LESSON 2—SOLUTION

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two (or more) substances, the composition of which
may vary between certain limits.

Binary solution

A solution consisting of two components is called binary solution.

The component which is present in large quantity is called solvent

The component which is small in quantity is called solute.

Type of Solutions
No. Solute Solvent Example
1 Gas Gas Air
2 Gas Liquid Aerated water (CO2 +
H2O)
3 Gas Solid Hydrogen in
palladium
4 Liquid Liquid Alcohol in water,
benzene in toluene
5 Liquid Solid Mercury in zinc
amalgam
6 Liquid Gas CO2 dissolved in
water
7 Solid Liquid Sugar in water,
common salt in water
8 Solid Gas Smoke
9 Solid Solid Various alloys
Methods of Expressing Concentration of Solutions

Various expressions for the concentrations of solutions can be summarised as

(i) Mass percentage (w / w %)

It is defined as the amount of solute present in 100 g of solution.

w/w%= weight of solute x 100

weight of solution

(ii) Volume Percentage (w / V%)

It is defined as the weight of solute present in 100 mL of solution.

w / v % = weight of solute X 100

weight of solution

Volume by Volume Percentage

The volume of solute present in 100 mL of solution. (v / v %)

v/v%= volume of solute X 100

volume of solution

(iii) Mole fraction (x)

It is defined as the ratio of the number of moles of a component to the total number of moles of
all the components.

For a binary solution, if the number of moles of A and B are nA and nB respectively, the mole
fraction of A will be
(iv) Parts per million (ppm)
It is defined as the parts of a component per million parts (106) of the solution. It is widely used
when a solute is present in trace quantities.
ppm = number of parts of the component / total number of parts of all the components * 106

(v) Molarity (M)

It is the number of moles of solute present in 1L(dm3) of the solution.
M= number of moles of solute

volume of solution (L)

M= mass of solute (in gram) X 1000

Molar mass of solute X volume of solution (in mL)

Molarity varies with temperature due to change in volume of solution.

[When molarity of a solution is 1 M, it is called a molar solution. 0.1 M solution is called a

decimolar solution while 0.5 M solution is known as semi molar solution]

Molarity = mass % X density X 10

Molar mass

Dilution law, M1 V1 = M2 V2 (for dilution from volume V1 to V2)

For reaction between two reactants, M1 V1 / n1 = M2 V2 / n2

where, n1 and n2 arc stoichiometric coefficient in balanced equation.

(vi) Molality (m) It is the number of moles of solute per kilogram of the solvent.
Molality = mass of solute in gram * 1000 / mol. wt. of solute * mass of solvent (in g)

Molality is independent of temperature.

[When solvent used is water, a molar (1 M) solution is more concentrated than a molal (1 M)
solution.]

[if water is used as a solvent, the solution is called aqueous solution and if not, the solution is
called non-aqueous solution.]

(B) Depending upon the amount of solute dissolved in a solvent we have the following types of
solutions:

(i) Unsaturated solution A solution in which more solute can be dissolved without raising
temperature is called an unsaturated solution.

(ii) Saturated solution A solution in which no solute can be dissolved further at a given
temperature is called a saturated solution.

(iii) Supersaturated solution A solution which contains more solute than that would be
necessary to saturate it at a given temperature is called a supersaturated solution.
Solubility
The maximum amount of a solute that can be dissolved in a given amount of solvent (generally
100 g) at a given temperature is termed as its solubility at that temperature.

The solubility of a solute in a liquid depends upon the following factors:

(i) Nature of the solute

(ii) Nature of the solvent
(iii) Temperature of the solution
(iv) Pressure (in case of gases)
Henry’s Law
Henry’s law states “the partial pressure (P) of the gas in vapour phase is proportional to the mole
fraction (x) of the gas in the solution” and is expressed as

p = KH . x
KH is Henrys constant
X is mole fraction of the gas in solution.
P is partial pressure of gas
Characteristics of Henrys constant
1.Greater the value of KH, lesser the solubility of the gas.
2.The value of KH decreases with increase in the temperature. Thus, aquatic species are more
comfortable in cold water [more dissolved O2] rather than Warm water.
Applications
1. In manufacture of soft drinks and soda water, CO2 is passed at high pressure to increase its
solubility.
2. To minimise the painful effects (bends) accompanying the decompression of deepsea divers,
O2 diluted with less soluble Helium gas is used as breathing gas.
3. At high altitudes, the partial pressure of O2 is less than that at the ground level. This leads to
low concentrations of O2 in the blood of climbers which causes ‘anoxia’.
Raoult’s Law
The Raoult’s law states “For a solution of two volatile liquids, the partial vapour pressure ofeach
liquid is directly proportional to its mole fraction.

For a solution containing two liquids A and B, the partial vapour pressure of liquid A

PA = P0AXA

And the partial vapour pressure of liquid B

PB = P0BXB

P0A = vapour pressure of component A in pure state.

