Module 1

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

Module 1
Civil engineering discipline and building science

Introduction to civil engineering

Civil engineering is one of the oldest branch of engineering which involves surveys, planning,
designing, construction and maintenance/repairs for any construction project including supervision
for expected quality of materials of construction and strength, stability, durability through
supervision as well as efficient construction management techniques.
Scope of different fields of Civil Engineering:
• Surveying
• Structural Engineering
• Geotechnical Engineering
• Hydraulics and Water resources
• Transportation Engineering
• Environmental Engineering
• Construction Planning and Project Management

1. SURVEYING:
Surveying is the technique of determining the relative position of different features on, above or
beneath the surface of the earth by means of direct or indirect measurements and representing them
on a sheet of paper known as plan or map.
• To determine the relative position of any objects or points of the earth.
• To determine the distance and angle between different objects.
• To prepare a map or plan to represent an area on a horizontal plan.
• To develop methods through the knowledge of modern science and the technology and use
them in the field.
• To solve measurement problems in an optimal way.

2. STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING:
Structural engineering is based upon physical laws and empirical knowledge of the structural
performance of different materials and geometries. It utilises a number of simple structural elements
to build complex structural systems.
• It deals with analysis and design of structures
• Sections of structural elements like beams, columns, slabs, etc are designed
• It includes design of reinforced cement concrete (RCC) and steel structures
• Structural analysis is done to calculate stresses in structural components on the basis of loads,
acting on structures
• Design of multi-storeyed buildings, towers, retaining walls, water tanks, bridges requires skills
and knowledge of structural engineering.

3. GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING:
Geotechnical engineering is the subject that deals with the properties of soil (sand, silt and clay) in
terms of construction technology, and assessment of slope stability and the risk of landslides.
The study of properties and behaviour of soil under loads and changes in environmental conditions.
• It deals with the investigation of soil and bedrock.
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• It helps to select the type of foundation.
• It deals with the design foundation for buildings, dams, retaining walls, bridges, road pavements.
• It helps to study the effect of soil.
• It deals with the study of compaction of soil.

4. HYDRAULICS AND WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING:

Hydraulic engineering is the application of the principles of fluid mechanics to problems dealing
with the collection, storage, control, transport, regulation, measurement, and use of water.

HYDRAULICS ENGINEERING:
• It deals with the study of mechanics of water and its flow characteristics.
• It deals with the planning and manage the flow and storage of water.
• It includes design of hydraulic structures like dams, canals, etc.
• Design of hydro power plants for generation of electricity.

Water resource engineering deals with planning, designing and developing water resources.

WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING:

• It includes design of reservoir capacity to store the water.
• It also includes watershed planning, water harvesting techniques.
• It also deals with the study of measurement of rainfall, study of rainfall, runoff and flood control.

5. TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING:
Transportation engineering involves planning, design, operation, and maintenance of transportation
systems to help build smart, safe, and liveable communities.
• It includes roadways, railways, airways and waterways.
• Role of transportation engineer is to construct facilities related to each mode of transportation.
• It helps to improve the crucial sections of railways and roads.
• It helps to develop the roads to remote places.
• Ports and harbours should be designed to accommodate.
• It involves geometric design of roadways.
• It involves accident study for safe and comfort transport system.
• For an airport, the runway and other facilities such as taxiways, terminal buildings, control
towers, etc should be properly designed.

6. ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING:
Environmental engineering deals with the study of the natural environment/ecosystems, inter-
relation between biotic and abiotic factors, safety of people against different types of pollution and
treatment disposal of wastes.
• It deals with pollution control (water, air, noise and land) and public health engineering.
• It deals with the supply of purified water to the public.
• It involves measurement (quantification) of industrial pollutants.
• Research and development for recycling/ reusing the mass or energy from wastes.
• Conservation and preservation of natural resources and environment (ecosystems).
• Design, erection/construction and maintenance of water filters and water supply schemes (pipe
lines).

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7. CONSTRUCTION PLANNING & PROJECT ENGINEERING:
Construction planning is a fundamental and challenging activity in the management and execution
of construction projects that involves choice of technology, definition of work tasks, estimation of
the required resources and durations for individual tasks, and the identification of any interactions
among the different work tasks.
• It deals with the planning of different activities like manpower, materials and machinery to
complete the construction economically and within time.
• It gives guidelines regarding the execution of construction work to be carried out.
• It helps in preparing construction schedule (Schedule is a systematic path of different activities
carried out one after the other).
• It helps in proper management of materials, labour and equipments.
• Due to proper construction management there is overall control on work and finance.

Basic Materials of Construction

1.Brick:
Brick is a small rectangular block typically made of fired or sun dried clay, used in construction.

Uses/ Applications:
• First class and second class bricks are used for permanent structures such as buildings, dams,
roads, bridge piers, etc.
• First class bricks are also used for architectural effects on structures.
• Second class bricks are used in construction but the surface should be plastered evenly because of
the irregular size and shape of bricks.
• Third class or sun dried bricks are used only for temporary structures.
• Broken bricks are used as aggregate for foundation and road works.
• Manufacture of surki (powdered bricks) to be used in lime plaster and lime concrete.

Characteristics/ Requirements/ Properties of good bricks:

• Bricks should be of uniform colour, size and shape. Standard size of brick should be maintained.
• They should be sound and compact.
• They should be free from cracks and other flaws such as air bubbles, stone nodules, etc with
sharp and square edges.
• They should not absorb more than 1/5 of their own weight of water when immersed in water for
24 hours (15% to 20% of dry weight).
• The compressive strength of bricks should be in the range of 15 - 35 N/mm2.
• They should not change in volume when wetted.
• They should neither be over burnt or under burnt.
• They should be sound proof (i.e., no voids should be present)
• They should be non-inflammable and incombustible.
• They should be free from lime pitting (i.e., imperfection on the surface due to presence of large
lime particles)

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2. Cement & Mortars:

Cement: Cement is powder of alumina, silica, lime, iron oxide, and magnesium oxide burned
together in a kiln and finely pulverised and used as an ingredient of mortar and concrete.

Uses of cement:
• Production of concrete and mortar.
• Cement mortar can be used for masonry work, plaster, pointing, etc.
• Used in concrete for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels, beams, stairs, columns, etc.
• Used for the preparation of foundations, watertight floors, footpaths, etc.
• Used for manufacturing precast pipes, garden seats, flower pots, dust bins, fencing posts, etc.

Requirements/ characteristics of good cement:

• Provides strength to masonry.
• Stiffens or hardens early.
• Possesses good plasticity.
• Excellent building material.
• Easily workable.
• Good moisture resistant.

Types of cement:
• Ordinary Portland cement (OPC): It is a fine powder that when mixed with water becomes the
binding material that holds aggregates together in concrete.
• Portland pozzolana cement (PPC): Portland pozzolana cement is created by grinding
pozzolanic clinker, sometimes with additives of gypsum or calcium sulfate, with ordinary
Portland cement.
• Rapid hardening cement: It is used for its high strength in the early stages of the hardening
process. It has increased lime content, combined with a finer grinding process, for better strength
development. It is used for projects with early-stage formwork removal or when the focus is on
increasing construction rates and decreasing costs.
• Extra rapid hardening cement: It is prepared by adding calcium chloride to rapid-hardening
cement. This cement type may be useful for cold-weather concrete projects due to its fast setting
rate.
• Low heat cement: It is produced by monitoring the percentage of tricalcium aluminate in the
mixture. It helps to maintain low heat during the hydration process, making this more resistant to
sulfates and less reactive. It may be suitable for mass concrete construction or projects to help
prevent cracking due to heat.
• Sulfates resisting cement: It helps reduce the risk of sulfate side effects on concrete. It is used
for constructing foundations in soil with high sulfate content, canal linings, culverts and retaining
walls.
• Quick setting cement: This concrete sets and becomes stronger quickly. It is beneficial for time-
sensitive projects or those located near stagnant or running water.
• Blast furnace slag cement: It is manufactured by grinding clinker with up to 60% slag. It is less
expensive to produce and thus a good choice for financially conscious projects.
• High alumina cement: It is created by melting bauxite and lime together and grinding it with
clinker. It is used for projects where cement is subject to extreme weather like high temperatures
or frost.

