3

Pure 3

Revision Notes

Edexcel IAL from 2018

May 2022
2 Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB
Pure 3

1 Algebraic fractions .................................................................................................5

Cancelling common factors .................................................................................................................. 5
Multiplying and dividing fractions ....................................................................................................... 5
Adding and subtracting fractions .......................................................................................................... 5
Equations .............................................................................................................................................. 6
2 Functions ...............................................................................................................7
Notation ................................................................................................................................................ 7
Domain, range and graph ...................................................................................................................... 7
Defining functions ........................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Composite functions ............................................................................................................................. 9
Inverse functions and their graphs ........................................................................................................ 9
To find the inverse of a function x → y............................................................................................................................... 10
Domain and range of inverse functions .............................................................................................. 11
Modulus functions .............................................................................................................................. 12
Modulus functions y = |f (x)|................................................................................................................................................. 12
Modulus functions y = f (|x|) .................................................................................................................................................. 13
Standard graphs................................................................................................................................... 13
Combinations of transformations of graphs ........................................................................................ 14
Sketching curves ................................................................................................................................. 15
3 Trigonometry ........................................................................................................ 16
Sec, cosec and cot ............................................................................................................................... 16
Graphs ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 16
Inverse trigonometrical functions ....................................................................................................... 17
Graphs ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 17
Trigonometrical identities ................................................................................................................... 18
Proof of sin P + sin Q = 2 sin [(P + Q)/2] cos[(P −Q)/2] ........................................................................................... 18
Finding exact values..................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Reminder – 30o, 45o and 60o. ................................................................................................................................................... 19
Proving identities. ......................................................................................................................................................................... 20
Eliminating a variable between two equations ............................................................................................................... 20
Solving equations .......................................................................................................................................................................... 20
R cos(x + ) ........................................................................................................................................ 21
4 Exponentials and logarithms ................................................................................ 23
Natural logarithms .............................................................................................................................. 23
Definition and graph .................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Equations of the form eax + b = p ............................................................................................................................................ 24
5 Curves into straight lines ...................................................................................... 24
6 Differentiation ....................................................................................................... 25
Chain rule ............................................................................................................................................ 25
Product rule ......................................................................................................................................... 25
Quotient rule ....................................................................................................................................... 26
Derivatives of ex and logex  ln x. ................................................................................................... 27
(dy/dx) = 1/(dx/dy).............................................................................................................................. 28
Derivative of ax .................................................................................................................................. 28
Trigonometric differentiation.............................................................................................................. 29
Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB 3
 Chain rule – further examples ............................................................................................................. 29
Trigonometry and the product and quotient rules ............................................................................... 30
7 Integration............................................................................................................ 32
Integrals of ax, ex and 1/x.................................................................................................................. 32
Standard integrals ................................................................................................................................ 32
Integration using trigonometric identities ........................................................................................... 32
Integration by ‘reverse chain rule’ ...................................................................................................... 33
Integrals of tan x and cot x ........................................................................................................................................................34
Integrals of sec x and cosec x ...................................................................................................................................................35
8 Numerical methods .............................................................................................. 36
Locating the roots of f(x) = 0 ............................................................................................................. 36
The iteration xn + 1 = g(xn) ................................................................................................................... 36
Conditions for convergence................................................................................................................. 37
9 Appendix.............................................................................................................. 38
Derivatives of sin x and cos x ............................................................................................................. 38
limit of (sin h)/h as h tends to 0 .............................................................................................................................................38
Alternative formula for derivative ........................................................................................................................................38
Derivatives of sin x and cos x ...................................................................................................................................................39
Integral of 1/x for negative limits ....................................................................................................... 39
Index ........................................................................................................................... 41

4 Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB

1 Algebraic fractions
Cancelling common factors
x 3 − 2 x 2 − 3x
Example: Simplify .
4 x 2 − 36
Solution: First factorise top and bottom fully –
x 3 − 2 x 2 − 3x x( x 2 − 2 x − 3) x( x − 3)( x + 1)
= =
4 x 2 − 36 4( x 2 − 9) 4( x − 3)( x + 3)
and now cancel all common factors, in this case (x – 3) to give
x( x + 1)
Answer = .
4( x + 3)