PA = vapour pressure of component A in the solution.
P0B = vapour pressure of component B in pure state.
PB = vapour pressure of component B in the solution

The total pressure is equal to sum of partial pressure. Ptotal= PA+ PB

The composition ofliquids in the vapour phase in equilibrium with the solution is determined by
the partial pressure of components. If YA and YBare the mole fractions of component A and B
respectively in the vapour phase then using Dalton’s law of partial pressure,
YA = pA
Ptotal
YB = pB
Ptotal

Ideal Solutions: The solution which obeys Raoult's law over the entire range of concentration
when enthalpy of mixing and vol. of mixing of pure component to form solution is zero
Those solutions in which solute-solute (B-B) and solvent-solvent (A-A) interactions are almost
similar to solvent solute (A-B) interactions are called ideal solutions. These solutions satisfy the
following conditions
i) PA = P0AXA, PB = P0BXB

(ii) ΔHmix = 0 (No energy evolved or absorbed)

(iii) ΔVmix = 0 (No expansion or contraction on mixing:

Some solutions behave like nearly ideal solutions, e.g., benzene + toluene. n-hexane + n-heptane,
ethyl iodide + ethyl bromide, chlorobenzene + bromobenzene.

Non-ideal Solutions
Those solutions which shows deviation from Raoult’s law is called non-ideal solution.

For such solutions,

ΔHmix ≠ 0
ΔVmix ≠ 0
(a) Non-ideal solutions showing positive deviation
In such a case, the A – B interactions are weaker than A – A or B – B interactions and the
observed vapour pressure of each component and the total vapour pressure are greater than that
predicted by Raoult’s law.

For such solutions

Examples:
Ethanol + water, CS2 + Acetone, Ethanol + cyclohexane
(b) Non-ideal solution showing negative deviation In such a case, the A – B interactions are
stronger than A – A or B – B interactions and the observed vapour pressure of each component
and the total vapour pressure are lesser than that predicted by Raoult’s law.

Azeotropic Mixture
A mixture of two liquids which boils at a particular temperature like a pure liquid and distils over
in the same composition is known as constant boiling mixtures. These are formed by non-ideal
solutions.

(i) Minimum boiling azeotropes are formed by those liquid pairs which show positive deviation
from ideal behaviour. Such azeotropes have boiling points lower than either of the components,
e.g., C2H5OH (95.57%) + H2O (4.43%)(by mass).
(ii) Maximum boiling azeotropes are formed by those liquid pain; which show negative
deviation from ideal behaviour. Such azeotropes have boiling points higher than either of the
components. e.g., H2O(20.22O%)+ HCl (79.78%] by mass.
Colligative Properties
Colligative properties are those properties which depends only upon the number of solute
particles in a solution irrespective of their nature.
Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure
It is the ratio of lowering in vapour pressure to vapour pressure of pure solvent. The relative
lowering in vapour pressure of solution containing a nonvolatile solute is equal to the mole
fraction of solute in the solution.

Above expression is used to find the molecular weight of an unknown solute dissolved in a given
solvent. Where, WB and WA = mass of Solute and solvent respectively. MB and MA = molecular
weight of solute and solvent respectively.
Elevation in Boiling Point (ΔTb)
Boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which its vapour pressure becomes equal to the
atmospheric pressure. As the vapour pressure of a solution containing a nonvolatile solute is
lower than that of the pure solvent, it boiling point will be higher than that of the pure solvent as
shown in figure. The increase in boiling point is known as elevation in boiling point, ΔTb
ΔTb = Tb – T°b
ΔTb = Kb m (where; m = molality)
Kb is molal elevation constant or ebullioscopic constant. Molecular mass of solute can be
calculated as

where, WB and WA = mass of solute and solvent respectively.

Kb has units of K / m or K kg mol-1, for water, Kb = 0.52 K kg mol-1
Depression in Freezing Point (ΔTf)
Freezing point of a liquid is the temperature at which vapour pressure of the solvent in its liquid
and solid phase become equal. As we know that vapour pressure of solution containing non-
volatile solute is lower than that of pure solvent, solid form gets separated out at a lower
temperature as shown in the figure.
This decrease in freezing point of a liquid is known as depression in freezing point.

Depression in freezing point (ΔTf) = T°f – Tf

To find molecular mass of solute,

where, Kf is molal depression constant or cryoscopic constant.

Kf has units of K / m or K kg mol-1.
Ethylene glycol is usually added to water in the radiator to lower its freezing point. It is called
antifreeze solution.

[Common salt (NaCI) and anhydrous CaC12 are used to clear snow on the roads because they
depress the freezing point of water.]

Osmotic Pressure (π)

Osmosis is the phenomenon of spontaneous flow of the solvent molecules through a
semipermeable membrane from pure solvent to solution or from a dilute solution to concentrated
solution.
Some natural semipermeable membranes are animal bladder, cell membrane etc.

Osmosis may be

(i) Exosmosis It is outward flow of water or solvent from a cell through semipermeable
membrane.
(ii) Endosmosis It is inward flow of water or solvent from a cell through a semipermeable
membrane.
Osmotic pressure
The excess pressure that must be applied to a solution side to prevent osmosis i.e. to
stop the passage of solvent molecules into it through semi‐permeable membrane is called
osmotic pressure

where, d = density, R = solution constant,

T = temperature, MB = molar mass of solute

On the basis of osmotic pressure, -the solution can be

(i) Hypertonic solution A solution is called hypertonic if its osmotic pressure is higher than that
of the solution from which it is separated by a semipermeable membrane.
When a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, the fluid from the plant cell comes out and
cell shrinks, this phenomenon is called plasmolysis.