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• White cement : It is a type of OPC that is white instead of grey. It is expensive and often used in
architectural projects and interior and exterior decorative projects like designing garden floors,
floors, swimming pools and ornamental concrete products.

Mortar: Mortar is paste (capable of setting and hardening) obtained by adding water to a mixture
of fine aggregates such as sand and binding material (ex: clay, gypsum, lime or cement or their
combinations).

Uses of mortar:
• To bind masonry blocks like stones, bricks and to plaster slabs and walls.
• Used to give neat finishes to the wall, concrete surfaces, and pointed joints to masonry.
• Used to prepare concrete blocks, to fill joints and cracks in walls and as a filler material in stone
masonry and ferro-cement works.

Requirements/ characteristics of good mortar:

• Possess adhesion quality.
• Mortar should be water resistant.
• Deformability of mortar should be low.
• It should be economical.
• It should be easily workable in the site condition.
• Workability of mortar should be good. It helps the mortar to be paved thinly and evenly.
• Possess high durability.
• To improve the speed of construction, good mortar should set quickly.
• Cracks should not be developed in the joint formed by the mortar.

Types of mortar:
• Cement mortar : Cement mortar is a type of mortar where cement is used as binding material and
sand is used as fine aggregate.
• Lime mortar : Lime mortar is a type of mortar where lime (fat lime or hydraulic lime) is used as
binding material and sand is used as fine aggregate.
• Gypsum mortar : Gypsum mortar, also called plaster of Paris, was used in the construction of
many ancient structures. It is made from gypsum, which requires a lower firing temperature.
• Mud mortar : Mud mortar is a type of mortar where mud is used as binding material and sawdust,
rice husk or cow-dung is used as fine aggregate. Mud mortar is useful where lime or cement is
not available.
• Composite mortar : It is a composite form of a mixture of a fine aggregate, a binder and water
which creates a paste used in masonry construction as a bedding and adhesive to bind and fill the
gaps between adjacent blocks of brick, concrete or stone.

3. Plain Concrete:
Concrete is a construction material composed of cement, fine aggregates (sand) and coarse
aggregates mixed with water which hardens with time.

Properties:
• It should have high compressive strength.
• It should be able to resist climatic and chemical actions to be durable.
• It should be highly workable. It should be easy to mix, manage and transport. It should be free
from bleeding and segregation.
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• It should be highly resistive towards the fire to prevent problems like firing, spalling of concrete,
etc.

Uses:
• Used in the construction of foundations.
• Used as bed concrete below wall footings, column footings and on walls below beams.
• Used to construct sill to obtain hard and even surface at window and ventilator sills.
• Used as coping concrete over the parapet and compound walls.
• Used for flagging the area around the buildings.
• Used to construct pavements.
• Used as plinth protection.
• Used in the construction of storm/ sewer at drains and small retaining walls.

4. Reinforced Concrete:
RCC is a composite building material consisting of concrete reinforced with steel.
In RCC, steel is embedded in concrete in such a manner that the two materials ac together in
resisting forces. The reinforcing steel absorbs the tensile and shear stresses in a concrete structure.

Properties:
• It has good strength in tension and compression.
• It is economical.
• It is a versatile building material (can be placed into various shapes, form, surface, texture and
size at construction site).
• It is highly durable.
• It is fire resistant.
• It has ease of construction.

Uses:
• RCC is used for the construction of roof slabs, columns, beams and footings in residential and
commercial structures.
• It is used for the construction of bridges of small, medium and long spans resulting in
aesthetically superior and economical structures in comparison with steel bridges.
• It is used in the construction of roads that is designed to carry heavy traffic loads.
• It is used in the construction of almost all types of foundation of structures.
• Pipes and conduits have been constructed from reinforced concrete.

5. Prestressed Concrete:
PSC is a structural material that allows for predetermined, engineering stresses to be placed in
members to counteract the stresses that occur when they are subjected to loading.
The principle behind prestressed concrete is that the compressive stresses induced by. High strength
steel tendons in a concrete member before loads are applied will balance the tensile stresses
imposed in the member during the service.

Properties:
• It has lighter members hence saving in materials.
• PSC is economical when compared to RCC.
• It possess improved resistance to shearing force.
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• PSC members are stiffer than RCC members.

Uses:
• PSC is used in the construction of superstructure of bridges.
• Used in the construction of runways.
• Used in the construction of water tanks.
• Used in the construction of tall columns and retaining walls.

6. Structural Steel:
Steel is a kind of alloy that is made of iron and carbon. Due to its high strength it is often used to
build the framework of skyscrapers.

Properties:
It has high density value.
It has high tensile strength and yield strength.
It has high strength to weight ratio.
It has high high durability and ductility.
It is corrosive resistive.
It has high hardness property.

Uses:
• Used as reinforcement in RCC structures.
• Used to construct high rise buildings.
• Used to construct industrial buildings.
• Used to construct residential buildings.
• Used to construct bridges.

Types:
Based on the physical properties and their composition
• Stainless steel (Steel in combination with chromium)
• Carbon steel (Combination of iron and carbon)
• Alloy steel (Carbon steel along with various other alloying elements)
• Tool steel (Carbon alloy steel well suited to manufacture tools)

7. Construction Chemicals:
Construction chemicals are compounds that are added to concrete and mortar to enhance
compatibility with the structure of buildings. These chemical substances facilitate the reduction of
abrasions and increase in the bond strength, thus increasing the service period of the buildings.

Types:
• Concrete admixtures: Concrete chemicals or admixtures are added to concrete with cement,
aggregate, and water that helps in modifying or altering the properties of the concrete like curing
temperature range, workability, set colour, or time.
• Surface retarders: These are applied to fresh concrete to chemically delay the set of the surface
mortar. This prevents the premature hardening of the cement slurry before it reaches the area to
be cemented.
• Adhesives and sealants: Adhesives have qualities such as weatherproofing and they are rich in
bonding properties. It has a sufficient level of elasticity to handle the repeated contraction and
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expansion caused by temperature fluctuations. It is also used for panel fixing, tile fixing and floor
covering. Sealants are used to block an opening surface to prevent liquid or gas leakage, to seal
little cracks so that moisture, oxygen, dust particles cannot damage the construction.
• Protective coatings: In order to prevent the risk of corrosion, a layer of the specific material
called as protective coating is applied to the surface of another material. The coating is used to
meet requirements such as high durability, decorative or customised appearance, fire-proofing,
sound insulation, heat insulation, great strength, etc.
• Flooring compounds: Floor levelling compounds are used over a plywood subfloor to create a
level surface that will stick firmly to new flooring.
• Waterproofing chemicals: These chemicals are used for the structures which are constantly
dealing with liquids. The waterproofing compounds form membranes on the concrete surfaces to
protect them from ingress of water.
• Chemicals to repair and for maintenance of the structure: These are added to mortar to
increase characteristics like adhesion, toughness, flexural or tensile strength, and resistance to
chemicals. These improve the workability and adhesion of non-hardened mortar and require less
water t, which results in fewer pores and stronger cements, subsequently reducing water ingress
and permeability to salts.

