Calc Term 1 Condensed

Carlos A.C.C. Perello

August 14, 2021

Contents
1 Limits and differentiation 1
1.1 Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Differentiation from 1st principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Inverse functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Logs and exponentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.5 L’Hopital’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 Integration 2
2.1 The Riemann sum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Improper integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3 MVT for integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.4 Integration techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.4.1 Common ints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.4.2 Trig formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.4.3 Common subs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.4.4 Recursion formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.5 Lengths, Volumes and Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.5.1 Lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.5.2 Volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.5.3 Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.6 Centres of Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.7 Polar coords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3 Series 5
3.1 Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2 Cauchy sequences and convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.3 Convergence tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.4 Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.5 Taylor series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.6 Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.6.1 Exponential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.6.2 Log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

4 Fourier series 7
4.1 Orthogonality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.2 Periodic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.3 Trigonometric polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.4 Fourier series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.5 Complex form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.6 2L periodic series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.6.1 Parseval’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1
1 Limits and differentiation
1.1 Basics
If f is a function defined at all points near x0 , except possibly at x0 and if l ∈ R, then l is the limit of f (x) as x approaches
x0 if ∀ > 0∃δ > 0 s.t. |x − x0 | < δ =⇒ |f (x) − l| < , written as lim f (x) = l
x→x0

A limit has the following properties; if lim f (x) and lim g(x) exist, then:
x→x0 x→x0

• Sum rule: lim [f (x) + g(x)] = lim f (x) + lim g(x)

x→x0 x→x0 x→x0

• Product rule: lim [f (x)g(x)] = lim f (x) lim g(x)

x→x0 x→x0 x→x0
h i
• Reciprocal rule: If lim 6= 0 then lim 1
f (x) = 1
lim f (x)
x→x0 x→x0 x→x0

h i lim f (x)
f (x)
• Quotient rule: If lim 6= 0 then lim
x→x0
g(x) = lim g(x)
x→x0 x→x0 x→x0

 
• Composite function rule: If h(x) is continuous at lim f (x), then lim h(f (x)) = h lim f (x)
x→x0 x→x0 x→x0

If f (x) is defined on a domain including (a, ∞), then l is the limit of f (x) as x approaches ∞ if ∀ > 0, ∃A > a s.t.
x > A =⇒ |f (x) − l| < , written as lim f (x) = l, where the sign depends which side we are considering
x→±∞

Of f (x) is a function defined in an interval containing x0 , except possibly at x0 , then f (x) approaches ∞ as x
approaches x0 if ∀B > 0, ∃ > 0 s.t. if |x − x0 | <  and x 6= x0 =⇒ f (x) > B, written as lim f (x) = ∞ and same for
x→x0
−∞

If f (x) is defined for all x in an interval (x0 , a), f (x) approaches l as x approaches x0 from the right if ∀ > 0, ∃δ > 0
s.t. ∀x0 < x < x0 + δ, |f (x) − l| < , written as lim f (x) = l and similar for x−
0
x→x+
0

If lim f (x) = 0 and |g(x)| ≤ |f (x)| for all x near x0 with x 6= x0 , then lim g(x) = 0
x→x0 x→x0

If lim f (x) = 0 and |g(x)| ≤ |f (x)| for large enough x, then lim g(x) = 0
x→∞ x→∞

1.2 Differentiation from 1st principles

f (x+h)−f (x)
A function f is differentiable at x if lim h = f 0 (x) exists. If f 0 (x) exists everywhere we say the function is
h→0
differentiable everywhere

f (x) is not continuous at x = x0 if lim f (x) does not exist, and f (x) is not differentiable at points of discontinuity
x→x0

If f (x) is differentiable at x0 then it is continuous at x0

f (y)−f (x)
If f 0 (x) exists then f 0 (x) = limy→x y−x exists

If c is a maximum or a minimum then f 0 (c) = 0

We have the Mean Value Theorem MVT:

f (b)−f (a)
If f is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b), then ∃c ∈ (a, b) s.t. f 0 (c) = b−a

If f is continuous on [a, b], then ∀y ∗ between f (a) and f (b), ∃x∗ ∈ [a, b] s.t. f (x∗ ) = y ∗

1.3 Inverse functions

If y = f (x) on some interval, then given any y0 in the image of f , the inverse function f −1 exists if ∃x0 unique such that
f (x0 ) = y0 , written as x = f −1 (y)