(ii) Hypotonic solution A solution is called hypotonic if its osmotic pressure is lower than that
of the solution from which it is separated by a semipermeable membrane.
(iii) Isotonic solution Two solutions are called isotonic if they exert the same osmotic pressure.
These solutions have same molar concentration. 0.91% solution of pure NaCl is isotonic with
human RBC’s.
Two solutions are isotonic if they have the same molar concentration, e.g., if x % solution of X is
isotonic with y % solution of Y, this means molar concentration of X = Molar concentration of Y
Osmotic pressure method is the best method for determining the molecular masses of polymers
since observed value of any other colligative property is too small to be measured with
reasonable accuracy.

Reverse osmosis When the external pressure applied on the solution is more than osmotic
pressure, the solvent flows from the solution to the pure solvent, I which is called reverse
osmosis. Desalination of sea water is done by reverse Osmosis.
Abnormal Molecular Masses
In some cases, observed colligative properties deviate from their normal calculated values due to
association or dissociation of molecules. As we know,

Colligative property ∝ 1 / MB higher and lower values of molar mass is observed in case of
association and dissociation respectively, e.g., in benzene, acetic acid gets associated, so its
observed molecular mass is 120. Similarly, KCI undergoes dissociation in aqueous solution, so
its observed molecular mass is 37.25.
These observed values are corrected by multiplying with van’t Hoff factor (i).

van’t Hoff Factor (i)

It is the ratio of observed value of colligative property to the calculated value of colligative
property.

i = observed value of colligative property / calculated value of colligative property

or i = normal molecular mass / observed molecular mass

or i = number of particles after association or dissociation / number of particles initially

So to correct the observed value of molar mass, van’t Hoff factor (i) must be included in
different expressions for colligative properties.
Degree of Dissociation (α) and van’t Hoff Factor (i)
(i) If one molecule of a substance gets dissociated into n particles or molecules and α is the
degree of dissociation then

Degree of Association (α) and van’t Hoff Factor (i)

If n molecules of a substance A associate to form An and α is the degree of association then
nA An

initially 1 mol 0

At equilibrium 1- α α/ n

Total number of moles at equilibrium = 1- α + α/ n

Vant Hoff factor i = 1- α + α/ n

1
α = i --1

1/n -1

van’t Hoff factor (i) > 1 for solutes undergoing dissociation and it is < 1 for solutes undergoing
association.
 PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTIONS (SOLVED)

1. 30 g of urea (M = 60 g 𝒎𝒐𝒍−𝟏 ) is dissolved in 846 g 0f water. Calculate

the vapour pressure of water for this solution if vapour pressure of pure
water at 298 K is 23.8 mm Hg.

To (freezing point of water) = 273.15K

Ts (freezing point of sucrose solution) = 269.15K

Weight of sucrose in solution = 10 g

Weight of glucose in solution = 10 g

Molar mass of sucrose = 342 g 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

Molar mass of glucose = 180 g mo𝑙 −1

Depression in freezing point

𝐾𝑓 ×𝑊𝐵 ×1000
∆𝑇𝑓 =
𝑊𝐴 ×1000

∆𝑇𝑓 ×𝑊𝐴 ×𝑀𝐵

𝐾𝑓 =
𝑊𝐵 ×1000

In case of sucrose solution

(273.15−269.15)×90×342
𝐾𝑓 = ………..(1)
10×1000

In case of glucose solution

(273.15−𝑥)×90×180
𝐾𝑓 = …………..(2)
10×1000

So 𝐾𝑓 is constant

Thus equation (1) = equation (2)

(273.15 − 269.15) × 90 × 342 273.15 − 𝑥 × 90 × 180
=
10 × 1000 10 × 1000
4 × 342 = (273.15 − 𝑥) × 180
 40×342
(273.15 − 𝑥) = = 7.6
180

𝑥 = 265.55 𝐾

So, freezing point of glucose solution = 265.55 K

2) Write two differences between ideal solutions and non-ideal solutions.

Ideal solution Non-ideal solution

i.The interactions between the i.The interactions between the
components are similar to those in the components are different from those of
pure components. the pure components.
ii.There is no volume change and ii.∆𝑉 ≠ 0, ∆𝐻 ≠ 0 on mixing the
enthalpy change on mixing the components.
components (∆𝑉 = 0, ∆𝐻 = 0)
Define the following terms :

Colligative properties

Colligative properties are those which depends on no. of moles of solute

irrespective of their nature.

Molality (m)

Molality is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved per kg of the

solvent. It is independent of temperature.
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠

Define the following terms:

(i) Ideal solution (ii) Molarity (M)

(i) Ideal solutions are those solutions that obeys Raoult’s law over entire range of
concentration. Example: Benzene and Toluene, n-heptane and n-hexane.