Uses:
• To improve workability
• To increase efficiency
• To add effectiveness
• To protect any part of any structure
• To accelerate the speed of construction work.

Structural elements of a building

1. Foundation
• Foundation (substructure) - Lowest artificially prepared parts of the structure which are in direct
contact with the ground and which transmit the loads of the structures to the ground.
• Foundation bed / Foundation soil - The soil ground on which the foundations rest and ultimately
bears the load and interacts with the foundation of the building.
• Footing - Lowermost portion of the foundation which is in direct contact with the sub-soil.

Types of foundation:
• Isolated footing: It is used to transmit and distribute loads of single columns to the soil. It is used
in the case of light column loads, when columns are not closely spaced, and in the case of good
homogeneous soil.
• Wall footings: It is used to support structural or non structural walls to transmit and distribute the
loads of the soil. All footing runs along the direction of the wall.
• Combined footing: It is provided when the columns are closely spaced i.e., when their footing
overlaps with each other. It is also used when the soil bearing capacity is low.
• Cantilever or Strap footing: When two or more footing is connected by a beam, it is known as a
combined footing, and the beam connecting footing is known as a strap.
• Raft or Mat foundation: It is a continuous slab that covers the entire area of building a
foundation and transfers its weight to the ground.

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Isolated footing Wall footing Combined footing

Strap footing Mat footing

Functions of foundation:
• To distribute the total load coming on the structure onto a sub-soil to reduce intensity of load.
• To support the structures.
• To provide lateral stability to the structures against horizontal forces like wind, rain, earthquake,
etc.
• To prepare a level and hard surface for concreting and masonry work.
• To distribute the non-uniform load of the superstructure evenly to the sub-soil.
• To prevent or minimise cracks due to the movement of moisture in case of weak or poor soils.
• To provide structural safety against undermining or scouring due to animals, flood water, etc.

2. Plinth
• Plinth - Part of the superstructure located between the ground level and the floor level.
• Height of the plinth should be less than 45cm.
• Height of the plinth depends upon architectural elevation, ground level, highest flood level, etc.

Functions of plinth:
• Evenly distributes and disperses load of the columns to the foundations.
• Acts as a barrier or a retaining wall that keeps the concrete filled ground floor below the raised
floor of the building.

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• Plinth prevents the dampness and moisture of the ground floor to reach the building’s top
structure.
• It gives strength and durability to the residential unit.
• Prevents cracks in the building when the foundation suffers from settlement.

3. Lintel
• Lintel is a horizontal member which is placed across an opening to support the portion of the
structure above it.
• Lintels are easy and simple in construction.
• The ends of the lintel is built into masonry and thus the load carried by lintels is transferred to the
masonry in jambs.

Functions of lintel:
• Supports the walls above the openings like doors, windows, etc.
• Provides the safeguard of the windows and doors.
• Withstands the imposed loads coming from the bricks above or block including the roofing
members.
• Transfers all imposed loads to the side walls.
• Can be used as decorative architectural element.

4.Chejja:
A sloping or horizontal structural projection usually provided over openings on external walls to
provide protection from sun and rain.

Functions of chejja:
• Protects the house from external sunlight.
• Protects the house by providing a barrier for rain water to enter.
• Can be used to place the compressor of AC.
• Protects the wooden windows from rain and sun.
• Serves as an aesthetic decoration to the building.

5. Masonry wall:
• Masonry is a term to indicate the part of the construction that uses brick, concrete blocks,
structural clay tile, and stone.
• These materials are held together with mortar.

Functions of masonry wall:

• Acts as a architectural effect.
• Granting fire and weather protection.
• Providing acoustic and thermal insulation.
• Subdividing space
• Supporting loads.

6. Column:
Column is a vertical compression member that spans from the substructure to the superstructure and
transfers load from the top of the structure to the foundation.

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Functions of columns:
• Column transfers the weight of the structure above to the other elements below.
• Columns chiefly support axial compressive loads.
• Load is transferred parallel to the longitudinal axis as compression.
• Columns are used to support floor/roof beams and the columns of the floor above.
• The columns at the bottom floor of a multi-storied building must carry the accumulative weight
of all the floors above.
• Location of the columns ideally should be consistent throughout all floors.

7. Beam:
A beam is a horizontal flexural member that carries loads perpendicular to their longitudinal
direction.

Functions of beam:
• A beam resists loads applied laterally to the beam’s axis.
• Beams are used to support the weight of floors, ceilings and roofs of a building and to transfer the
load to a vertical load bearing element of the structure.
• Beams carry wall loads which avoids loading concrete slab.
• Transfer beams are used to support the cumulative weight of stacked walls or other beams and to
transfer the load to the supports.
• The load capacity and the span of a ceiling can be increased by the used of beams.

8. Slab:
A slab is a flat, two dimensional planar structural component of building having a very small
thickness compared to its other two dimensions.

Functions of slab:
• To provide a flat surface.
• To act as sound, heat and fire insulator.
• It provides a covering shelter or working flat surface in buildings.
• To transfer the load by bending in one or two directions.
• The upper slab becomes the ceiling for the storey beneath it.

9. Staircase:
• Stair - Sequence of steps and it is provided to afford the means of ascent and descent between the
floors or landings.
• Staircase - Apartment or room of a building., in which the stair is located.
• Stairway - Opening or space occupied by the stair.

Types of stairs:
• Straight stairs: Stairs without any change in direction. This type of stair may consist of one or
more flights and they are used when the space available for staircase is long but narrow in width.
• Turning stairs: In this type the flights take turn.
Quarter turn stairs: A stair turning through a right angle.
Half turn stairs: A stair turning through two right angles. A half turn stair may be dog
legged type (no space between the flights in plan) or open newel type (an opening or well is
present between the flights in plan).
Three quarter turn stairs: A stair turning through three right angles.
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• Circular or helical or spiral stairs: The steps radiate from the centre and they do not have any
landing.

Straight stairs Quarter turn stairs Half turn stairs (Dog legged)

Three quarter turn stairs

Half turn stairs (Open newel)

Spiral stairs

Functions of stair case:

• Aesthetics and appearance.
• Access to another floor.
• Safe and easy means to travel.
• Degree of insulation.
• Escape routes in case of emergency like fire.

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INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

Module 2
Societal and Global impact of infrastructure

Infrastructure

1.1 Introduction to Sustainable Development Goals

• Sustainable engineering is the process of designing or operating systems such that they use energy
and resources sustainably, i.e., at a rate that does not compromise the natural environment, or the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
• Sustainability in civil engineering practices can improve industry standards and lessen the
environmental impact by transitioning to more affordable and sustainable materials. Renewable
resources may also be longer-lasting, requiring less frequent repair and saving money and
resources over the long term.