Multiplying and dividing fractions

This is just like multiplying and dividing fractions with numbers and then cancelling common
factors as above.
9 x 2 − 4 3x 2 − x − 2
Example: Simplify 
3x 2 − 2 x x3 + x2
Solution: First turn the second fraction upside down and multiply
9x 2 − 4 x3 + x2
=  factorise fully
3x 2 − 2 x 3x 2 − x − 2

(3x − 2)(3x + 2) x ( x + 1)2

=  cancel all common factors
x(3x − 2) (3x + 2)( x − 1)
x( x + 1)
Answer = .
x −1

Adding and subtracting fractions

Again this is like adding and subtracting fractions with numbers; but finding the Lowest
Common Denominator can save a lot of trouble later.
3x 5
Example: Simplify − 2 .
x − 7 x + 12 x − 4 x + 3
2

Solution: First factorise the denominators

3x 5
= − we see that the L.C.D. is (x – 3)(x – 4)(x – 1)
( x − 3)( x − 4) ( x − 3)( x − 1)
3x( x − 1) 5( x − 4)
= −
( x − 3)( x − 4)( x − 1) ( x − 3)( x − 1)( x − 4)

3x 2 − 3x − 5 x + 20 3x 2 − 8 x + 20
= = which cannot be simplified further.
( x − 1)( x − 3)( x − 4) ( x − 1)( x − 3)( x − 4)

Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB 5

Equations
x x −1 1
Example: Solve − =
x +1 x 2
Solution: First multiply both sides by the Lowest Common Denominator
x x −1 1
− = multiply both sides by 2x(x + 1)
x +1 x 2
 x  2x – (x – 1)  2(x + 1) = x(x + 1)
 2x2 – 2x2 + 2 = x2 + x
 x2 + x – 2 = 0,
 (x + 2)(x – 1) = 0
 x = –2 or 1

𝑥 𝑥−3
𝑥−1
− 3𝑥+1
𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒: Simplify
𝑥+3

𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: First multiply top and bottom by (𝑥 − 1)(3𝑥 + 1)

𝑥 𝑥−3
𝑥−1
− 3𝑥+1 (𝑥 − 1)(3𝑥 + 1)
= ×
𝑥+3 (𝑥 − 1)(3𝑥 + 1)
𝑥(3𝑥 + 1) − (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 1)
=
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 1)(3𝑥 + 1)
3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 3
=
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 1)(3𝑥 + 1)
2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 3
=
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 1)(3𝑥 + 1)
(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 3)
=
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 1)(3𝑥 + 1)
(2𝑥 − 1)
=
(𝑥 − 1)(3𝑥 + 1)

6 Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB

2 Functions
A function is an expression (often in x) which has only one value for each value of x.

Notation
y = x2 – 3x + 7, f (x) = x2 – 3x + 7 and f : x → x2 – 3x + 7
are all ways of writing the same function.

Domain, range and graph

The domain is the set of values which x can take:
this is sometimes specified in the definition
sometimes is evident from the function: e.g. for x, x can only take positive x or zero values.
The range is that part of the y–axis which is used.

Example: Find the range of the function

f : x → 2x – 3 with domain x  : –2 < x  4.
y
6

Solution: First sketch the graph for values of x between – 2 4

range y=2x−3
and 4 (the domain), and we can see that we are only using 2

the y–axis from –7 to 5, domain x

−30 −28 −26 −24 −22 −20 −18 −16 −14 −12 −10 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6
not including y = –7 (since x  –2), −2

but including y = 5 (since x can equal 4) −4

and so the range is
−6
y  : –7 < y  5.
−8

Example: Find the largest possible domain and the range for the function
f : x →√𝑥 − 3 + 1. Note that √𝑥 is defined as positive or zero only.

Solution: First notice that we cannot have the square root of a negative number and so
x – 3 cannot be negative
 x–30

 largest possible domain is x  : x  3.

