glass plate covered by lid. Modern scanners have OCR (Optical Character
Recognition) facility which extracts text as a stream of characters i.e. converting image file to text file and
MICR (Magnetic Ink Character Recognition) reads the codes using hand held barcode readers.
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10. OUTPUT DEVICES

The information produced can be heard or seen with the help of output devices. Some of the output devicesare
monitor, speaker, printer, plotter etc.
 Monitor: The monitor is an integral part of computer which displays both text and graphics. The
performance is measured in terms of image quality, resolution, energy consumption.

CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) Monitors: The CRT monitors have a rarefied tube containing three electron guns.
The guns emit electrons create images. They usually have resolution of 640*840 pixels. They are large, heavy,
energy efficient and produces lot of heat.

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) Monitors: The image is formed by applying voltage on crystals. The backlight
is provided by fluorescent light. They consume less power, generate less heat and have increased life span.

 Impact Printers: It produces the hardcopy of output. The impact printers are old, noisy.
But, still dot-matrix printer is in usage.

Dot-Matrix Printer: The print head of the dot-matrix printer has either 9 or 24 pins. When the pins fire against
the ribbon, an impression is created on the paper. The speed is 300 cps and doesn’t produce high quality output.
It can produce multiple copies.

Daisy-wheel Printer: It employs a wheel with separate characters distributed along its outer edge. The wheelscan
be changed to obtain different set of fonts.

Line Printer: For heavy printing, the line printer is used. It uses a print chain containing the characters.
Hammers strike the paper to print and it rotates at the speed of 1200 lpm. It is also noisy and is of low-quality.

 Non-Impact Printers: They are fast, quiet and of high resolution. The most commonly used non-
impact printers are laser and ink-jet printers. The thermal printer is not discussed here because it uses heat to
print on high-sensitive paper.

Laser Printer: It works like a photocopier and uses toner i.e. black magnetic powder. The image is created in
the form of dots and passed from drums on to the paper. It has built-in RAM which acts as buffer and RAM to
store fonts. The resolution varies from 300 dpi to 1200 dpi and the speed is about 20 ppm.

Ink-jet Printer: These are affordable printers. It sprays tiny drops of ink at high pressure as it moves along the
paper. The separate cartridges are available for different colors. The resolution is about 300 dpi, can print 1 to 6
pages/min.

 Plotters: The plotter can make drawings. It uses one or more automated pens. The commands are taken
from special file called vector graphic files. Depending on type of plotter either paper or pen moves. It can
handle large paper sizes and it is used for creative drawings like buildings and machines. They are slow and
expensive.

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11. COMPUTERS IN A NETWORK

Most organizations, large or small, no longer have standalone computers. Computers cooperate with one
another by being connected in a network. The hardware resources can also be shared. A printer can be used by
several users if it is connected to a network.
Network Topology: The ways used to connect the computers. The different types are: Bus, Star, Ring, andMesh.

Figure 2: Network Topologies

1. Bus Topology: It uses a single cable called as bus to which all computers are connected. The failureof
one single node doesn’t disturb other nodes.
2. Star Topology: It uses a central hub to which all nodes are connected. If the hub fails, entire network
fails and the nodes cannot be added easily.
3. Ring Topology: It is connected in the form of closed loop without hub. Data moves from node to
node. For unidirectional rings, if one node fails, the network fails.
4. Mesh Topology: Nodes are connected to one another offering multiple paths. If node breaks down,
then data passing changes its route. It is expensive.

 Network Types: Networks are also classified on their size. The most common types are LAN and
WAN. And some other types are: MAN, CAN and PAN.

1. LAN (Local Area Network): They are used in smaller organizations usually using Ethernet. The usual
speed will be 100Mbps.
2. WAN (Wide Area Network): They are used in cities and can connect larger distance. They use optic
fiber cables. Banks, Airline and Hotel reservations use WANs.
3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): It is sandwiched between LAN and WAN and used for
interconnecting in same cities.
4. PAN (Personal Area Network): This is the smallest network and can connect only few meters. It
connects small devices like phones, laptops through Bluetooth.