Principles of sustainable design:

• Optimising the use of the sun
• Improvising indoor air quality
• Using the land responsibly
• Creating high performance and moisture resistant houses
• Careful utilisation of Earth’s natural resources

Importance of Sustainable Construction:

1. Sustainable Design- When the plan and designs of the project are taking place, sustainable
development project plans and designs have to be adopted. The sooner sustainable options are
involved in a construction project, the better sustainability of the structure which therefore leads
to long term environment friendly benefits for the structure.
2. Durability- The cost and expertise used for maintenance and replacement of materials can be
greatly reduced and less frequent on using durable materials.
3. Energy Efficiency- In a construction process if the demand for energy usage is reduced, the
amount of fuel consumed is decreased and therefore CO2 emission into the atmosphere is
ultimately reduced. This sustainable development project method adds up as a contribution to
reducing global warming.
4. Waste Reduction- Materials are used efficiently and with better accuracy to avoid excess
wattage of materials. Materials with less impact value and higher sustainable quotient must be
preferred along with better recycling ways.
5. Improved Air Quality- Air quality degradation due to unsustainable development project
processes can increase indoor as well as outdoor pollution. Sustainable development projects
have many provisions for preventing air pollution and better structural designs.

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6. Conservation of Water- The increasing global temperature and pollution has increasingly
reduced the amount of fresh water supplies. Sustainable development projects are essential thus
take steps to use water sustainably in sustainable construction processes.
7. Eco-Friendly Materials- Eco-friendly materials or sustainable construction materials form the
base of sustainable development project methods that have zero or minimal impact on the
environment as well as the community.

Benefits of Sustainable Construction:

• Cost Efficient- Sustainable construction can be considered as an essential alternative that is smart
and more versatile. Sustainable development projects or Green building projects are much
cheaper than traditional construction and use less resources.
• Minimal Waste- Sustainable development projects produce much less waste than other
construction projects. Green buildings have low impact on the environment and mostly use
renewable resources.
• Noise Resistance- Eco-friendly or sustainable construction mat

1.2 Smart City

SMART stands for Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic and Timely.
A smart city is a municipality that uses information and communication technologies (ICT) to
increase operational efficiency, share information with the public and improve both the quality of
government services and citizen welfare.

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The characteristics used to determine a city's smartness include:
• a technology-based infrastructure;
• environmental initiatives;
• a high functioning public transportation system;
• a confident sense of urban planning and
• humans to live and work within the city and utilize its resources.

The infrastructure elements in a Smart City are:

• adequate water supply
• assured electricity supply
• sanitation, including solid waste management
• efficient urban mobility and public transport
• affordable housing, especially for the poor
• robust IT connectivity and digitalization
• good governance, especially e-Governance and citizen participation
• sustainable environment
• safety and security of citizens, particularly women, children and the elderly
• health and education.

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How a smart city works:
Smart cities utilize their web of connected IoT devices and other technologies to achieve their goals
of improving the quality of life and achieving economic growth. Successful smart cities follow four
steps:
1. Collection - Smart sensors throughout the city gather data in real time.
2. Analysis - Data collected by the smart sensors is assessed in order to draw meaningful
insights.
3. Communication - The insights that have been found in the analysis phase are communicated
with decision makers through strong communication networks.
4. Action - Cities use the insights pulled from the data to create solutions, optimize operations
and asset management and improve the quality of life for residents.

Advantages of smart cities:

• The primary goal of a smart city is to create an urban environment that yields a high quality of
life to its residents while also generating overall economic growth.
• A major advantage of smart cities is their ability to facilitate an increased delivery of services to
citizens with less infrastructure and cost.
• Smart city applications can enable improvements, advance city operations and improve the
quality of life among residents.
• Smart city applications enable cities to find and create new value from their existing
infrastructure.
• The improvements facilitate new revenue streams and operational efficiencies, helping
governments and citizens save money.

Examples of smart cities:

• Amaravati, Indore, Madurai, Vellore - India
• New York City, New York
• Tokyo, Japan
• London, England
• Melbourne, Australia
• Dubai, United Arab Emirates
• Hong Kong, China

1.3 Clean City

'Clean city' refers to a city that is free from pollution and environment degradation. The citizens
are conscientious and self-aware, they buy eco-friendly products, they recycle and constantly look
for better solutions instead of opting for the easier ones.

Importance of clean city: Cleanliness of surrounding is very important as a hygienic environment

provide us good health. Without proper cleanliness we will be exposed with various diseases like
diarrhoea, food poisoning and skin infection etc.

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Benefits of Clean city:
• Reduced exposure to toxic and harmful chemicals from industrial wastes
• Prevents illnesses and sickness
• Increases the overall productivity of the place and causes it to grow
• It creates good impression for the possible foreign and local investors with in the city (economic
boost)
• It ensures safety for the everyone living in the city.

How to achieve clean city:

• Segregate waste properly.
• Learn how to reduce, reuse and recycle.
• Grow plants in houses.
• Conduct plant waste treatment within the city.
• Stop burning of plastics.
• Burry the biodegradable wastes.
• Participate in clean up drives within your city.
• Conduct symposiums and promote proper waste management.
• Work with your local helpers in handling the waste properly within your city.
• Participate in saving environmental areas from pollution in your city.

1.4 Safe City:

It refers to the duty and function of the state to ensure the safety of its citizens, organisations and
institutions against threats to their well-being as well as the traditional functions of law and order.
The safe city concept typically promotes inter-operability across law enforcement, emergency
services and other government agencies (public health, border control, social services) to streamline
operations and provides 'situational awareness' to all stakeholders involved in the management of a
city's security.

Objective of safe city: The safe city programme addresses one of the basic aspects of urban life
and critical components for sustainable of social and economic development which are the need
to bring down the rate of crimes, prevent violence and provide the best safe environment to the
people in a city.

How to achieve safe city:

• Avoid urban sprawl.
• Slow down road traffic.
• Ensure main streets are safe for everyone, not just cars.
• Create dedicated space for pedestrians.
• Provide a safe, connected network for cyclists.
• Ensure safe access to high-quality public transport.
• Use data to detect problem areas.
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Importance of safe city : If implemented properly, a Safe City program can be important, not only
in preventing and solving crime but also in working quietly behind the scenes to make people feel
safe, universally improving quality of life.

Environment
2.1 Water supply and sanitary systems
Water supply engineering is a branch of engineering that deals with the system for the collection,
transmission, treatment, storage and distribution of water from source to consumers. For example,
homes, commercial establishments, industry, irrigation facilities and public agencies for water—
related activities (fire—fighting, street flushing and etc).

Sanitary engineering is a branch of public health engineering that deals with the prevention and
maintenance of health of the individual and the community by preventing communicable diseases.

Importance / necessity of water supply scheme:

Water is required for the following purposes:
• For drinking and cooking
• For bathing and washing
• For watering of lawns and gardens
• For heating and air conditioning
• For growing of crops
• For street washing
• For fire fighting
• For recreation in swimming pools , fountains and cascades
• For steam power and various industrial processes, etc.

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Benefits of water supply scheme:

• Availability of sufficient quantity of water
• Availability of good quality water
• Decrease in water borne diseases
• Sanitation of the area is considerably improved by adequate water supply
• Water is used economically and losses and wastage are reduced
• Growth in industries due to availability of sufficient quantity of water
• Increase in opportunities of employment to local people
• Growth of new industries that results in employment opportunities.

2.2 Urban air pollution management

Urban air pollution refers to air pollution in and around cities. Volcanic eruptions, thunder,
dust from the earth's surface, and naturally occurring particulate matter are all natural sources of
urban air pollution.