To find the range we first sketch the graph 6

and we see that the graph will cover all of the 4 y=√(x−3)+1
range
y-axis from 1 upwards 2
domain x
−20 is
and so the range y  −14
−18 −16 : −12
y  1.
−10 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

−2

−4
Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB 7
−6
 Example: Find the largest possible domain and the range for the function
2x
f:x→ . Give the equations of its asymptotes.
x +1
Solution: The only problem occurs when the denominator is 0, and so x cannot be –1.
Thus the largest domain is x  : x  –1.

y
To find the range we sketch the graph 8

and we see that y can take any value 6

y=2x/(x+1)
except 2, range
4
asymptote y=2
2
so the range is y  : y  2. domain domain x
−28 −26 −24 −22 −20 −18 −16 −14 −12 −10 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8

−2
Asymptotes are x = –1 and y = 2 asymptote x=−1 range
−4

−6

Defining functions
Some mappings can be made into functions by restricting the domain.
Examples:
1) The mapping x → x where x   is not a function as –9 is not defined, but if we
restrict the domain to positive or zero real numbers then f : x →  x where x  , x  0
is a function.
1
2) x → where x   is not a function as the image of x = 3 is not defined,
x −3
1
but f : x → where x  , x  3 is a function.
x −3

8 Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB

Composite functions
To find the composite function fg we must do g first.
Example: f : x → 3x – 2 and g : x → x2 + 1. Find fg and gf.

Solution: Think of f and g as ‘rules’

f is multiply by 3 subtract 2

g is square add 1

 fg is square add 1 multiply by 3 subtract 2

giving (x2 + 1)  3 – 2 = 3x2 + 1

 fg : x → 3x2 + 1 or fg(x) = 3x2 + 1.

gf is multiply by 3 subtract 2 square add 1

giving (3x – 2)2 + 1 = 9x2 – 12x + 5

 gf : x → 9x2 – 12x + 5 or gf (x) = 9x2 – 12x + 5.

Note that fg and gf are not the same.

Inverse functions and their graphs

The inverse of f is the ‘opposite’ of f:
thus the inverse of ‘multiply by 3’ is ‘divide by 3’
and the inverse of ‘square’ is ‘square root’.

The inverse of f is written as f –1: note that this does not mean ‘1 over f ’.
The graph of y = f –1(x) is the reflection in y = x of the graph of y = f (x).

Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB 9

 To find the inverse of a function x → y
(i) interchange x and y
(ii) find y in terms of x.

Example: Find the inverse of f : x → 3x – 2.

Solution: We have x → y = 3x – 2 4 y

(i) interchanging x and y  x = 3y – 2 y=x

x+2 2
(ii) solving for y  y=
3
y = f –1(x)
x + 2−12
x

 →
f –1 : x−14 −10 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4

3
−2 y = f (x)

−4

x+3
Example: Find the inverse of g : x → .
2x − 5
y
x+3
Solution: We have x → y =
2x − 5 6
y=x
(i) interchanging x and y 4
y+3
 x = y = g –1(x)
2y − 5 2

(ii) solving for y y = g (x)

x
−24 −22 −20 
−18 x(2y
−16 – 5)
−14= y−12
+3 −10 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6

 2xy – 5x = y + 3 −2

 2xy – y = 5x + 3
−4
 y(2x – 1) = 5x + 3
5x + 3
 y =
2x − 1
5x + 3
 g –1 : x →
2x − 1

Note that f f –1 (x) = f –1

f (x) = x.

10 Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB

 Domain and range of inverse functions

–1
Note that the domain of f (x) is the range of f (x),
–1
and that the range of f (x) is the domain of f (x).
–1
This is because the graph of y = f (x) is that of y = f (x) after a reflection in the line y = x.

Example: f (x) = (x – 3)2 + 4, x  , x  3.

(a) Sketch the graph of y = f (x), and state its range.
(b) Find the inverse function, f –1(x) and sketch its graph on the same diagram.
Show the line y = x on your diagram.
(c) State the domain and range of f –1(x).

Solution:
(a) As the domain of f is x  3, we only y
have the ‘left’ part of the parabola.
y = f (x)
The range is f (x)  4, f (x)  .
8

6
y=x
(b) To find the inverse, swap x and y, then
find y. 4

x = (y – 3)2 + 4
2 y = f –1(x)
 y – 3 = √𝑥 − 4 .
x
−22 −20 −18
From
−16
the
−14
reflection
−12
of y =−8f (x) −6
−10
in y = −4x, −2 2 4 6 8
we can see that we want the negative
sign −2

 y = 3 – √𝑥 − 4.