2
If f (x) is strictly increasing or decreasing then its inverse function exists

0 0
d −1

on1 (a, b) and f (x) > 0 or f (x) < 0, ∀x ∈ (a, b), then the invefrse function exists and has
If f (x) is differentiable
derivative dy f (y) = f 0 (x)

1.4 Logs and exponentials

ln(x) is the area under the curve x1 between 1 and x if x ≥ 1, and the negative area under the curve 1
x between
1 and x if 0 < x < 1. In particular, ln(1) = 0

If a, b > 0, then log(ab) = log(a) + log(b). Also, log(x) is strictly increasing ∀x > 0 with range (−∞, ∞)

If n ∈ Z then log(an ) = n log(a), ∀a > 0

The exponential exp is the inverse function of log(x)

d x
If a > 0, dx a = ax (log(a))

ah −1
We have lim h = log(a) for a > 0
h→0
(1+a)n n en
If a positive, then lim n = ∞, so lim n = 0. Hence lim = ∞ as e = 1 + a for a ∈ R
n→∞ n→∞ (1+a ) n→∞ n

ex x
We also have lim = ∞, lim x − log(x) = ∞ and lim =∞
x→∞ x x→∞ x→∞ log(x)
1
Also lim x x = 1
x→∞

1.5 L’Hopital’s Rule

We have L’Hôpital’s Rule:
f (x) f 0 (x0 )
If f, g differentiable on an open interval containing x0 , g(x0 ) = f (x0 ) = 0 and g 0 (x0 ) 6= 0, then lim = g 0 (x0 )
x→x0 g(x)

L’Hôpital’s rule holds for:

• One-sided limits
• Limits as x → ∞

• Indeterminate forms ∞
∞

2 Integration
Given f (x) defined over some interval, we canR find F (x) defined over the same interval such that F 0 (x) = f (x). Then
F (x) is the indefinite integral of f , so F = f (x)dx. This is not unique

If f (x) defined on [a, b] and F (x) is defined asR the area under the curve between x = a and some x, then F (x) is
d x
differentiable and has derivative f (x), so dx a
= f (x)

2.1 The Riemann sum

Given f (x), a ≤ x ≤ b, we take a partition of [a, b]. We take any sub interval [xi−1 , xi ] with x∗i ∈ [xi−1 , xi ], and with h as
n
f (x∗i )h. There are 3 main choices for x∗i :
P
the length of a subinterval. Then the Riemann sum is
i=1

• Take x∗i = xi [Right-hand/Upper Riemann Sum]

• Take x∗i = xi−1 [Left-hand/Lower Riemann Sum]
• Take x∗i = 21 (xi + xi−1 ) [Midpoint Riemann Sum]

3
 Rb
If g(x) is defined ∀x ∈ [a, b] and differentiable on [a, b], then a
g 0 (x)dx = g(b) − g(a)

We have the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus FTC: Rb

If F is differentiable on [a, b] and F 0 is integrable on [a, b], then a F 0 (x) = F (b) − F (a). Alternatively if f is integrable
Rb
on [a, b] and has anti-derivative F , then a f (x)dx = F (b) − F (a)
R g(x)
We also have that d
dx a
f (t)dt = f (g(x)) · g 0 (x)

There are many applications of the integral that can be used to find masses, forces and more

We can exchange limits with integrals

2.2 Improper integrals

Rb
a
f (x)dx is an improper integral if a = ∞ and/or b = ∞, and/or f (x) → ∞ for some x ∈ (a, b)

To evaluate an improper integral we take limits of the proper one. If the limit is finite then the improper integral
converges, else it diverges

If f (x) and g(x) satisfy

• |f (x)| ≤ |g(x)| ∀x ≥ a
Rb Rb
• a f (x)dx and a g(x) exists for all b > a
then
R∞ R∞
• If a
g(x)dx converges, then so does a
f (x)dx
R∞
• If f (x)dx diverges, then so does inf ∞
a a g(x)dx
Rb R∞
• Analogous results for −∞ f (x)dx and −∞ f (x)dx

2.3 MVT for integrals

1
Rb
If f is continuous on [a, b], then ∃x0 ∈ (a, b) s.t. f (x0 ) = b−a a
f (x)dx

2.4 Integration techniques

We can assume that

2.4.1 Common ints

csc2 (x)dx = − cot(x) + C √ 1

R R R
cos(x)dx = sin(x) + C 1−x2
dx = arcsin(x)+C, |x| < 1
1
R
= arctan(x) + C, ∀x ∈ R
R R
sin(x)dx = − cos(x) + C tan(x) sec(x)dx = sec(x) + C 1+x2 dx