Molarity is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved per litre of

solution.
 𝑊𝑏 ×1000
𝑀=
𝑀𝑏 ×𝑉

2. (a) Calculate the freezing point of solution when 1.9 g (of MgCl2 (M =
95
g/mol) was dissolved in 50 g of water, assuming MgCl2, Undergoes
complete ionization.
(Kf for water = 1.86 K kg mo𝒍−𝟏 )

MgC𝑙2 on ionisation gives 3 ions each mole.

𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2 (𝑠) − −→ 𝑀𝑔2+ (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐶𝑙− (𝑞)

Hence Vant’s Hoff factor, i=3

∆𝑇𝑓 = 𝑇𝑓(𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟) − 𝑇𝑓(𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2 ) = 𝑖 × 𝐾𝑓 × 𝑚

1.9𝑔×1000𝑔
𝑚(𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦) = = 0.4 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
95𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 ×50𝑔

So, 𝑇𝑔 (water) = 273 K

Hence ∆𝑇𝑓 = 273 𝐾 − 𝑇𝑓(𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2 )

= 3 × 1.86𝐾. 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 × 0.4 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑘𝑔−1

= 2.23 𝐾.

T𝑇𝑓(𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2) = (273 − 2.23)𝐾 = 270.77𝐾

(b) (i) Out of 1 M glucose and 2 M glucose, which one has a higher boiling
point and why?

2M glucose will have higher boiling point because boiling point of a solution of a
non-volatile liquid increases with increase in concentration.

(ii)What happens when the external pressure applied becomes more

than the osmotic pressure of solution?
Answer : When the external pressure exerted on the solution is higher than the
osmotic pressure, pure solvent starts following out of the solution through the semi
permeable membrane. This process is known as reverse-osmosis.

OR
(a) When 2.56 g of sulphur was dissolved in 100 g of CS2, the freezing point
lowered by 0.383 K.
Calculate the formula for sulphur (Sx).
(kf for CS2 = 3.83 K kg mol𝑒 −1 , Atomic mass of sulphur = 32 g/mo𝑙 −1 ).

Answer : Weight of sulphur (𝑊2 ) = 2.5 g, 𝑊1 (C𝑆2 ) = 100 g,

∆𝑇𝑓 = 0.383 𝐾 𝑀2 = 32 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝑘𝑓 = 3.83 𝐾 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙

Applying the formula

𝑘𝑓×𝑊2 ×1000
∆𝑇𝑓 =
𝑊1 ×𝑀

3.83×2.56×1000
0.383 =
100×𝑀

𝑀 = 256𝑔⁄𝑀𝑜𝑙

Formula of sulphur : One atom of S = 32 g mo𝑙 −1

256 𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1
Atoms of S in molecule = =8
32 𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

Formula = 𝑆8

(b) Blood cells are isotonic with 0.9% sodium chloride solution what
happens if we place blood cells in a solution containing.
(i)1.2% sodium chloride solution ?

Answer : 1.2% Sodium chloride is hypertonic than blood cells, hence cells will
shrink. Plasmolyis will take place.
 (ii)0.4% sodium chloride solution ?

Answer : 0.4% Sodium chloride solution is hypotonic than blood cell, so cells will
swell. Endo osmosis will take place.

3. (i) On mixing liquid X and liquid Y, volume of the resulting solution

decreases. What type of deviation from Raoult’s law is shown by the
resulting solution ? What change in temperature would you observe after
mixing liquids X and Y ?

Answer : Negative deviation of Raoult’s law occurred. There is a elevation of

boiling point occurs i.e., temperature of the solution increase.

(ii)What happens when we place the blood cell in water (hypotonic solution)
? Give reason.

Answer : When blood cell is placed in water (hypotonic solution), water penetrate
to blood cell and blood cell gets bulged and then disrupt.

4. A solution is prepared by dissolving 10 g of non-volatile solute in 200 g of

water. It has a vapour pressure of 31.84 mm Hg at 308 K. Calculate the
molar mass of the solute.
(Vapour pressure of pure water at 308 K = 32 mm Hg)

Answer :
𝑃0 −𝑃 𝑤×𝑀
According to Raoult’s law, =
𝑃0 𝑚×𝑊

Where 𝑃0 → Vapour pressure of pure water

𝑃 → Vapour pressure of solution

w → Weight of solute

m → Molecular weight of solute

 W → Weight of solvent

M → Molecular weight of solvent

32−31.84 10×18
Thus, =
32 𝑚×200

Or, 0.005 m = 0.9 or, m = 180

Thus molar mass of the solute 180 gm./mol

5. What is meant by positive deviations from Raoult’s law ? Give an example.

What is the sign of ∆𝑚𝑖𝑥 𝐻 for positive deviation ?

Answer :

Positive deviation from Raoult’s law means that the observed vapour
pressure is greater than expected, and it occurs when the A-B attractions are
weaker than the average of the attractions in the pure component of the mixture.

For example : A mixture of ethanol and acetone shows a positive deviation

from Raoult’s law.

In case of solutions showing positive deviations, absorption of heat takes place;

i.e., ∆𝑚𝑖𝑥 𝐻 has a (+) sign.

OR
Define azeotropes. What type of azeotrope is formed by positive deviation
from Raoult’s law ? Give an example.

Answer :

Azeotropes are the binary mixtures which have the same composition in
liquid and vapour phases and boil at a constant temperature.