(c) The domain of f –1(x) is x  4 and the range of f (x) is f (x) > 4.
The range of f –1(x) is f –1(x)  3 and the domain of f (x) is x ≤ 3.

Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB 11

 Modulus functions
Modulus functions y = |f (x)|

|f (x)| is the ‘positive value of f (x)’,

so to sketch the graph of y = |f (x)| first sketch the graph of y = f (x) and then reflect the
part(s) below the x–axis to above the x–axis.

Example: Sketch the graph of y = |x2 – 3x − 4|.

Solution:
First sketch the graph of y = x2 – 3x − 4 Then reflect the portion below
the x-axis in the x–axis to give

y y
8 8
y=|x²−3x−4|
y=x²−3x−4
6 6

4 4

2 2
x x
−18 −16 −14 −12 −10 −8 −36 −4
−6 −34 −2
−32 −30 −28
2 −26
4 −24
6 −22 −20 −18 −16 −14 −12 −10 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6
−2 −2

−4 −4

−6 −6

Example: (a) Solve the equation x2 − 2x = 3 − 2x.

(b) Find the range of values of x which satisfy x2 − 2x < 3 − 2x.

Solution: First sketch the graphs of y = x2 − 2x and y = 3 − 2x

The graphs meet at A and B. y
A
A is the intersection of y = x − 2x and y = 3 − 2x
2
6 y=|x²−2x|

 x2 − 2x = 3 − 2x  x = ±√3
4

From the graph we see that x = −√3 only.

2
B is the intersection of y = x2 − 2x and y = −(3 − 2x) B
x
 x2 − 2x = −20
−3 + 2x
−18 −16  −14 – 4x −10
x2−12 + 3 = −8
0 −6 −4 −2 2 4
y=3−2x
 (x − 1)(x − 3) = 0  x = 1 or 3 −2

From the graph we see that x = 1 only.

(b) x2 − 2x < 3 − 2x is when the curve lies below the line
 −√3 < x < 1.

12 Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB

 Modulus functions y = f (|x|)
In this case f (–3) = f (3), f (–5) = f (5), f (–8.7) = f (8.7) etc. and so the graph on the
left of the y–axis must be the reflection of the graph on the right of the y–axis,

so to sketch the graph, first sketch the graph for positive values of x only, then reflect
the graph sketched in the y–axis.
3 y
y=x²−3x
2
Example: Sketch the graph of y = |x|2 – 3|x|.
1

x
−11 −10 −9 −8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
Solution: f (x) = x – 3x
2
−1
 f (x) = x2 – 3x
−2
First sketch the graph of y = x2 – 3x for positive
values of x only. 3 y
y=|x|²−3|x|
2

Then reflect your graph in the y–axis to 1

x
complete the sketch. −11 −10 −9 −8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4

−1

−2

Standard graphs

3 y y
4 y=x⁴
y=x³ y=x
2 y=x²
3

1
2
x
−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2
1
−1
x
−10 −9 −8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2
−2
−1

y
y
2 3
y=1/x

1 2
y=√x
x
1
−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
x
−1
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

−2 −1

−2

Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB 13

Combinations of transformations of graphs

We know the following transformations of graphs:

y = f (x)
𝑥
translated through (𝑎) becomes y = f (x – a) + b

stretched factor a in the y-direction becomes y = a  f (x)

𝑥
stretched factor a in the x-direction becomes y = 𝑓 (𝑎)
reflected in the x-axis becomes y = – f (x)
reflected in the y-axis becomes y = f (–x)
We can combine these transformations:

Examples:

1) y = 2f (x – 3) is the image of y = f (x) under a stretch in the y-axis of factor 2

3
followed by a translation ( ), or the translation followed by the stretch.
0
2) y = 3x + 6 is the image of y = x2 under a stretch in the y-axis of factor 3
2

0
followed by a translation ( ),
6
BUT these transformations cannot be done in the reverse order.
To do a translation before a stretch we have to notice that
0
3x2 + 6 = 3(x2 + 2) which is the image of y = x2 under a translation of ( )
2
followed by a stretch in the y-axis of factor 3.
3) y = – sin(x + ) is the image of y = sin x under a reflection in the x-axis
−𝜋
followed by a translation of ( ), or the translation followed by the reflection.
0

14 Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB

 Sketching curves
When sketching curves, show the coordinates of the intercepts with the axes, and the
equations of any asymptotes − show the asymptotes with dotted lines.