√ 1
R
R
sec2 (x)dx = tan(x) + C
R
cot(x) csc(x)dx = − csc(x) + C dx = arcsec(x) + C
x2 (x2 −1)

Where the last integral doesn’t hold when x ∈ [−1, 1]

2.4.2 Trig formulae

cos(2x) = 2 cos2 (x) − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 (x)
sin(2x) = 2 sin(x) cos(x)

sin(x ± y) = sin(x) cos(y) ± sin(y) cos(x)

cos(x ± y) = cos(x) cos(y) ∓ sin(x) sin(y)

4
 sin(x) cos(y) = 12 [sin(x + y) + sin(x − y)]
sin(x) sin(y) = 12 [cos(x − y) − cos(x + y)]
cos(x) cos(y) = 12 [cos(x + y) + cos(x − y)]

2.4.3 Common subs

√
When we have a2 − x2 we can substitute x = a sin θ
√
When we have x2 − a2 we can substitute x = a sec θ
√
When we have a2 + x2 we can substitute x = a tan θ

2.4.4 Recursion formula

If In = sinn (x)dx, then In = − n1 sinn−1 (x) cos(x) + n−1
R
n In−2

2.5 Lengths, Volumes and Surfaces

2.5.1 Lengths
Rbp
The Arc length from a to b is a
1 + (f 0 (x))2 dx

If we have a curve given by x(t), y(t) and z(t), then the distance travelled from time t0 to t is
  2 1   21
Rt dx 2 dy

2
dz 2

2  dy 2 dz 2
dt, so differentiating w.r.t t we obtain the speed: v(t) = dx



L(t) = t0 dt + dt + dt dt + dt + dt

2.5.2 Volumes
R
If the area cut by a plane at a given x of a shape is A(x), then the volume of the shape is A(x)dx
Rb
The volume of revolution about the x-axis from a to b is given by Vx = a
π(f (x))2 dx
Rb Rb
The volume of revolution about the y-axis from a to b is given by Vy = a
π[f −1 (y)]2 dy or by Vy = a
πxf (x)dx

2.5.3 Surfaces
Rb p
The surface area from a to b is given by S = a
2πf (x) 1 + (f 0 (x))2 dx
Rb p
The surface area of revolution about the x-axis from a to b is S = a
2πf (x) 1 + (f 0 (x))2 dx
Rb p
The surface area of revolution about the y-axis from a to b is S = a
2πx 1 + (f 0 (x))2 dx

2.6 Centres of Mass

n
P
We must conserve 0 moment, so for a coordinate x with n masses mk with centre of mass coordinate x̄, mk (x̄−xk ) = 0,
Pn i=1
k=1 mk xk
so x̄ = P n
k=1 mk
Rb
xf (x)dx
For a region limited by the curve f (x) and the x-axis in a 2D plane, the centre of mass coordinates are x̄ = Rab
f (x)dx
Rb a
1
(f (x))2 dx
and ȳ = 2 Rab
f (x)dx
a
Rb
x(f (x)−g(x))dx
For a region limited by the curved f (x) and g(x), g(x) ≤ f (x), the centre of mass coordinates are x̄ = Ra b
(f (x)−g(x))dx
Rb a
1
(f (x))2 −(g(x))2 dx
and ȳ = 2 Ra b
(f (x)−g(x))dx
a

We have Pappus’ theorem:

If R is a region with area A that lies on one side of a line l, V is the volume obtained by rotating it about l and
d is the distance travelled by the C.O.M. when R is rotated about l then V = Ad

5
2.7 Polar coords
Rβh i 12
dr 2


The length of a curve in polar coords from angles α to β is L = α dθ + r2 dθ

1
Rβ
The area of a curve between angles α to β is A = 2 α
r2 dθ

3 Series
3.1 Basics
PN
A series SN is a sum of terms of a sequence, so if (an ) is a sequence then SN = a1 + a2 + · · · + aN = n=1 an
N
P ∞
P
If SN → S as N → ∞, then the series converges to the sum S, so S = lim an = an
N →∞ n=1 n=1