 Intranet is a network of computers designed for a specific group of users and can be accessed from
Internet but with restrictions.
 Internet is wide network of computers and is open for all and itself contains a large number of
intranets.

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12. NETWORK HARDWARE

Connecting computers in a network require additional devices that are not part of the computer’s basic
configuration.
 Hub and Switch: Computers in a single network is connected to a central device called hub or switch.
HUB accepts network data from computer and broadcasts to the nodes by checking destination address.
SWITCH will have a table which contains MAC addresses of connected devices. The data is sent after lookingup
the table for destination.

 Bridge and Router: The network supports many nodes which leads to congestion. Hence, the network
may be split into a number of segments, with a BRIDGE connecting them. It connects two networks using the
same protocol. ROUTER connects two similar or dissimilar networks separated by long distance. It is a part of
two networks and thus have two addresses. It has a routing table to store address.

13. SOFTWARE BASICS

 Software is a collection of code that drives a computer to perform related group of tasks.
 Programs in software use a language.
 The source code is created by programmer using programming languages like C, C++, Java, Python etc.
 The software is developed to operate on multiple platforms.

SOFTWARE TYPES
Computer software can be broadly classified into two types: System software and Application Software.

 System Software: Software run by the computer to manage the hardware connected to it is known as
system software. System software examples:
BIOS- It checks the hardware devices and peripherals at boot time.
OS: It manages both hardware and programs running on the computer.

 Application Software: Software not directly connected with hardware but related to a specific
application is known as application software. Application software examples:
Office software: This comprises of three separate applications: word processing, spread sheet and
presentations.
Database software: It allows data to have a uniform structure to be stored in a database.

System Software Application Software

System software is used for operating computer Application software is used by user to perform
hardware. specific task.
System softwares are installed on the computer Application softwares are installed according to
when operating system is installed. user’s requirements.
In general, the user does not interact with system In general, the user interacts with application
software because it works in the background. softwares.
System software can run independently. It Application software can’t run independently.
provides platform for running application They can’t run without the presence of system
softwares. software.
Some examples of system softwares are Some examples of application softwares are word
compiler, assembler, debugger, driver, etc. processor, web browser, media player, etc.
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CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION TO C
1. PSEUDOCODE

 Pseudocode is an informal list of steps in English like statements which is intended for human reading.
 It is used in planning of computer program development, for sketching out the structure of the program
before the actual coding takes place.
Advantages:

1. It can be written easily

2. It can be read and understood easily
3. Modification is easy
Disadvantages:
1. There is no standard form.
2. One Pseudocode may vary from other for same problem statement.

Examples:

Pseudocode: Addition of two numbers Pseudocode: Area of rectangle

1. Begin 1. Begin
2. Read two numbers a, b 2. Read the values of length, breadth
3. Calculate sum = a+b 3. Calculate area = l x b
4. Display sum 4. Display area
5. End 5. End

2. HISTORY OF C

 C is a general purpose, procedural, structured computer programming language developed by Dennis

Ritchie in the year 1972 at AT&T Bell Labs.
 C language was developed on UNIX and was invented to write UNIX system software.
 C is a successor of B language.
 There are different C standards: K&R C std, ANSI C, ISO C.

Characteristics of C:
 C is easy to learn.
 C is a general purpose language.
 C is a structured and procedural language.
 It is portable.
 It can extend itself.

Examples of C:
 Operating system
 Language compilers
 Assemblers
 Text editors
 Databases

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3. THE BASIC ‘C’ CHARACTERS

 A C character set defines the valid characters that can be used in a source program. The basic C characterset
are:
1. Letters: Uppercase: A,B,C,….,ZLowercase:
a,b,c,…..,z
2. Digits: 0,1,2,…..,9
3. Special characters: ! , . # $ ( ) } { etc
4. White spaces: Blank space, Horizontal tab space (\t), carriage return, new line character (\n), form feed
character.

4. C – TOKENS

 It is also called as lexical unit.