2
Example: Sketch the curve 𝑦 = 4 − 𝑥, x > 0
Solution:
5 y
asymptote y=4
4
3
y=4−2/x
2
asymptote
x=0
1
x
−9 −8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
−2
−3

Note that the domain is x > 0, so no graph to the left of the y-axis.
x≠0  curve does not meet the x-axis
1
y=0  x= 2
−2
Thinking of y = translated up 4,
𝑥

the horizontal asymptote is y = 4.

Do not forget that the y-axis, x = 0, is also an asymptote.

Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB 15

 3 Trigonometry
Sec, cosec and cot
1 1
Secant is written sec x = ; cosecant is written cosec x =
cos x sin x
1 cos x
cotangent is written cot x = =
tan x sin x
Graphs

y y
y=cosecx
y=secx
2 2

y=sinx
y=cosx x x
π −π π −2π
2π −π π 2π

−2 −2

y
y=tanx y=cotx
2
Notice that your calculator does not have sec,
cosec and cot buttons so to solve equations x
involving sec, cosec and cot, change−2πthem −π π 2π
into equations involving sin, cos and tan and
then use your calculator as usual.
−2

Example: Find cosec 35o.

1 1
Solution: cosec 35o = = = 1  743 to 4 S.F.
sin 35o
0  53576...

Example: Solve sec x = 32 for 0  x  2

1 1
Solution: sec x = 32  = 3  2   cos x = = 0  3125
cos x 3 2
 x = 125 or 2 – 125 = 503 radians to 3 S.F.

16 Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB

 Inverse trigonometrical functions

The inverse of sin x is written as arcsin x or sin–1 x and in order that there should only be
one value of the function for one value of x we restrict the domain to –/2  x  /2 .
Note that sin–1 x does not mean ‘1 over sin x’
Note that the graph of y = arcsin x is the reflection of part of the graph of y = sin x in the
line y = x.
Similarly for the inverses of cos x and tan x, as shown below.

Graphs
y = arcsin x y = arccos x

y
y=x y
y=arcsinx
π/2 π
y=arccosx
y=x
y=sinx
x
π/2
−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
y=cosx
x
−π/2
−10 −9 −8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4

−π −π/2

y = arctan x

y
y=tanx y=x

y=arctanx
π/2

x
−8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6

−π/2

Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB 17

Trigonometrical identities
You should learn these

sin2  + cos2  = 1 tan A - tan B

tan( A - B) =
tan2 + 1 = sec2 1 + tan A tan B

1 + cot2 = cosec2 2 tan A

tan 2 A =
1 - tan 2 A
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
sin (A – B) = sin A cos B – cos A sin B 3 tan A − tan 3 A
tan 3A =
1 − 3 tan 2 A
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A
cos (A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B P+Q P -Q
sin P + sin Q = 2 sin cos
2 2
cos (A – B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
cos 2A = cos2 A – sin2 A P+Q P -Q
sin P – sin Q = 2 cos sin
2 2
= 2 cos2 A – 1
= 1 – 2 sin2 A P+Q P -Q
cos P + cos Q = 2 cos cos
2 2
sin2 A = ½ (1 – cos 2A)
cos2 A = ½ (1 + cos 2A) P+Q P -Q
cos P – cos Q = - 2 sin sin
2 2
sin2 ½  = ½ (1 – cos )
2 sin A cos B = sin(A + B) + sin(A – B)
cos2 ½  = ½ (1 + cos )
2 cos A sin B = sin(A + B) – sin(A – B)
sin 3A = 3 sin A – 4 sin3 A
2 cos A cos B = cos(A + B) + cos(A – B)
cos 3A = 4 cos3A – 3 cos A
–2 sin A sin B = cos(A + B) – cos(A – B)
tan A + tan B
tan( A + B) =
1 - tan A tan B

