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STRATA CONTROL PREPARATION CLASSES

1.4.1 Mining.

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CONTENTS

4. MINING
4.1. Mining methods
4.2. Rock breaking
4.3. Mine standards and codes of practice

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4. MINING

4.1. Mining Methods

Mining method selection

A common industrial requirement is to establish the mining method most appropriate for an orebody, and to adapt it to
the most specific conditions. In addition to orebody characteristics, which influence method selection, the various
mining methods have, themselves, particular operational characteristics, which directly affect their scope for
application. These include mining scale, production rate, selectivity, personal ingress requirements and extraction
flexibility.

Factors considered for the selection of a mining method

 Geometry of the deposit and the physical characteristics of the deposit and wall rock.

 Method adaptable to irregular ore limits, yielding good recovery and minimal dilution.

 Deposit strike length and dip.

 Consistency of the ore body width.

 The dimensions and regularity of deposit.

 The geomechanical properties of the wall rocks and ore.

 Nature of the grade distribution.

 Hydrogeology.

In addition to the factors mentioned above, results from the analysis of the pre-mining stress field, the
analysis of the stress redistribution induced by mining activity and the analysis of the rock quality and
strength and the nature of geological discontinuities are all considered.

A thorough consideration of all these factors ensures that the best mining method is selected, which yields
the maximum profit whilst providing acceptable levels of safety.

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METALLIFEROUS MINING METHODS

Longwall Mining
A generalized layout of a typical longwall configuration.

Stabilizing pillar
About 6 panels of 40 m width

Boxhole

Footwall
lifted
Dip-
gully
gully
Follow
behind
tunnels

Stabilizing pillar

Figure 4.1.a An idealized layout for longwall mining showing follow behind development

The choice of mining method adopted depends mainly on the geology and depth below surface.

Longwalling is used in the following situations:

1) Where the orebody is of a high grade

2) In relatively undisturbed ground

3) Where reefs are relatively narrow

Advantages of longwall mining:

1) Concentrated stoping

2) Easy mechanization

3) Off-reef excavations are distressed

4) Fewer Remnants

5) High extraction ratio

6) Only one raise developed

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Disadvantages of longwall mining:

1) Not flexible mining

2) Little knowledge of geology ahead

3) Large mining spans

4) Long scraping distances

5) Difficult to ventilate

6) High closure rate

7) High levels of stress and seismicity

As shown in figure 4.1.b two basic longwall configurations are used: the overhand method and the underhand method.

OVERHAND

Remnant
Mining Direction
Dip
Mined Out Mined Out

Mined Out Mined Out

Remnant Mining Direction

Dip

UNDERHAND
Figure 4.1b Overhand and underhand mining configuration

The underhand configuration is theoretically better for strata control because:

i) An even stress distribution along panels

ii) No contamination of swept areas in panels below

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Scattered / Sequential grid Mining

Figure 4.2. A typical layout for scattered mining

In a scattered mining configuration, the stoping takes place between systematically pre-developed raises positioned
between two levels. This necessitates pre-developed haulages and crosscuts.

The off-reef footwall development is therefore subjected initially to virgin stress but, as mining in the vicinity begins and
expands the stress regime on the tunnels increase (owing to mining-induced stresses) and changes its orientation.
Finally, portions of the tunnels may be overstoped (de-stressed), whilst other portions may remain highly stressed
(situated beneath un-mined remnants).

Scattered mining is currently used in the following situations:

i) Relatively narrow reefs

ii) Shallow to deep mining environments

iii) Geologically disturbed ground

iv) Varying grade

Advantages of scattered mining:

i) Short mining span

ii) Knowledge of geology

iii) High extraction rate

iv) short scraping distance

v) Easy to ventilate

vi) Flexible mining

Disadvantages of scattered mining:

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i) Multiple raise lines to develop

ii) Remnants are left

iii) Lower extraction than longwalling

iv) Development subjected to changing stresses

Overhand Shrinkage Stoping Method

This is a stoping method in which a small percentage of the broken ore is drawn as mining progresses to make room
for subsequent in-stope activities including drilling and blasting. The broken ore is used as both a working platform
and temporary support for the stope walls.

Most of the blasted ore is left to accumulate in the stope and drawn after the stope is completely mined.

Ore is broken in the stope by stripping the crown of the excavation, with miners working directly under the stope crown.
To maintain adequate work space in the stope, broken ore must be drawn from the base of the stope after each blast.

In shrinkage stoping the ore is excavated in horizontal slices, starting from the bottom of the stope and advancing
upwards.

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The key operational features of the shrinkage mining method include the following:

 The excavation is performed in overhand fashion.

 An extraction system must be developed at the base of the stope.

 Some broken material must be drawn through chutes or draw-points to make room for drilling.

 About 75% of the ore is locked up until work in the stope is completed.

Comments

Shrinkage stoping was a common and important mining method in the days when few machines were employed in
underground mining. Drawbacks such as labour-intensiveness, difficult and dangerous working conditions with limited
productivity, have resulted in that shrinkage stoping has been replaced by other methods.