Sources of Urban Air Pollution:

• Transportation - The primary source of urban air pollution is the use of private vehicles
(particularly older, diesel models).
• Use of fossil fuels in the home - These fuels, which include wood, charcoal, and coal, are burned
in inefficient stoves, which emit large amounts of health-harming particulate matter and climate-
warming pollutants into the surrounding environment.
• Generation of electricity - Coal-fired power plants are a significant source of urban air pollution.
• Agriculture and Combustion - Agriculture also emits other gases into the atmosphere, such
as NO2 and methane (CH4).

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• Exploding Fireworks - It may not be the primary cause of air pollution, but it certainly
contributes to its accumulation.
• Dust Storm from the Gulf States

Effect / Issues of Urban air pollution:

• On Ecosystem: Acidification of lakes, eutrophication, and mercury accumulation in aquatic food
are all effects on the marine ecosystem. Soil acidification and Soil pollution has an indirect
impact on the ecosystems of plants and animals that rely on soil for nutrition.
• On Biodiversity: Acid rain is caused by the oxidation and wet deposition of SO2 and
NOX emissions in the atmosphere as a result of air pollution. As a result, acid rain can have a
negative impact on our biodiversity. Ozone reduces photosynthesis and causes plants to grow
more slowly and also affects lung tissues in both animals and humans, causing respiratory
problems.
• On Human Health: People who live in areas with poor air quality and high pollution levels are
at risk of serious health problems.
• On Materials and Buildings: SOX and NOX emissions can harm flora and fauna, and material
surfaces, and even cause structural damage. The negative effects may include discolouration,
material loss, structural failure, and soiling.Example - Taj Mahal

Initiatives by Government to Combat Air Pollution:

• Notification of National Ambient Air Quality Standards , industry-specific emission and
effluent standards.
• Establishing a monitoring network to assess the quality of the ambient air.
• Cleaner gaseous fuels such as CNG, LPG, and ethanol blending are being introduced.
• The National Air Quality Index (AQI) is being launched.
• Vehicle standards will be upgraded from BS-IV to BS-VI by April 1st, 2020.
• The burning of biomass is prohibited.
• Public transportation network promotion.
• Certificate of Pollution Control.
• Directions issued under Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981.
• Installation of continuous (24x7) online monitoring devices by 17 polluting industrial
sectors.
• Controlling the bursting of polluting crackers.

2.3 Solid waste management

The term solid waste management mainly refers to the complete process of collecting, treating and
disposing of solid wastes.
In the waste management process, the wastes are collected from different sources and are disposed.
This process includes collection, transportation, treatment, analysis and disposal of waste.

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Sources of Solid Wastes:
• Solid domestic garbage.
• Solid waste material from various industries.
• Solid agricultural waste.
• Plastics, glass, metals, e-waste, etc.
• Medical waste.
• Construction waste, sewage sludge

Disposal of Waste:
In India, the processes differ according to the source of solid waste. They can be classified as:
⦁ Municipal Solid Waste.
⦁ Hazardous Solid Waste.
Municipal solid waste can further be divided into biodegradable, recyclable and hazardous domestic
wastes. The biodegradable waste includes rotten food, vegetable peel and mostly wet kitchen waste.
Recyclable waste includes plastic and hazardous wastes include, bulb, batteries, etc.

The industry generated waste from chemical factories, medical waste from hospitals are considered
as Hazardous Solid Waste and they need special settings to dispose of them.

In any region, solid waste management is very important for the safe disposal of wastes and to
reduce environmental pollution and avoid any health hazards that it may cause.
Landfills are the most common method of disposing of solid wastes. Modern-day landfills are
designed by taking care of various environmental factors and types of wastes, so as to minimise
pollution and health risks.

2.4 Landfill sites

A landfill site is an area of land that is used to dump rubbish, either directly on the ground or filling
an unwanted hole in the ground.

Characteristics of landfill site:

There are four critical elements in a secure landfill: a bottom liner, a leachate collection system, a
cover, and the natural hydro-geologic setting. The natural setting can be selected to minimize the
possibility of wastes escaping to groundwater beneath a landfill. The three other elements must be
engineered.

Landfills - Significance:
• Excellent Energy Source: Landfills act as excellent energy source due to the fact that they
generate carbon dioxide and methane when the waste starts decomposing. These gases can be
extracted, purified, and used to generate energy.

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• Eco-friendly: The landfills are designed with technology in mind; good soil lining and a
leachate control system ensure minimal seepage or damage.
• Cleanliness And Waste Management: Landfills help in maintaining cleanliness in cities,
towns, and districts. Landfills are places where recyclable and non-recyclable waste can be
dumped separately.
• Good Storage Facility: They also serve as a storage facility for more hazardous goods that
must be kept away from the general population.
• Low Cost Option: The waste in the landfill will just have to travel a short distance to the
dump, lowering transportation expenditures.
• Pollution Reduction: This will also help to reduce pollution caused by garbage
transportation.
• Employment Generation: More landfills in the area offer more job opportunities and a
higher quality of life for residents.

2.5 Urban flooding

Urban flooding describes the flooding of land or property within a constructed environment,
especially in locations that are more densely inhabited (like cities), as a result of excessive rainfall
that exceeds the capacity of drainage systems.
Urban areas are densely populated and people living in vulnerable areas suffer due to flooding,
sometimes resulting in loss of life. It is not only the event of flooding but the secondary effect of
exposure to infection also has its toll in terms of human suffering, loss of livelihood, and, in
extreme cases, loss of life.

Causes of urban flooding:

1. Natural causes:
• Higher rainfall
• Storm surges and frequent depressions in open waters
• Depleting groundwater tables
• Heavy melting of snow causes flash floods in lower catchment areas

2. Anthropogenic causes:
• Encroachments on drainage areas like lakes, wetlands, and riverbeds close off ways for the
excess water to flow thus causing floods.
• Climate change has disrupted the rainfall pattern; also, urban heat lands have increased
rainfall over urban areas resulting in flooding.
• Pollution of water bodies (with non-biodegradable waste) is choking up the pathways for
excess water to flow.
• Illegal mining activities in rivers deplete the natural bed causing soil erosion and reducing the
water retention capacity of the water body.

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• Unplanned and uninformed release of water from dams causes devastation as the public does
not get enough time to respond.
• The importance of Flood governance is also not taken seriously by the administrators.

Impacts of urban flooding:

• It causes loss of life and property directly and indirectly due to the chances of spreading of
water-borne infections.
• It disrupts the normal working of the city by damaging water supply, sewerage, power
transmission lines, communication, transportation, and infrastructure.
• The environment is further damaged as the vegetation gets washed away during the extreme
flow of water.
• Animals also suffer from diseases and loss of shelter due to flooding.
• Hygiene is compromised and diseases spread when sewage and solid waste wash into houses
and buildings.
• The psychological impact of losing lives and property is huge and the recovery process is
tiresome and time-consuming leading to long-lasting trauma in people.

Measures to prevent Urban Flooding:

1. Need for Climate Resilient Infrastructure
2. Early Warning Systems and Communication
3. Design and Management of Urban Drainage System
4. Rainwater Harvesting
5. Conservation of Water Bodies
6. Role of Science and Technology in preventing urban flooding

Built environment
3.1 Energy efficient buildings:
An energy-efficient building balances all aspects of energy use in a building by providing an
optimised mix of passive solar–design strategies, energy-efficient equipment, and renewable
sources of energy.