The last four formulae, 2 sin A cos B = sin(A + B) + sin(A – B) etc., are not in the formula
booklet, and should be learnt.
𝑃+𝑄 𝑃−𝑄
You should know the proofs of the four formulae sin P + sin Q = 2 sin cos , etc.
2 2

Proof of sin P + sin Q = 2 sin [(P + Q)/2] cos[(P −Q)/2]

We know that sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
and sin(A − B) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B
 in(A + B) + sin(A − B) = 2 sin A cos B
Now put P = A + B, and Q = A − B
𝑃+𝑄 𝑃−𝑄
 P + Q = 2A, and P − Q = 2B,  A= , and B =
2 2
𝑃+𝑄 𝑃−𝑄
 sin P + sin Q = 2 sin 2
cos 2
.
The other formulae can be proved in a similar way.

18 Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB

Finding exact values

When finding exact values you may not use calculators.

Reminder – 30o, 45o and 60o.

Isosceles right angle triangle Equilateral triangle

30o
√2 2
1 √3

45o 60o
1 1
1 1 √3 1
sin 45o = , cos 45o = , tan 45o = 1 sin 60o = , cos 60o = , tan 60o = √3
√2 √2 2 2
1 √3 1
sin 30o = , cos 30o = , tan 30o =
2 2 √3

Example: Find the exact value of cos 15o

Solution: We know the exact values of sin 45o, cos 45o and sin 30o, cos 30o
so we consider cos 15 = cos (45 – 30) = cos 45 cos30 + sin 45 sin 30
1 √3 1 1 √3 + 1 √6 + √2
= × + ×2 = = .
√2 2 √2 2√2 4

Example: Given that A is obtuse and that B is acute, and sin A = 3/5 and cos B = 5/13 find
the exact value of sin (A + B).

Solution: You cannot draw a 90o triangle with an obtuse or reflex angle!!!

We know that sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B so we must first find cos A
and sin B.

Using sin2  + cos2  = 1

 cos2 A = 1 – 9/25 = 16
/25 and sin2 B = 1 – 25/169 = 144
/169
 cos A =  4/5 and sin B =  12/13
But A is obtuse so cos A is negative, and B is acute so sin B is positive
 cos A = – 4/5 and sin B = 12
/13
 sin (A + B) = 3/5  5/13 + – 4/5  12/13 = –33
/65
Note that you can use a 90o triangle to find sin B since b is acute.

Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB 19

Proving identities.

Start with one side, usually the L.H.S., and fiddle with it until it equals the other side.

Do not fiddle with both sides at the same time.

cos 2𝐴+1
Example: Prove that = cot 2 𝐴.
1−cos 2𝐴

cos 2𝐴+1 2 cos2 𝐴−1+1 2 cos2 𝐴

Solution: L.H.S. = = = cot 2 𝐴. Q.E.D.
1−cos 2𝐴 1−(1−2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴) 2 sin2 𝐴

Eliminating a variable between two equations

Example: Eliminate  from the parametric equations x = sec  – 1, y = tan .

Solution: We remember that tan2 + 1 = sec2

 sec2 – tan2 = 1.
sec = x + 1 and tan = y
 (x + 1)2 – y2 = 1
 y2 = (x + 1)2 – 1 = x2 + 2x.

Solving equations

Here you have to select the ‘best’ identity to help you solve the equation.

Example: Solve the equation sec2A = 3 – tan A, for 0  A  360o.

Solution: We know that tan2A + 1 = sec2A

 tan2A + 1 = 3 – tan A
 tan2A + tan A – 2 = 0, factorising gives
 (tan A – 1)(tan A + 2) = 0
 tan A = 1 or tan A = –2
 A = 45, 225, or 1166, 2966.