 The smallest individual unit in ‘C’ program is called as C-Token.
 These are the building blocks of ‘C’ program.
 There are 6 types of ‘C’ tokens:
i. Keywords
ii. Identifiers
iii. Constants
iv. Strings
v. Operators
vi. Special symbols

i. Keywords

 Keywords are also called as reserved words.

 They already have pre-defined meaning.
 Keywords should always be written in lowercase.
 The keywords meaning can’t be changed.
 Keywords cannot be used as identifiers.
 There are 32 keywords in ‘C’ program.

Auto double int struct break do

Else long switch goto sizeof if
Case enum register typedef default
Char extern return union volatile
const float short unsigned while
continue for signed void static

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ii. Identifiers

 It refers to the name of the objects.

 These are the names given to variables, functions, macros etc.
 The rules to write an identifier are as follows:
1. It must contain only alphabets (A to Z, a to z), numbers (0 to 9) and underscore ( _ ).
2. It must start with alphabet or underscore but not numeric character.
3. It should not contain any special symbols apart from underscore.
4. It should not have any space.
5. Keywords cannot be used as identifiers.
6. Identifiers are case sensitive.
7. Maximum length of an identifier is 31 characters.
 Examples:
Valid Identifiers: integer, minimum, sum_total, row1, _cpps
Invalid Identifiers: float It is a keyword.
I am It has space
123_Abc It is starting with number N1 +
special symbol (+)

iii. Constants
Constants are the values that doesn’t changes during the execution of a program.

Integer Constant
Numeric
Constant
Real Constant

Constant
Single Character
Constant
Character
Constant
String Constant

Figure 3: Types of Constants

 Numerical Constant
 Integer Constant: These are the numbers without decimal part.
1. Decimal: It is an integer constant consisting of numbers from 0-9. It can be preceded by + or –
2. Octal: It is an integer constant consisting of numbers from 0-7. It is preceded by o
3. Hexadecimal: It is an integer constant consisting of numbers from 0-9, A-F (A=10, B=11, C=12,
D=13, E=14, F=15). It is preceded by 0x
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 Real Constant:

 These are the numbers with decimal part.

 These are also called as floating point constant.
 The floating values can be identified by the suffix ‘F’ or ‘f’
 It can be expressed in exponential form.
 Ex: 21.5, 2.15 x 102 2.15e2

 Character Constant

 Single Character Constant:

 These are the values enclosed within single quotes.
 Each character have an integer value called as ASCII (American Standard Code for Information
Interchange) A: 65, a: 97
 Printable Character: All characters are printable except backslash(\) character or escape
sequence.
 Non-Printable Character: The characters with backslash (\) are non printable. Ex: \n, \t

 String Constant:
 A group of characters together form string.
 Strings are enclosed within double quotes.
 They end with NULL character (\0).
 Ex: “CBIT”

C B I T \0

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NOTE:
 Qualified Constant/ Memory Constant: These are created by using “const” qualifier. Const means that
something can only be read but not modified.
Syntax: const datatype variable_name = value;
Ex: const int a = 10; const
float pi = 3.14;

 Symbolic Constants/ Defined Constant: These are created with the help of define preprocessor
directive.
Ex: #define PT 3.142
 During processing the PI in the program will be replaced with 3.142.
 The name of constant is written in uppercase just to differentiate from the variables.

 Enumeration Constant: An enumeration is a list of constant integer values. Names in enumeration

must be distinct. The keyword used is “enum”.
Ex: enum days = {Sun, Mon, Tue, Wed, Thu, Fri, Sat}
Sun 1, Mon 2, ……., Sat 7

iv. Strings

 A group of characters together form string.