A minimum boiling azeotrope is formed by solutions showing a large

positive deviation from Raoult’s law at a specific composition.
Example : 𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻2 𝑂 (An ethanol-water mixture)

6. 3.9 g of benzoic acid dissolved in 49 g of benzene shows a depression in

freezing point of 1.62 K. Calculate the Van’t Hoff factor and predict the
nature of solute (associated or dissociated).
(Given : Molar mass of benzoic acid = 122 g mo𝑙 −1 , 𝐾𝑓 for benzene = 4.9 K
kg mo𝑙 −1 )

Answer : We know that the depression in freezing point by

Given : Mass of solute (𝑊𝐵 ) i.e., 𝐶6 𝐻5 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 = 3.9 𝑔

49
Mass of solvent (𝑊𝐴 ) = 49 g = 𝑘𝑔
1000

Molar mass of 𝐶6 𝐻5 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻(𝑀𝑆 ) = 122 𝑔⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝐾𝑓 = 4.9 𝐾 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙

∆𝑇𝑓 = 1.62 𝐾

7. (a) Define the following terms :

(i)Molarity

Answer : The number of moles of a solute present in one liter of solution is

known as its molarity.

(ii)Molal elevation constant (𝐾𝑏 )

Answer : The elevation in boiling point of a solution when one mole of

non-volatile solute is dissolved in one kilogram of a volatile solvent is known as
molal elevation constant (𝐾𝑏 ).
𝐾𝑏 ×𝑊𝐵 ×1000
∆𝑇𝑏 =
𝑀𝐵 ×𝑊𝐴

𝑊𝐵 = Mass of solute
 𝑀𝐵 = Molar mass of solute

𝑊𝐴 = Mass of solvent

(b) A solution containing 15 g of urea (molar mass = 60 g mo𝑙 −1 ) per litre of

solution in water has the same osmotic pressure (isotonic) as a solution of
glucose (molar mass = 190 g mo𝑙 −1 ) in water. Calculate the mass of
glucose present in one litre of its solution.

Answer : For isotonic solution,

𝜋1 = 𝜋2

𝐶1 = 𝐶2 (at same temp.)

Or 𝑛1 = 𝑛2 (at same Vol.)

15 𝑥
So, =
60 180

x = 45 g, mass of glucose per litre of solution.

OR

(a) What type of deviation is shown by a mixture of ethanol and acetone? Give
reason.

Answer : The mixture of ethanol and acetone shows positive deviation from
Raoult’s law. In pure ethanol hydrogen bond exists between the molecules. On
adding acetone to ethanol, acetone molecules get in between the molecules of
ethanol thus breaking some of the hydrogen bonds and weakening the molecular
interactions this lead to an increase in vapour pressure resulting in positive
deviation from Raoult’s law.
 (b) A solution of glucose (molar mass = 180 g mo𝑙 −1 ) in water is labeled as
10% (by mass). What would be the molality and molarity of the solution?
(Density of solution = 1.2 g m𝐿−1 )

Answer : Mass of glucose = 10 g

Mass of solution = 100 g

Mass of water = 100-10 = 90 g

100𝑔
Volume of solution = = 83.33 𝑚𝐿 = 0.083 𝐿
1.2 𝑔 𝑚𝐿−1

10 1000
Molarity = ( ). = 0.67 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐿−1
180 83.33

10 1000
Molality = . = 0.617 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑘𝑔−1
180 90

8. What are isotonic solutions?

Answer : Two or more solutions having same osmotic pressure are called
isotonic solutions. E.g. 0.5 M NaCl, 0.5 M KCl and 1M glucose are isotonic.

9. Calculate the mass of compound (molar mass = 256 g mo𝑙 −1 ) to be

dissolved in 75 g of benzene to lower its freezing point by 0.48 K (𝐾𝑓 = 5.12
K kg mo𝑙 −1 ).

Answer : Given, 𝑀𝐵 = 256 g mo𝑙 −1 , 𝑊𝐴 = 75 g

𝐾𝑓 = 5.12 kg mo𝑙 −1 , ∆𝑇𝑓 = 0.48 K

From the formula,

𝑊𝐵 1000
∆𝑇𝑓 = 𝐾𝑓 × ×
𝑀𝐵 𝑊𝐴

∆𝑇𝑓 ×𝑀𝐵 ×𝑊𝐴

Mass of solute, 𝑊𝐵 =
𝐾𝑓 ×1000

0.48×256×75
=
5.12×1000
 (0.48𝑘)(256 𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 )(0.075 𝑘𝑔)
=
(5.12 𝑘 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 )

= 1.8 g

10.Define an ideal solution and write one of its characteristics.

Answer : A solution which obeys Raoult’s law at all temperatures and

concentrations is called an ideal solution.

For an ideal solution, P = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝑃𝐵

𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝐴0 × 𝐴

𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝐵0 × 𝐵

So, P = 𝑃𝐴0 × 𝐴 + 𝑃𝐵0 × 𝐵

Where, P = Total pressure and 𝑃𝐴 , 𝑃𝐵 , 𝑃𝐴0 , 𝑃𝐵0 and 𝑋𝐴 , 𝑋𝐵 are partial pressure,
pressure of pure component and mole fraction of component A and B
respectively.