Primary Problems

 The draw is often accompanied by in-stope hang-ups.

 Locking of the shrink can be caused through squeezing of the shrink by gradually failing wall rocks.

 Compaction of the shrink pile during stoping can be exacerbated by horizontal blast holes as the blast force
is downwards.

 Settlement of the shrink pile after drawn down results in the ground running away when miners are drilling.

Sublevel Open Stoping

Figure 4.3a Sublevel stoping using ring drilling and crosscut loading (After Hamrin)

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Figure 4.3b Sublevel stoping with longhole blasting and drawpoint loading (After Hamrin)

Key operational features

The mining in sublevel stoping is carried out from horizontal levels and sublevels, at determined vertical intervals. The
sublevels are prepared within the orebody at elevations between the main levels. The ore is broken by drilling and
blasting from the sublevel drifts. The blasting separated a large vertical slice of ore from the orebody, which breaks up
and falls to the bottom of the stope, from where it can be recovered at the main level.

The ore is fragmented in the stope using ring-drilled or long parallel blast holes, expanding from the free surfaces
provided by the stope slot. The broken ore converges to a draw point for extraction.

Ore is produced from a stope block in which extensive development has been undertaken prior to stoping activity.

Open stoping is applied in massive or steeply dipping stratiform orebodies. This is required to promote free flow of
fragmented rock to the extraction horizon. Since open stoping requires unsupported, free-standing stope boundary
surfaces, the strength of orebody and country rock must be sufficient to provide stable walls, faces and crown for the
excavation.

Comments

New developments have made sublevel stoping a method of increased popularity. The complicated and
comprehensive development may be seen as a drawback but is compensated by efficient ore production.

The sublevel stoping method requires a straightforward shaping of stopes and ore boundaries. Inside the stope,
everything qualifies as ore. There are no means to recover mineralizations in the wallrock. Knowledge or the geology,
the ore boundaries and a careful control of hole alignment in the long-hole are key factors for the successful
application.

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Primary Problems

 Rapid changes in vein width or payability may not be recognized.

 Localized falls of rock can be experienced within the draw points.

 There are no means to recover mineralization in the wall rock.

Room-and-Pillar (Bord & Pillar) Mining

Description

Pillar methods, known as bord-and-pillar, are those in which from haulage-ways (gangways, roads, entries, or
headings), comparatively wide openings (bords) are driven. These openings correspond to stopes of metal mines.
Pillars between rooms and other openings, support the roof.

With room-and-pillar mining the orebody is excavated as completely as possible, leaving sections of ore as pillars to
support the hangingwall. The dimensioning of stopes and pillars depends on the stability of the hangingwall and the
ore itself, the thickness of the deposit and the rock pressure.

Pillars are normally arranged after a regular pattern. They can be circulated, square or shaped as elongated walls,
separating the stopes. The ore remaining in the pillars can be extracted by “robbing” as a final operation in the mine,
but is generally non-recoverable.

Applications:

1. Orebodies with horizontal or flat dip, inclination not exceeding 15°.

2. Competent rock in the hangingwall and ore.

It shall be underlined that the stability of the ore and hangingwall in this respect is a flexible concept. Increasing pillar
dimensions and reducing stope width will compensate for poor ground conditions. Recovery is sacrificed, however, as
a great part of the orebody is left to support the back. Roof bolting is a technique which will improve the hangingwall’s
stability and which is used extensively in room-and-pillar mining.

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Figure
4.4.
Room-and-pillar mining of a flat orebody

Development

In flat or close to horizontal deposits only a minimum of development preparation is required for mining. Roadways are
required for the transport of broken ore. These can be combined with the ore extraction itself, and the mined-out
stopes utilized for transport routes.

In massive orebodies, the total thickness of the orebody is not necessarily excavated in one step. The extraction
normally starts with the top section. During this phase roof bolting and roof control is carried out. The remainder of the
ore is recovered by benching in one ore more steps.

Up dip or down dip mining

With mainly non-yield dip pillars has been successfully used at depths ranging from less than a hundred metres down
to 800m. Mining takes place both sides of the raises developed typically 35m apart, leaving a dip pillar at the mid-
distance between the raises, or adjacent to the raise. Dip pillars provide back area support against back-breaks and
good protection to the faces. Up dip mining is particularly suitable for good ground conditions where throw blasting can
be practiced over face lengths of up to 13m on each side of the centre gully, and excellent face advance rates can be
achieved.

Poor ground conditions necessitate shorter spans; support needs to be installed closer to the face, and this can cause
blasting out of support units and choking of the throw. The stability of hangingwall over the raise area requires special
attention in up dip mining, since the raises are used extensively for man and material transport over the duration of
their life.

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In poor rock mass conditions, leaving the dip pillars next to the raises increases the stability of hangingwall over the
raise area. Down dip retreat mining provides better protection for raises, since the operational part of the raise is
always in the un-mined area.

Raise

Raise

9m
Raise
30 Stope
m Preparation
Drive
Raise

T-Way

Boxhole

Haulage Crosscut Winch cubby

A typical shallow up dip mining layout

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