 Strings are enclosed within double quotes.
 They end with NULL character (\0).
 Ex: “CPPS”

C P P S \0

V. Operators
An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific mathematical and logical functions.The
different operators supported in ‘C’ are:
1. Arithmetic Operators
2. Relational Operators
3. Logical Operators
4. Assignment Operators
5. Bitwise Operators
6. Unary Operators Increment and Decrement
7. Ternary/ Conditional Operator
8. Special Operators

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1. Arithmetic Operators: The different arithmetic operators are:

Operator Name Result Syntax Example (b=5, c=2)

+ Addition Sum a=b+c a=7
- Subtraction Difference a=b-c a=3
* Multiplication Product a=b*c a = 10
/ Division Quotient a=b/c a=2
% Modulus Remainder a=b%c a=1
2. Relational Operators: These are used to compare two quantities. The output will be either 0 (False)or
1 (True). The different relational operators are:

Operator Name Syntax Example (b=5, c=2)

< Lesser than a=b<c a = 0 (False)
> Greater than a=b>c a = 1 (True)
<= Lesser than or Equal to a = b <= c a = 0 (False)
>= Greater than or Equal to a = b >= c a = 1 (True)
== Equal to a = b == c a = 0 (False)
!= Not equal to a = b != c a = 1 (True)

3. Logical Operators: These are used to test more than one condition and make decision. The different
logical operators are: NOT, AND, OR

 Logical NOT (!) The output is true when input is false and vice versa. It accepts only one
input.
Input Output
X !X
0 1
1 0

 Logical AND (&&) The output is true only if both inputs are true. It accepts two or more
inputs.
Input Output
X Y X && Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

 Logical OR (||) The output is true only if any of its input is true. It accepts two or more inputs.

Input Output
X Y X || Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

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4. Assignment Operators: These are used to assign the result or values to a variable. The different typesof
assignment operators are:

Simple Assignment a = 10
Shorthand Assignment a += 10 a = a + 10
Multiple Assignment a = b = c = 10

5. Bitwise Operators: These works on bits and performs bit by bit operations. The different types of
bitwise operators are:
i. Bitwise NOT (~)
ii. Bitwise AND (&)
iii. Bitwise OR (|)
iv. Bitwise XOR (^) Output is True when odd number of 1’s are present.
v. Bitwise left shift (<<)
vi. Bitwise right shift (>>)

 Bitwise NOT (~)

X ~X
0 1
1 0

 Bitwise AND (&), Bitwise OR (|),Bitwise XOR (^)

X Y X&Y X|Y X^Y

0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 0

 Bitwise Left Shift (<<) Shift specified number of bits to left side.

X 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
X<<2 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0

 Bitwise Right Shift (>>) Shift specified number of bits to right side.

X 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
X>>2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

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6. Unary Operators: There are 4 types:

 Unary Plus Operator

 Unary Minus Operator
 Increment (++)
 Decrement (--)

Sign
 Increment (++): It adds one to the operand.

Pre-increment Post-increment
First value of the operand is incremented First value of the operand is used for evaluation
(added) by 1 then, it is used for evaluation. then, it is incremented (added) by 1.
Ex: ++a Ex: a++

 Decrement (--): It subtracts one from the operand.

Pre-decrement Post- decrement

First value of the operand is decremented First value of the operand is used for evaluation
(subtracted) by 1 then, it is used for then, it is decremented (subtracted) by 1.
evaluation.
Ex: - -a Ex: a- -

7. Conditional Operator/ Ternary Operator (?:)

 It takes three arguments.

Expression1 ? Expression2 : Expresseion3
Where,
Expression1 Condition
Expression3
Statement followed if condition is false
 Ex: large = (4 > 2) ? 4: 2 large = 4
8. Special Operator/ Special Symbols

 Comma Operator: It can be used as operator in expression and as separator in declaring

variables.
 Sizeof Operator: It is used to determine the size of variable or value in bytes.
 Address Operator: It is used to find the address of the operators.

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5. EXPRESSIONS

 It is combination of operands (variables, constants) and operators.