If a series is a sum of positive terms, then it is increasing and it converges if it is bounded and diverges otherwise.
Similar for negative series
P∞ 1
The series n=1 n diverges to +∞, as its unbounded
P∞ 1
If α > 1 ∈ Q, then n=1 nα converges
P∞
If n=1 an converges, then an → 0 as n → ∞

3.2 Cauchy sequences and convergence

A sequence Si is Cauchy if ∀ > 0, ∃N ∈ N s.t. ∀m, n > N, |Sn − Sm | < 

Every Cauchy sequence converges

P∞ n−1
If (an ) is a decreasing sequence of positive numbers with an → 0 as n → ∞, then n=1 (−1) an = a1 −a2 +a3 −. . .
converges

3.3 Convergence tests

WePhave the Comparison test:
∞ P∞
If n=1 bn with bn > 0 and if |an | ≤ bn , then n=1 an converges
P∞ P∞
A series n=1 an is absolutely convergent if the series n=1 |an | converges. If a series converges but it is not absolutely
convergent, it is conditionally convergent

We have the Integral test: P∞ R∞

If f (x) is defined ∀x ≥ 1 and is positive and decreasing, then the series n=1 f (n) converges iff 1 f (x)dx converges

3.4 Power Series

P∞
If x ∈ C and an a sequence, then the power series is n=0 an xn
P∞ P∞
If ∃R > 0 s.t. n=0 |an |xn converges, then ∀|x| < R, n=0 an xn converges absolutely

an xn converges absolutely
P
The radius of convergence R greatest value of R for which we get convergence, and
if |x| < R. x = ±R must be tested separately

We have the Ratio test for power series:

P∞
If n=0 is a power series and limn→∞ aan+1
n
= L exists, and let R = 1
L. Then:

• If |x| < R the power series converges absolutely

• If |x| > R the power series diverges
• If x = ±R the power series can do either

6
WePhave the Root test for power series:
∞ 1 1
If n=1 an xn a power series and if |an | n = L exists then R = L is the radius of convergence for the power series
P∞
If f (x) =P n=0 an xn a power series with convergence if |x| < R, then f (x) differentiable if |x| < R and
∞
f 0 (x) = n=1 nan xn−1
P∞ P∞ n+1
an xn a power series which converges absolutely if |x| < R, then if |x| < R, an xn+1
R
If f (x) = n=0 f (x)dx = n=0
P∞ P∞
If f (x) = n=0 an xn a power series with radius of convergence R1 and g(x) = n=0 bn xn another power series with
radius of convergence R2 . If R = min(R1 , R2 ), then
P∞
• f (x) + g(x) = n=0 (an + bn )xn for |x| < R
P∞
• cf (x) = n=0 can xn for |x| < R1 , c 6= 0
Pn
• f (x)g(x) = n = 0∞ ( m=0 am bn−m )xn for |x| < R
P

3.5 Taylor series

∞
f (n) (x0 )
− x0 ) n
P
The Taylor series of f (x) about x = x0 is f (x) = n! (x
n=0
∞
P f (n) (0) n
The Maclaurin series of f (x) is its Taylor series about x0 = 0, so f (x) = n! x
n=0

We have Taylor’s theorem with remainder:

If f a function defined on a closed interval between x0 and x and f has n + 1 continuous derivatives on the
(2) (n) Rx n
interval, then f (x) = f (x0 )+f 0 (x0 )(x−x0 )+ f 2!(x0 ) (x−x0 )+· · ·+ f n!(x0 ) (x−x0 )n +Rn , where Rn = x0 (x−t)
n! f
(n+1)
(t)dt

h2 (2) hn (n) hn+1 (n+1)

An alternative expression for f (x) is f (x0 + h) = f (x0 ) + hf 0 (x0 ) + 2! f (x0 ) + ··· + n! f (x0 ) + (n+1)! f (c),
c ∈ (x0 , x0 + h)

3.6 Estimates
We can bound the remainder; we will use a Maclaurin series:
(n+1)
|x|n+1
If Rn = f (n+1)!(c) xn+1 for c ∈ (0, x) and if |f (n+1) (x0 )| ≤ Mn+1 ∀x0 ∈ (0, x), then |Rn | ≤ Mn+1 (n+1)!