Benefits of energy efficient buildings:

• Reduced operational and maintenance costs
• Tax incentives
• Improved property value
• Better tenant comfort
• Lower greenhouse emissions

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What is energy efficiency in a building:
• Nearly Zero-Energy Passive Building Design
• Utilisation of Low Embodied Energy Building Materials
• Usage of Energy-Efficient Equipment
• Integration of Renewable Energy Technologies in Different Applications

How do energy-efficient buildings help the environment:

The efficient use of energy in buildings is one of the most affordable ways to lessen the detrimental
effects of climate change, health problems, unemployment, and poverty. It reduces household
expenses, infrastructure costs, and reduces CO2 emissions.

Ways To Improve Energy Efficiency in Buildings:

• Daylight utilisation
• Rework your insulation
• Choose the right ventilation system
• Buy energy certified equipment
• Switch to LED lighting
• Regulate heating and cooling with thermostats
• Fix leaks in your building
• Switch to renewable energy
• Solar Panelled Roofs
• Increasing Natural Lighting
• Creating an Airtight Envelope
• Improving Insulation
• Installing Smart Devices

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3.2 Recycling:
Recycling is the process of converting waste materials into new materials and objects. This concept
often includes the recovery of energy from waste materials. The recyclability of a material depends
on its ability to reacquire the properties it had in its original state.

Importance of recycling:
• It reduces the number of fresh raw materials we use
• It reduces the amount of energy we use
• It reduces air pollution
• It reduces water pollution
• It lowers the amount of greenhouse gases

How are materials recycled:

Materials are wither brought to a centre that collects recycled materials or they are picked up from
recycling bins that are on the streets. The materials are then sorted, cleaned and reprocessed into
new materials

3.3 Temperature and Sound control in buildings:

Thermal control regulates the temperature within a structure. It aids in maintaining steady heating
and cooling temperatures during season changes throughout the year. Additionally, it helps to ensure
quality and comfort among the occupants inside and increase satisfaction.

Sound control in commercial buildings refers to the process of reducing noise levels and improving
room acoustics for optimal acoustic comfort. It involves using materials, products, and noise
reduction techniques to: Block out external noises. Reduce unwanted noise transmission between
rooms and floors.

Need for temperature control in a building:

It aids in maintaining steady heating and cooling temperatures during season changes throughout
the year. Additionally, it helps to ensure quality and comfort among the occupants inside and
increase satisfaction. Thermal control focuses on the transfer of heat within a building to either keep
it cool or warm.

Need for sound control in a building:

Noise is unwanted sound. It can cause hearing loss, disturb communication or cause nuisance.
Noise control is a set of strategies to reduce noise pollution or to reduce impact , whether outdoors
or indoors.Excessive noise presents a risk of hearing damage and other health problems. The degree
of hearing loss depends on the loudness of the noise and how long you are exposed to it.

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Construction Techniques for temperature Control in Buildings:
Green thermal control techniques are solar power (which can be both passive and active), hydronic
heating, ice-powered air conditioners, green coal, wind power, absorption, and biomass.

Construction Techniques for Noise Control in Buildings:

• Construction of walls: Walls are the important structural components of the Buildings which
protect the internal environment from the external noise.
• Use of Cavity walls in the partition: The use of cavity walls in partition proves to be very
efficient for sound resistance in the Buildings.
• By increasing thickness and mass of the wall: The noise resistance of the material depends
upon the mass of that material. The more the mass of material more will be noise resistance.
• Use of Acoustic blankets in airspace: This is also known as isolation blankets which can
increase sound attenuation when placed in the airspace.
• Use of different panels: The panels used should be of different materials and thicknesses. This
will improve the sound insulation property of the walls.
• Construction of windows: Windows are one of the major sources from where the sound enters
into the structures.
• Reduction in size of windows: It is a very useful method to resist the sound enters into the
structures.
• Increasing thickness of the glass: The noise can be resisted by increasing the thickness of the
glass. It is also necessary that proper sealing should be done in order to increase the effectiveness
of soundproofing.
• Installation of double glazed windows: It is an effective method that increases airspace width,
glass thickness which helps in noise resistance.

3.4 Security systems:

Home security systems are networks of integrated electronic devices working together with a
central control panel to protect against burglars and other potential home intruders.
A basic home security system includes:
• A control panel or base station with a separate keypad
• Door and window sensors
• Motion sensors
• Glass break sensors
• Security cameras
But there are plenty of other devices available to enhance your home's security, including smart
home products and environmental sensors.

Factors to consider when choosing security:

• Stage of building - Constructing or designing
• Type of building

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• Building location
• Logistics - Positioning of the security system controls
• Remote monitoring
• Environmental issues

Importance / Purpose of security systems:

Building security protects assets, property, and occupants from perpetrators of violence, intruders,
and hazardous situations that can potentially cause damage or harm. Its goal is to detect, prevent,
deter, and respond to physical security violations.

Types of building security systems:

• Physical guards - Static and non static , Armed or undercover
• Physical barriers - Windows, Burglar bars, Gates and screens, Fence
• Fire systems - Fire detection, fire suspension, fire hose and extinguishers
• CCTV
• Alarms
• Access controls

3.5 Smart buildings:

Smart buildings, or smart facilities, are those that use information and communications technology-
based systems, services and technology to optimise the facility's performance. Building systems,
including heating, ventilation and security, are equipped with networked sensors that continually
provide information about the condition and performance of those systems.

Benefits of smart buildings/ smart facilities:

• Environmental benefits and cost savings: Smart buildings reduce energy costs through real-
time adjustments of heating, cooling, lighting and other systems based on changes in weather and
building occupancy.
• Risk mitigation: The monitoring and remote-control capabilities of smart building systems
enable supervisors to catch problems early, and often help prevent them.
• A safer occupant experience: Smart buildings that use surveillance and security systems
improve the experience for occupants by providing a safer, better-protected place to live and work
• Lower operational costs: A smart building can, for example, leverage data it collects to reduce
use of electric lighting by adjusting shades to let in more natural light.
• Lower energy costs: Connecting lighting, shades, and HVAC systems, for instance, enables
building operators to automatically adjust temperature, shades, and lighting based on time of day
and occupancy.
• Greater flexibility: Smart-building data can be used, for example, to detect changes in
occupancy density. The building's HVAC systems then adjust airflow, humidity, and temperature
appropriately.

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How does a smart building work:
A smart building uses its intelligence to collect actionable data from user devices, sensors, systems,
and services on the premises. Applying that data using artificial intelligence and machine learning
(AI/ML) makes the building both programmable and responsive to the needs of the users and the
building manager.
The intelligence of the network also helps secure the network. For instance, the network can
identify and segment devices and learn their behaviour, to improve detection of anomalies and
intrusions.

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INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

Module 3
Analysis of Force systems

Mechanics: Mechanics is a branch of physical science which deals with the state of rest or motion
of bodies under the action of forces.
Mechanics can be sub-divided into the following:

Mechanics of rigid bodies: It is the study of bodies that do not undergo any deformation under the
application of forces.
Statics: It deals with the study of the behaviour of bodies or particles in the state of rest.
Dynamics: It deals with the study of behaviour of bodies or particles in the state of motion.
Mechanics of deformable bodies: It deals with the study of bodies that undergo deformation under
the application of forces.
Mechanics of fluids: It deals with the study of fluids.

Idealisations in mechanics:
1. Particle: A body of infinitely small volume whose mass can be neglected.
2. Body: An assemblage of a number of particles.
3. Rigid body: A combination of large number of particles occupying fixed positions with respect
to each other and do not change under the application of external forces.
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All particles in a rigid body remain at a fixed distance from one another even after the
application of forces. Thus there is no change in either shape or dimensions of the body.
4. Continuum: A continuous distribution of molecules in a body without intermolecular space.
5. Point force: Where force is applied on any object by another, there is finite non-zero area of
contact between them. If the area of contact is neglected, then the force is considered to act only
at one point on the object as a point force.