 Precedence: The order in which operators are evaluated is based on the priority value.
 Associativity: It is the parsing direction used to evaluate an expression. It can be left to right or rightto
left.
 Evaluation of expressions: Expressions are evaluated using an assignment statement.
 Ex: variable = expression
sum = a + b
 Following table provides the Precedence and Associativity of operators:
Operator Description Associativity Precedence(Rank)
() Function call
Left to right 1
[] Array element reference
+ Unary plus
- Unary minus
++ Increment
-- Decrement
! Logical negation
Right to left 2
~ Ones complement
* Pointer to reference
& Address
Sizeof Size of an object
(type) Type cast (conversion)
* Multiplication
/ Division Left to right 3
% Modulus
+ Addition
Left to right 4
- Subtraction
<< Left shift
Left to right 5
>> Right Shift
< Less than
<= Less than or equal to
Left to right 6
> Greater than
>= Greater than or equal to

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== Equality
Left to right 7
|= Inequality
& Bitwise AND Left to right 8
^ Bitwise XOR Left to right 9
| Bitwise OR Left to right 10
&& Logical AND Left to right 11
|| Logical OR Left to right 12
?: Conditional expression Right to left 13

=
*= /= %=
+= -= &= Assignment operators Right to left 14
^= |=
<<= >>=
, Comma operator Left to right 15

6. DATA TYPES

 Data type defines the types of data that is stored in a variable.

 There are 3 types:
i. Primary/ Built-in/ Fundamental data type int, float, double, char, void
ii. Derived data type array, structure
iii. User defines data type typedef

 Primary/ Built-in/ Fundamental data type: These are the built in data types available in C. There are5
types. Namely:
1. Integer (int)
2. Floating point (float)
3. Character (char)
4. Double precision floating point (double)
5. Void (void)

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1. Integer type:
 It is used to store whole numbers.
 The keyword int is used to declare variable of integer type.
 Int type takes 2B or 4B of storage depending on machine size.
 The classes of integer are:

Unsigned Signed
Data type Keyword Size Data type Keyword Size
Short Integer short int 1B Signed short integer signed short int 1B
Integer Int 2B Signed integer signed int 2B
Long Integer long int 4B Long integer long int 4B

2. Floating point data type:

 It is used to store decimal numbers.
 The keyword float is used to declare variable of floating point data type.
 Float type takes 4B or 8B of storage depending on machine size.
 It can be expressed in fractional or exponential form.

Data type Keyword Size

Floating point float 4B
Double double 8B
Long double long double 10B

3. Double:
 It is used to store double precision floating point numbers.
 The keyword double is used to declare variable of floating point data type.
 Double type takes 8B of storage.
 Double precision is related to accuracy of data.

4. Char:
 It is used to store character type of data.
 The keyword char is used to declare variable of character type.
 Char type takes 1B of storage.

5. Void:
 It is a special data type that has no value.
 It doesn’t have size.
 It is used for returning the result of function that returns nothing.
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7. VARIABLES

 A variable is a name given to memory location whose value changes during execution.

 Declaration:

Syntax: datatype variable_list;

Where,
datatype Any built in data type
variable_list Identifiers that specifies variable name.
Example: int a;
Where,
int is the built in data type
a is variable of type int.

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8. TYPE CONVERSION
 Converting the value of one data type to another type is called as Type Conversion.
 It occurs when mixed data occurs.
 There are two types:

i. Automatic Type Conversion (Implicit)

 Here, the operand/ variables of smaller data type is automatically converted to data type of larger
size.
 char int long int float double long double
 Ex: int a = 5;
float b = 25, c; c = a b c
a / b; printf(“%f” , 5 25.0 0.25
c);

ii. Manual Type Conversion (Explicit)

 It is a forced conversion used to convert operand/ variables of larger data type to smaller size or
vice versa.
 Ex: int a = 7, c; a b c
float b = 4.0; 7 4.0 3
b = a % (int) b; b  Converted into int & evaluated
printf(“%d” , c);

9. STRUCTURE OF ‘C’ PROGRAM

 C program consists of different sections. The structure of C program is as shown below.

 Documentation Section: It consists of a set of comment line giving the name of the program, theauthor
and other details. Compiler ignores these comments. There are two formats:
a) Line comments //Single line comment
b) Block comments /*Multi line comment*/
 Link Section: It provides instruction to the compiler to link functions from system library.
 Definition Section: It defines all symbolic constants.
 Global Declaration Section: The variables which are used in more than one function are called global
variables and are declared in this section.