To find an approximation of a function within some error, we:

• Find a bound for the remainder dependent on n
• Find smallest n such that the upper bound is less than the error

• Approximate using the Taylor series with n terms

If we want to compute anything to n decimals, the the error has to be less than 10−n

3.6.1 Exponential
x2 ec
The exponential ex has the following expansion: ex = 1 + x + 2! + ··· + (n+1)! x
n+1

|x|n+1
If x < 0 then c < 0 and |Rn | ≤ (n+1)!
n+1
b
If x > 0 and x ≤ b, then |Rn | ≤ eb (n+1)! → 0 as n → ∞

3.6.2 Log
x2 x3 n Rx tn
log(1 + x) has the following expansion: log(1 + x) = x − 2 + 3 − · · · + (−1)n−1 xn + (−1)n 0 1+t
dt

xn+1 an+1
If 0 ≤ x ≤ a ≤ 1 then |Rn | ≤ n+1 ≤ n+1 → 0 as n → ∞

7
 n+1
|a|
If −1 < a ≤ x ≤ 0, then |Rn | ≤ (n+1)(1+a) → 0 as n → ∞
We can use expansions instead of L’Hôpital

4 Fourier series
4.1 Orthogonality
Rb R  12
1 b
The inner product (f, g) of functions f, g is (f, g) := a
f (x)g(x)dx. The norm kf k is (f, f ) 2 = a
(f (x))2 dx := kf k ≥ 0

Let S = {φ0 , φ1 , . . . } be integrable functions on [a, b]. S is an orthogonal system on [a, b] if (φm , φn ) = 0 if m 6= n. S
is an orthonormal system if it is orthogonal and kφn k = 1

4.2 Periodic functions

A function is periodic with period T if f (x + T ) = f (x) ∀x ∈ R. A function with period T also has period mT , m ∈ Z

At points of discontinuity we define f (ξ) = 12 [f (ξ+ ) + f (ξ− )]

Rβ R β+T
If f (x) periodic with period T , then a
f (x)dx = a+T
f (x)dx

4.3 Trigonometric polynomials

n
A trigonometric polynomial Sn (x) is Sn (x) = 21 a0 +
P
[ak cos(kωx) + bk sin(kωx)]
k=1

We can use Euler’s relation to represent them as complex polynomials:

n
γk eikx , where γ0 = 21 a0 , γk = 12 (ak − ibk ) and γ−k = 12 (ak + ibk ), k ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n}
P
Sn (x) =
k=−n

4.4 Fourier series

∞
The Fourier series of f (x) is f (x) = 12 a0 +
P
(an cos(nx) + bn sin(nx)) where:
n=1
Rπ
• an = 1
π −π
f (x) cos(nx)dx = 0 if f (x) ODD
Rπ
• bn = 1
π −π
f (x) sin(nx)dx = 0 if f (x) EVEN

Discontinuities are defined as f (x) = 12 [f (x+ ) + f (x− )]. This has period 2π

1 sin(n+ 12 )x
cn = 2 + cos(x) + cos(2x) + · · · + cos(nx) = 2 sin( 12 x)

We have the Riemann-Lebesgue lemma:

Rb
If g(x) is integrable on [a, b], then Iλ = a g(x) sin(λx)dx → 0 as λ → ∞
R∞ sin(x) π
We have that 0 x dx = 2

If f (x) is EVEN, then it has a COSINE series, and if it is ODD, it has a SINE series

We can extend any function into an odd or even function. ODD extension is done by f (x) = −f (x), and EVEN
extension by f (−x) = f (x)

8
4.5 Complex form
∞
γn einx , where:
P
The complex Fourier series of f (x) is f (x) =
n=−∞
Z π
1
γn = f (x)e−inx dx, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
2π −π

4.6 2L periodic series

∞ 
If f (x) has period 2L, then f (x) = 21 a0 + an cos( nπx nπx
P 
L ) + bn sin( L ) , where:
n=1
RL
• an = 1
L −L
f (x) cos( nπx
L )dx = 0 if f (x) ODD
RL
• bn = 1
L −L
f (x) sin( nπx
L )dx = 0 if f (x) EVEN
∞
γn einπx/L , where
P
The complex form is f (x) =
−∞

Z L
1
γn = f (x)einπx/L dx, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
2L −L

4.6.1 Parseval’s Theorem

∞ Rπ P∞
If f (x) = 21 + 1
(f (x))2 dx = 12 a20 + 2
+ b2n )
P
an cos(nx) + bn sin(nx), −π ≤ x ≤ π, then π −π n=1 (an
n=1