Characteristics : In ideal solution, no volume or enthalpy change takes place

while mixing to form such a solution, i.e., ∆𝐻𝑚𝑖𝑥 = 0 and ∆𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑥 = 0

11. State Henry’s law. What is the effect of temperature on the solubility of a
gas in a liquid.

Answer : Henry’s law states that “the partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase
(p) is directly proportional to the mole fraction of gas (x) in the solution.”

P = 𝐾𝐻𝑥 (𝐾𝐻 - Henry’s law constant)

The solubility of a gas in liquid decreases with rise in temperature as dissolution

of a gas in a liquid is an exothermic process.
12. State Raoult’s law for the solution containing volatile components. What is
the similarity between Raoult’s law and Henry’s law?

Answer : Raoult’s law states that the partial pressure of the vapour of a volatile
component in a solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction in the
solution.

Raoult’s law is a special case of Henry’s law.

13. (a) State Raoult’s law for a solution containing volatile components. How
does Raoult’s law become a special case of Henry’s law?

Answer : Raoult’s law states that the partial pressure of a vapour of a

component in the solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction in the
solution.
Raoult’s law becomes a special case of Henry’s law as it states
that the partial pressure of gas in vapour phase is directly proportional to the
mole fraction of the gas in the solution.

(b)1.00 g of a non-electrolyte solute dissolved in 50 g of benzene lowered

the freezing point of benzene by 0.40 K. Find the molar mass of the solute.
(𝐾𝑓 for benzene = 5.12 K kg/ mol)

1000 . 𝐾𝑓 . 𝑤2 1000×5.12×1
Answer : M = =
𝑤1 . ∆𝑇𝑓 50×0.4
M = 256 g

OR
(a) Define the following terms :
(i)Ideal solution
Answer : A solution that obeys Raoult’s law over all ranges of
temperature and concentration and shows no attractive forces between
components, is called as ideal solution.
 (ii)Azeotrope
Answer : A liquid mixture which distill at constant temperature without
undergoing any change in its composition is called Azeotropes.

(iii)Osmotic pressure
Answer : The minimum external pressure required to prevent osmosis is
known as osmotic pressure.

(b) A solution of glucose (𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 ) in water is labelled as 10% by weight.

What would be the molality of the solution?

Answer : Given :
Molecular Mass of Glucose (𝑀𝐵 ) = 180
% by wt = (𝑊𝐵 ) = 10
Molality (m) = ?
𝑊𝐵 ×1000
We know, m=
𝑀𝐵 ×𝑊𝐴
𝑊𝐴 = 100 − 10 = 90
10×1000
m=
90×180

m= 0.617 m

14. (a) Define the following terms :

(i)Mole fraction
Answer : The ratio of number of moles of a solute (components of a
mixture) to the total number of moles in the mixture is called mole fraction
𝑛 𝑛
𝑥𝐴 = 𝐴 or 𝑥𝐵 = 𝐵
𝑛𝐴 +𝑛𝐵 𝑛𝐴 +𝑛𝐵

(ii)Ideal solution
 Answer: A solution that obeys Raoult’s law at all temperature and
concentration is called an ideal solution.
Given : 𝑊2 = 15.0 𝑔 ∆𝑇𝑓 = 0.34℃
𝑊1 = 450 𝑔 𝐾𝑓 = 1.86𝐾 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

(b)15.0 g of an unknown molecular material was dissolved in 450 g of

water. The resulting solution was found to freeze at -0.34℃. What is the molar
mass of this material? (𝐾𝑓 for water = 1.86 K kg mo𝑙 −1 )
1000.𝐾𝑓×𝑊2
Answer : from the formula, ∆𝑇𝑓 =
𝑊1 ×𝑀2

1000𝐾𝑓 ×𝑊2 1000×1.86×15

𝑀2 = =
∆𝑇𝑓 ×𝑊1 0.34×450

𝑀2 = 182.35𝑔⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙

OR

(a) Explain the following :

(i)Henry’s law about dissolution of a gas in a liquid.

Answer : Henry’s law states that at a constant temperature, the solubility of a gas
in a liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas. i.e., 𝑝 = 𝐾𝐻𝑥

(ii)Boiling point elevation constant for a solvent

Answer : The boiling point elevation constant for a solvent is defined as the
elevation in boiling point when the molality of the solution is unity.