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 main( ) Section: Every ‘C’ program has one main( ) function and it contains two parts:
i. Declaration Part: Here, all the variables used are declared.
ii. Executable Part: Here, it contains at least one executable statement.

The main( ) function is enclosed within flower brackets and the statements ends with semicolon.

 Sub-program Section: It contains all the user defined functions that are called by main( ) function.

Documentation section
Link section
Definition section
Global declaration section
main( ) Section
{
Declaration part
Executable part
}
Sub program section
Function 1
Function 2
-
-
Function n

 Example:

//Addition of two numbers

#include<stdio.h>
void main( )
{
int a, b, sum;
printf(“Enter two numbers\n”);
scanf(“%d%d”, &a, &b);
sum = a + b;
printf(“The sum is %d”, sum);
}

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Questions:
1. Evaluate each of the following expression independent of each other.
i. x = a – b/3 + c * 2 – 1 where, a=9, b=12, c=3
ii. 10 != 10 || 5 < 4 && 8
iii. 100%20 <= 20 – 5 + 100 % 10 – 20 = = 5 >=1 != 20
iv. a += b * = c - = 5 where, a = 3, b=5 and c=8
v. int i=3, j=4, k=2
a) i++ - j
b) ++k % --j
c) j+1/i-1
d) j++/i--
vi. 22+3 < 6 && !5 || 22 == 7 && 22-2 > +5
vii. A+2 b || !c && a ==d*a-2<=e where, a=11, b=6, c=0, d=7 and e=5

2. Classify the following into input and output devices:

Monitors, Visual display unit, Track balls, Barcode reader, Digital camera, Film recorder,
Microfiche, OMR, Electronic Whiteboard, Plotters.
3. State whether the following are valid identifiers or not:
integer, float, Iam, 123_ABC
4. Convert the following mathematical expressions into ‘C’ expressions:
i) X = e power root of(x) + e power root of(y)/xsin root(y)
ii) C = a*a+1/((b+1)/(c+d))
iii) C = 3 root of((a*a*a+b*b*b*b)/(a*a*a*a-b*b*b))
iv) Area = ((pie*r*r) + (2*pie*r*h))
v) Area = πr2 + 2 π rh
−𝑏+ √𝑏2−4𝑎𝑐
vi) x =
2𝑎
𝑦
vii) m = 𝑥4 + √𝑥 + − 4𝑥 + 6
𝑘

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Example Programs:

Program 1: To find area and perimeter of rectangle

Algorithm Flowchart

Step 1. [Initialize] Start

Step 2. [Input the length and breadth] Read l, b

Step 3. [Calculate area] area = l * b

Step 4. [Calculate perimeter] peri= 2(l+b)

Step 5. [Display area and perimeter] Print area, peri

Step 6. [Finished] Stop.

Program Output
#include<stdio.h> Enter length and breadth
{
2
int l, b, area, peri;
printf(“Enter length and breadth\n”); 4
scanf(“%d%d”, &l, &b);
The area is 8
area = l * b;
peri = 2 * (l + b); The perimeter is 12
printf(“The area is %d\n”, area);
printf(“The perimeter is %d\n”, peri);
}

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Program 2: To find Simple Interest

Algorithm Flowchart

Step 1. [Initialize] Start

Step 2. [Input the principle, time and rate] Read p, t, r

Step 3. [Calculate si] si = p * t * r / 100

Step 4. [Display si] Print si

Step 5. [Finished] Stop.

Program Output
#include<stdio.h> Enter principle, rate and time
{
1000
float p, t, r, si;
printf(“Enter principle, time and rate\n”); 2
scanf(“%f%f%f”, &p,&t,&r);
4
si = p * t * r / 100;
printf(“The Simple Interest is %f”, si); The Simple Interest is 80
}

Figure: Architecture of a Computer with a Single Processor

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