Rigid body concept:

• Change in either shape or dimensions is not studied in mechanics. Thus all objects are considered
to be perfectly rigid.
• Rigid bodies can have translational motion (rectilinear or curvilinear), rotational motion or a
combination of translational and rotational motion. Rigid body is treated as a particle if it has only
translational motion.
• Resultant force acting on any object causes translational motion. Rotational force is caused by the
net moment of force.
• When a rigid body is considered as a particle, its mass is concentrated at its centre of mass, since
Newton’s laws of motion are applicable to the centre of mass.

Basic quantities:
• Space: The geometric region occupied by bodies whose positions are denoted using a co-ordinate
system.
• Time: Measure of succession of events.
• Mass: Total amount of matter present in a body. It is a measure of inertia of body.
• Force: It is an external agent which changes or tends to change the state of rest or of uniform
motion of an object.

Force and its characteristics:

Force is an external agent which changes or tends to change the state of rest or of uniform motion of
an object. It is a vector quantity (has both magnitude and direction). The SI unit of force is Newton
(N).

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Every force is characterised by its:
• Magnitude: Length of the vector represents the magnitude of force.
• Direction: Direction of force is represented by a arrow head.
• Point of application: Point at which the force starts. Both the direction and point of application
define its line of action.
• Line of action: Line along which the force acts.

Force system: If two or more forces are acting on a body or a particle constitute a force system.

Types of force system:

1. Coplanar force system: Forces acting in a single plane.
a) Concurrent force system: Forces whose line of action intersect at a single point.
b) Non-concurrent force system: Forces whose line of action do not intersect at a single point.
c) Parallel force system: Forces which have parallel lines of action.

• Coplanar concurrent force system: If two or more forces are acting in a single plane and their
lines of action do not meet at a common point, then the forces constitute a coplanar non-
concurrent force system.

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• Coplanar non-concurrent force system: If two or more forces are acting in a single plane and
their lines of action do not meet at a common point, then the forces constitute a coplanar non-
concurrent force system.

• Coplanar like parallel force system: All the forces act parallel to one another and are in the
same direction.

• Coplanar unlike parallel force system: The forces act parallel to another, but some of the forces
have their line of action in opposite directions.

2. Non coplanar force system: If two or more forces are acting in different planes, the forces
constitute a non-coplanar force system.

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• Non coplanar concurrent force system: If a system has two or more forces acting on different
planes but pass through the same point, then it is said to be a non-coplanar concurrent force
system.

• Non coplanar non concurrent force system: If two or more forces are acting on different planes
but do not pass through the same point, they constitute a non-coplanar non-concurrent force
system.

• Non coplanar parallel force system: If two or more forces are acting in different planes and are
parallel to one another, the system is said to be a non-coplanar parallel force system.

3. Collinear force system: If the lines of action of two or more forces coincide with one another, it
is called a collinear force system.

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Non collinear force system: If the lines of action of the forces do not coincide with one another, it
is called a non-collinear force system.

Principle of Superposition of forces: It states that if more than one force acts on an object, then
the combined effect due to all the forces is the vector addition of all the individual forces.

If the forces P 1⃗ , P 2⃗ and P 3⃗ act on a object, then the net effect can be represented by a single
forces called the resultant which is the vector addition of the given forces.
I.e., R ⃗ = P 1⃗ + P 2⃗ + P 3⃗

Principle of Transmissibility of forces: This principle states that a forces can be transmitted from
one point to another point along the same line of action such that the effect produced by the force
on a body remains unchanged.

Consider a rigid body subjected to a force F at point O. According to the principle of

transmissibility, the force F can be transmitted to a new point O1 along the same line of action such
that the net effect on the body remains unchanged.

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Resolution of forces: Resolution is the process in which a given force is replaced by its rectangular
components which together produce the same effect as that of the single force.

Consider force F making an angle θ with the horizontal axis to be resolved. Force F can be resolved
into two components i.e., Fx and Fy along X and Y axis respectively.
In △CAD,
Fx
Cosθ = , Fx = F Cosθ
F
Fy
Sinθ = , Fy = F Sinθ
F
If F made an angle θ with the vertical axis, then
Fy = F Cosθ and Fx = F Sinθ

Composition of forces: It is the process in which two or more forces are combined together such
that the net effect produced by a single resultant force is equal to the algebraic sum of all the
individual forces.

Consider the above given rigid body subjected to various forces as shown.
∑ Fx = Algebraic sum of the components of the forces along the X axis.
Thus, ∑ Fx = F4 + F1 Cosθ1 - F3 Sinθ2
∑ Fy = Algebraic sum of the components of the forces along the Y axis.
Thus, ∑ Fy = -F2 - F1 Sinθ1 - F3 Cosθ2
Fx 2 + F y2
∑ ∑
Magnitude of resultant R =

∑Fy
Direction of resultant θ = tan-1 ( )
∑ Fx
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Parallelogram law: If the two forces acting simultaneously on a particle and away from it, then
they can be represented in magnitude and direction by two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, whose
resultant is represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram both in magnitude and direction drawn
from their common point.

Consider P ⃗ and Q ⃗ be the two forces represented by the sides AB and AD of the parallelogram, θ be
the angle between them and R ⃗ be the resultant represented by the diagonal AC.
Consider △CBE,
BE
Cosθ = , BE = Q Cosθ
BC
CE
Sinθ = , CE = Q Sinθ
BC
AC 2 = A B 2 + BE 2 + 2(A B)(BE ) + CE 2
R 2 = P 2 + Q 2Cos 2 θ + 2(P)(QCosθ ) + Q 2 Sin 2 θ
R 2 = P 2 + Q 2(Cos 2 θ + Sin 2 θ ) + 2PQCosθ
R 2 = P 2 + Q 2 + 2PQCosθ (WK T, Cos 2 θ + Sin 2 θ = 1)
Magnitude of the resultant R = P 2 + Q 2 + 2PQCosθ
Direction of the resultant,
Consider △CAE,
CE CE QSinθ
ta n α = = =
AE A B + BE P + QCosθ
QSinθ
α = ta n −1( )
P + QCosθ

Moment of force: Moment of the force is the rotational effect produced by a force on a body. It is
calculated as the product of the magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance between the
line of action of the forces and the point or axis of rotation.

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Types of moment:
• Clockwise moment: If the given force tends to rotate the body in the clockwise direction, then it
is said to be a clockwise moment and taken to be positive.

• Anti clockwise moment: If the given force tends to rotate the body in the anti clockwise
direction, then it is said to be anti clockwise moment and is taken to be negative.

Couple:
Two equal, opposite non-collinear (parallel) forces constitute a couple.
As the two forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction, their resultant force is zero but a
moment is associated with the couple. Therefore a couple acting on a rigid body can produce only
rotational motion.

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Properties of a couple:
• Two equal and opposite parallel forces are required to form a couple.
• The magnitude of the moment of the couple = Product of the magnitude of one of the forces and
moment arm (Perpendicular distance between the two forces)
• Resultant of the forces of the couple is zero.