(b) A solution of glycerol (𝐶3 𝐻8 𝑂3 ) in water was prepared by dissolving some

glycerol in 500 g of water. This solution has a boiling point of 100.42℃ .
 What mass of glycerol was dissolved to make this solution? (𝐾𝑏 for water =
0.512 K kg mo𝑙 −1 )

Answer : Given, 𝑊1 = 500 𝑔

𝐾𝑏 = 0.512 𝐾 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

∆𝑇𝑏 = (100.42 − 100)℃

= 0.42℃
1000×𝐾𝑏 ×𝑊2
∆𝑇𝑏 =
𝑊1 ×𝑊2
∆𝑇𝑏 ×𝑊1 ×𝑀2 0.42×500×92
𝑊2 = =
100×𝐾𝑏 1000×0.512
𝑊2 = 37.7𝑔

15. A 1.00 molal aqueous solution of trichloroacetic acid (CC𝑙3 COOH) is

heated to its boiling point. The solution has the boiling point of 100.18℃.
Determine the Van’t Hoff factor for trchloroacetic acid. (𝐾𝑏 for water =
0.512 K kg mo𝑙 −1 )

Answer : Given, ∆𝑇𝑏 = 373.18 − 373 = 0.18 𝐾

𝐾𝑏 = 0.512 𝐾 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

m= 1

∆𝑇𝑏 = 𝑖 𝐾𝑏 𝑚
∆𝑇𝑏 0.18
𝑖= = = 0.35
𝐾𝑏 𝑚 0.512×1

OR

Define the following terms :

(i) Mole fraction

Answer : Ratio of the number of moles of a component in a mixture to the total
number of moles in the mixture is called the mole fractions of that component.
It is denoted by ‘x’.

(ii) Isotonic solutions

Answer: Two solutions having the same molar concentration are said to be
isotonic solutions. Eg : all intravenous injections must be isotonic with body
fluids.

(iii) Van’t Hoff factor

Answer : The ratio of observed colligative property to the calculated colligative

property is called the Van’t Hoff factor. It is denoted by ‘i ‘.

(iv) Ideal solution

Answer : Solutions that follow Raoult’s law at all temperatures and

concentrations are called ideal solutions.

16.15.0 g of an unknown molecular material was dissolved in 450 g of water.

The resulting solution was found to freeze at -0.34℃. What is the molar
mass of this material? (𝐾𝑓 for water = 1.86 K kg mo𝑙 −1 )

Answer Given, 𝑊1 = 15 𝑔, 𝑊2 = 450 𝑔

𝑘𝑔
𝐾𝑓 = 1.86 𝐾 𝑚𝑜𝑙

∆𝑇𝑓 = −0.34℃
 𝐾𝑓 × 𝑊2 × 1000
∆𝑇𝑓 =
𝑊1 × 𝑀2
𝐾𝑓 𝑊2 ×1000 1.86×15×1000
𝑀2 = =
𝑊1 ×∆𝑇𝑓 450×0.34

𝑀2 = 182.35𝑔⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙

17. 18 g of glucose, 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 (molar mass = 180g/ mol) is dissolved in 1 kg of

water in a sauce pan. At what temperature will this solution boil ?
(𝐾𝑏 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 0.52 𝐾 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 , 𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
= 373.15 𝐾)

Answer : Given,

Weight of the solvent (𝐻2 𝑂) (𝑊1 ) = 1 kg

Weight of solute (𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 ) (𝑊2 ) = 18 gm

Molar mass of solute (𝑀2 ) = 180 g/ mol

𝐾𝑏 = 0.52 𝐾 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

𝑇𝑏0 = 373.15 𝐾
𝐾𝑏 ×1000×𝑊2
We know that, ∆𝑇𝑏 =
𝑀2 ×𝑊1

0.52×1000×18
=
180×1000

= 0.052 K

So, ∆𝑇𝑏 = 𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇𝑏0 = 0.052

0.052 = 𝑇𝑏 − 373.15

So, 𝑇𝑏 = 373.202 𝐾

Hence, boiling point of solution is 373.15 K.

 ASSIGNMENT

Q1. Define mole fraction

Q2. What type of intermolecular attractive interaction exists in the pair of methanol and acetone?

Q3. What do you understand by “colligative properties” ?

Q4. Why is the vapour pressure of a solution of glucose in water lower than that of water?

Q5. State any two characteristics of ideal solutions.

Q6. Some liquids on mixing form “azeotrpoes”. What are azeotropes ?

Q7. Define molal elevation constant or ebullioscopic constant .

Q8. What is “reverse osmosis “ ?

Q9. Derive an equation to express that relative lowering of vapour pressure for a solution is
equal to the mole fraction of the solute in it when the solvent alone is volatile.

Q10. State Raoult's law for the solution containing volatile components. What is the similarity
between Raoult's law and Henry's law ?

Q11. Boiling point of water at 750 mm Hg is 99.63oC. How much sucrose is to be added to
500g of water such that it boils at 100oC ?

Q12. 18 g of glucose , C6H12O6 (Molar Mass = 180 g mol1) is dissolved in 1 kg of water in a

sauce pan. At what temperature will this solution boil ? (Kb for water = 0.52 K kg mol1,
boiling point of pure water = 373.15 K )

Q13. After removing the outer shell of the two eggs in dil. HCl, one is placed in distilled water
and the other in a saturated solution of NaCl . What will you observe and why ?
Q14. Heptane and octane form an ideal solution. At 373 K, the vapour pressures of the two
liquid components are 105.2 kPa and 46.8 kPa, respectively. What will be the vapour pressure of
a mixture of 26.0g of heptane and 35.0 g of octane ?

(MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTION)

MCQ 1. Which of the following units is useful in relating concentration of solution with its
vapour pressure?

(i) mole fraction (ii) parts per million (iii) mass percentage (iv) molality

2. On dissolving sugar in water at room temperature solution feels cool to touch. Under which of
the following cases dissolution of sugar will be most rapid?