Types of couple: Clockwise couple and Anticlockwise couple

Varignon’s theorem (Principle of moments):

Statement: The algebraic sum of the moments of individual forces of a force system about a point
is equal to the moment of their resultant about the same point.
Consider two forces P1 and P2 having moment arms d1 and d2 respectively. Let the resultant force
be R having a moment arm d. The moment arms of all the forces are from the moment centre B.
To prove: Rd = P1 d1 + P2 d2
Proof: Join AB and take it to be the Y axis
and correspondingly draw X axis at right
angles to it. Let θ be the angle made by the
resultant R with the X axis. Similarly θ is
formed at the Y axis by the perpendicular
BB1 drawn to R.
In △ ABB1
BB1
Cosθ =
AB
d
Cosθ =
AB
Thus d = AB Cosθ
Ry = R Sinθ
B R

θ d
θ
Rx = R Cosθ
A B1

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WKT, Rd = R ( ABCosθ )
Rd = AB ( R Cosθ )
Rd = AB ( Rx ) ——— 1
Where Rx = Component of R in the X direction
Similarly for forces P1 and P2 we get P1x and P2x as their respective components in the X
direction.
Thus P1d1 = AB ( P1x) ———- 2
P2d2 = AB (P2x ) ———- 3
Adding equations 2 and 3 , we get
P1d1 + P2d2 = (AB . P1x ) + (AB . P2x )
P1d1 + P2d2 = AB ( P1x + P2x )
WKT, the sum of X components of the individual forces is equal to the X components of the
resultant R.
Thus P1x + P2x = Rx
P1d1 + P2d2 = AB (Rx ) ———— 4
From equation 1 and 4 we can conclude that
Rd = P1d1 + P2d2

Free body diagram: It is an isolated diagram

of an object in the system in which all forces
and couple moments acting on it are shown
including support reactions.

Where,
W - Self weight. It always acts vertically
downwards.
R - Normal reaction. It always acts
perpendicular to the plane
T - Tension in the string

Support reactions: When objects are supported by some supporting mechanism, the supporting
mechanism exerts a force or couple moment on the object which tries to restrict the motion of the
object. These forces or couple moments which oppose or restrict the motion of objects are called
support reactions.

Equilibrium: A body is said to be in equilibrium provided it remains at rest if initially at rest.

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Equilibrant: In a system if the resultant of the force system is not equal to zero then it implies that
the body is not in equilibrium. Equilibrant is defined as a force or a moment required to keep an
object in equilibrium.

Equilibrant for a concurrent force system: A force which has same magnitude as resultant force
but opposite in direction.

Equilibrant for a non-concurrent force system:

• Non zero resultant force: A force which has same magnitude as resultant force but opposite in
direction on the same line of action as that of the resultant force.
• Zero resultant force: A couple moment having same magnitude as resultant couple moment but
opposite sense of rotation. Here force system gets reduced to a single resultant couple.

Principle of equilibrium: A body is said to be in equilibrium if the algebraic sum of all the forces
acting on the body is zero and also if the algebraic sum of moments of forces about any fixed point
is zero.
i.e., A body is said to be in equilibrium if there is no translation or rotation of the body under the
application of external forces.

Conditions of equilibrium:
• Coplanar concurrent force system

∑ ∑
Fx = 0 and Fy = 0

• Coplanar non-concurrent force system

∑ ∑ ∑
Fx = 0 , F y = 0 and M=0

• Parallel force system

∑ ∑
F=0 and M=0

• Non coplanar non concurrent force system

∑ ∑ ∑ ∑
Fx = 0, F y = 0, Fz = 0 and M=0

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Lami’s theorem:
Statement: If three concurrent forces are in equilibrium, the ratio of magnitude of any force to the
Sine of the angle between the other two forces is constant.
Consider three concurrent forces P, Q and R acting at a point O and let α, βa n dγ be the angles
between R and Q, R and P and P and Q respectively.

Proof: As three forces are in equilibrium, they will form a closed triangle drawn one after the other.
Using the Sine rule,
P Q R
= =
Sin(180 − α) Sin(180 − β ) Sin(180 − γ)
P Q R
Thus, = =
Sin α Sinβ Sinγ

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INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

Module 4
Centroid
CENTRE OF GRAVITY:
It is the point where the whole weight of the body is assumed to be concentrated. It is the point on
which the body can be balanced. It is the point through which the weight of the body is assumed to
act. This point is usually denoted by ‘C.G.’ or ‘G’.

CENTROID (C.G. OR G):

Centroid is the point where the whole area of the plane figure is assumed to be concentrated. The
calculation of centroid means the determination of x̅ and ȳ as shown.

Determination of Centroid by the Method of Moments:

Let us consider a body of total weight W as shown below. The centre of gravity of the whole figure
is located at a distance x from the y-axis and at a distance y from the x-axis (the point through
which the total weight W acts).

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Let us divide the whole figure into a number of elemental strips of weights w1, w2, w3, w4, ..., wn
whose centroids are located at distances x1, x2, x3, ..., xn from the y-axis and y1, y2, y3, y4, ..., yn
from the x-axis.
Applying the theorem of moments about the y-axis,

W x̅ =w1x1 +w2x2 +w3x3 +...+wnxn

w1x1 + w 2x 2 + − − − − +wn x n
x̅ =
W

But if the body is homogeneous and isotropic, then the specific weight of the material is
W W
given by γ = =
V At
where W is the weight of the body and V is the volume of the body, A is the cross-sectional area and
t is the thickness which is constant.

Hence, we have
(γa1t x1) + (γa2t x 2) + − − − + (γa nt x n)
x̅ =
(γa1t) + (γa2t) + − − − + (γa nt)
(a1x1) + (a2x 2) + − − − + (a n x n) ∑ ai xi
x̅ = =
(a1) + (a2) + − − − + (a n) ∑ ai
∑ aiyi
Similarly, ȳ =
∑ ai

Axes of Reference:
These are the axes with respect to which the centroid of a given figure is determined. The left-hand
bottom corner of the plane figure is considered as the origin so that the left extreme edge and the
bottom line are considered reference axes, with respect to which the centroid of the given figure is
measured.

Centroidal Axis:
The axis which passes through the centroid of a figure is known as centroidal axis, such as the axis
X-X and the axis Y-Y shown.

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Symmetrical Axis:
It is the axis which divides the whole figure into equal parts, such as the axis X–X and the axis Y–Y
shown below.

(a) For a figure which is symmetrical about both the axes, x = 0 and y = 0.

(b) For a figure which is symmetrical about the Y–Y axis, x = 0. The area on the left-side of the Y–
Y axis is equal to the area on the right side of the Y–Y axis.

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(c) For a figure which is symmetrical about the X–X axis, y = 0. The area on the top-side of the X–
X axis is equal to the area on the bottom side of the X–X axis.

(d) For a figure which does not have any axis of symmetry, we calculate both x and y

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Centroid of important geometrical figures:

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 Module 5

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

Module 5
Moment of inertia
Moment of Inertia by Method of Integration:

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SL DESCRIPTION FIGURE Moment of inertia (MI)

NO.

1 Rectangle bd 3
IXX =
12
d b3
IYY =
12
bd 3
IBASE =
3
2 Triangle bd 3
IXX =
36
d b3
IYY =
36
bd 3
IBASE =
12
3 Circle π R4 π D4
IXX = =
4 64
π R4 π D4
IYY = =
4 64
π R4 π D4
IZZ = =
2 32

4 Semi-circle IXX = 0.11R 4

π R4 π D4
IYY = =
8 128
π R4 π D4
IBASE = =
8 128

5 Quadrant IXX = 0.055R 4

IYY = 0.055R 4

π R4 π D4
IBASE = =
16 256

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