(i) Sugar crystals in cold water. (ii) Sugar crystals in hot water. (iii) Powdered sugar in cold
water. (iv) Powdered sugar in hot water.

3. At equilibrium the rate of dissolution of a solid solute in a volatile liquid solvent is

__________.

(i) less than the rate of crystallisation (ii) greater than the rate of crystallisation

(iii) equal to the rate of crystallisation (iv) zero

4. A beaker contains a solution of substance ‘A’. Precipitation of substance ‘A’ takes place
when small amount of ‘A’ is added to the solution. The solution is _________.

(i) saturated (ii) supersaturated (iii) unsaturated (iv) concentrated

5. Maximum amount of a solid solute that can be dissolved in a specified amount of a given
liquid solvent does not depend upon ____________.

(i) Temperature (ii) Nature of solute (iii) Pressure (iv) Nature of solvent

6. Low concentration of oxygen in the blood and tissues of people living at high altitude is due to
____________.
(i) low temperature (ii) low atmospheric pressure (iii) high atmospheric pressure (iv) both low
temperature and high atmospheric pressure

7. Considering the formation, breaking and strength of hydrogen bond, predict which of the
following mixtures will show a positive deviation from Raoult’s law?

(i) Methanol and acetone. (ii) Chloroform and acetone. (iii) Nitric acid and water. (iv) Phenol
and aniline.

8. Colligative properties depend on ____________.

(i) the nature of the solute particles dissolved in solution. (ii) the number of solute particles in
solution. (iii) the physical properties of the solute particles dissolved in solution. (iv) the nature
of solvent particles.

9. Which of the following aqueous solutions should have the highest boiling point? (i) 1.0 M
NaOH (ii) 1.0 M Na2SO4 (iii) 1.0 M NH4NO3 (iv) 1.0 M KNO3

10. The unit of ebulioscopic constant is _______________. (i) K kg /mol or K (molality)–1 (ii)
mol kg/ K or K–1(molality) (iii) kg mol–1 K–1 or K–1(molality)–1 (iv) K mol kg–1 or K
(molality)

11. In comparison to a 0.01 M solution of glucose, the depression in freezing point of a 0.01 M
MgCl2 solution is _____________.

(i) the same (ii) about twice (iii) about three times (iv) about six times

12. An unripe mango placed in a concentrated salt solution to prepare pickle, shrivels because
_____________.

(i) it gains water due to osmosis. (ii) it loses water due to reverse osmosis. (iii) it gains water
due to reverse osmosis. (iv) it loses water due to osmosis.

13. At a given temperature, osmotic pressure of a concentrated solution of a substance

_____________. (i) is higher than that at a dilute solution. (ii) is lower than that of a dilute
solution. (iii) is same as that of a dilute solution. (iv) cannot be compared with osmotic pressure
of dilute solution.

14. Which of the following statements is false?

(i) Two different solutions of sucrose of same molality prepared in different solvents will have
the same depression in freezing point.

(ii) The osmotic pressure of a solution is given by the equation Π = CRT ( where C is the
molarity of the solution).

(iii) Decreasing order of osmotic pressure for 0.01 M aqueous solutions of barium chloride,
potassium chloride, acetic acid and sucrose is BaCl2 > KCl > CH3COOH > sucrose.

(iv) According to Raoult’s law, the vapour pressure exerted by a volatile component of a
solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction in the solution.

15. The values of Van’t Hoff factors for KCl, NaCl and K2SO4, respectively, are
_____________.

(i) 2, 2 and 2 (ii) 2, 2 and 3 (iii) 1, 1 and 2 (iv) 1, 1 and 1

16. Which of the following statements is false?

(i) Units of atmospheric pressure and osmotic pressure are the same.

(ii) In reverse osmosis, solvent molecules move through a semipermeable membrane from a
region of lower concentration of solute to a region of higher concentration.

(iii) The value of molal depression constant depends on nature of solvent.

(iv) Relative lowering of vapour pressure, is a dimensionless quantity.

17. Value of Henry’s constant KH ____________.

(i) increases with increase in temperature.

(ii) decreases with increase in temperature. (iii) remains constant. (iv) first increases then
decreases.
18. The value of Henry’s constant KH is _____________.
(i) greater for gases with higher solubility. (ii) greater for gases with lower solubility. (iii)
constant for all gases. (iv) not related to the solubility of gases.
19. If two liquids A and B form minimum boiling azeotrope at some specific composition then
_______________.
(i) A–B interactions are stronger than those between A–A or B–B.
(ii) vapour pressure of solution increases because more number of molecules of liquids A and B
can escape from the solution.
(iii) vapour pressure of solution decreases because less number of molecules of only one of the
liquids escape from the solution.
(iv) A–B interactions are weaker than those between A–A or B–B.
20. We have three aqueous solutions of NaCl labeled as ‘A’, ‘B’ and ‘C’ with concentrations
0.1M, 0.01M and 0.001M, respectively. The value of van’t Hoff factor for these solutions will be
in the order______.
(i) iA < iB < iC (ii) iA > iB > iC (iii) iA = iB = iC (iv) iA < iB > Ic