20 Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB

 Example: Solve sin 3x − sin 5x = 0 for 0o ≤ x ≤ 90o.
𝑃+𝑄 𝑃−𝑄
Solution: Using the formula sin P − sin Q = 2 cos sin
2 2

 2 cos 4x sin(−x) = 0  cos 4x sin x = 0

 cos 4x = 0, or sin x = 0
 4x = 90, 270, (450), … or x = 0, (180), …
 x = 0o, 225o or 675o.

R cos(x + )
An alternative way of writing a cos x  b sin x using one of the formulae listed below
(1) R cos (x + ) = R cos x cos  – R sin x sin 
(2) R cos (x – ) = R cos x cos  + R sin x sin 
(3) R sin (x + ) = R sin x cos  + R cos x sin 
(4) R sin (x – ) = R sin x cos  – R cos x sin 

To keep R positive and  acute, we select the formula with corresponding + and – signs.
The technique is the same which ever formula we choose.
Example: Solve the equation 12 sin x – 5 cos x = 6 for 0o  x  3600.

Solution: First re–write in the above form:

notice that the sin x is positive and the cos x is negative so we need formula (4).

R sin (x – ) = R sin x cos  – R cos x sin  = 12 sin x – 5 cos x

Equating coefficients of sin x,  R cos  = 12 I

Equating coefficients of cos x,  R sin  = 5 II
By choosing the correct formula we ensure that there are no minus signs in I and II

Squaring and adding I and II  R2 cos2  + R2 sin2  = 122 + 52

 R2 (cos2  + sin2 ) = 144 + 25 but cos2  + sin2  = 1
 R2 = 169  R = 13
But choosing the correct formula means that R is positive  R = +13
III  tan  = 5/12
  = 22620…o or 337379…o or ……
and choosing the correct formula means that  is acute
  = 22620…o.
 12 sin x – 5 cos x = 13 sin(x – 22620…)

Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB 21

 To solve 12 sin x – 5 cos x = 6
 12 sin x – 5 cos x = 13 sin(x – 22620…) = 6
 sin(x – 22620…) = 6/13
 x – 22620… = 27486… or 180 – 27486… = 152514…
 x = 501o or 1751o .

Example: Find the maximum value of 24 sin x – 10 cos x and the smallest positive value
of x for which it occurs.

Solution: From the above example

24 sin x – 10 cos x = 2(12 sin x – 5 cos x) = 2  13 sin(x – 22.6) = 26 sin(x – 22.6).
The maximum value of sin(anything) is 1 and occurs when the angle is 90, 450, 810
etc. i.e. 90 + 360n

 the max value of 26 sin(x – 226) is 26

when x – 226 = 90 + 360n  x = 1126 + 360no,
 smallest positive value of x is 1126o.

Example: Find the minimum value of

450
ℎ=
11 + (12 sin 𝑥 − 5 cos 𝑥)2

Solution: The minimum value of h will occur when the denominator is a maximum, in
other words when (12 sin 𝑥 − 5 cos 𝑥)2 = (13 sin(𝑥 − 22 ∙ 6))2 is a maximum.
13 sin(𝑥 − 22 ∙ 6) varies between −13 and +13
 (13 sin(𝑥 − 22 ∙ 6))2 varies between 0 and 132
 maximum value of the denominator is 11 + 132 = 180
450
 minimum value of h is 180 = 25.

22 Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB

4 Exponentials and logarithms
4 y

Natural logarithms
Definition and graph y = ex y=x
e  27183 and logs to base e 2

are called natural logarithms.

log e x is usually written ln x.
y = ln x
−6 −4 −2 2 4
x
Note that y = e and y = ln x
are inverse functions
 ln ex = x and eln x = x −2

and that the graph of one is the reflection

of the other in the line y = x.
−4

Graph of y = e(ax + b) + c. y

y = e2x y = ex
3
2x
The graph of y = e is the graph of
y = e stretched by a factor of 1/2 in
x
2

the direction of the x-axis.

y = e2x is above y = ex for x > 0, 1

and below for x < 0.

−2 2

The graph of y = e(2x + 3) is the graph of

3 y = e2x
2x −
y = e translated through ( 2) since 6
0 y = e(2x+3)+4
−3
2x + 3 = 2(x – 2 )
4
and the graph of y = e(2x +3) + 4 is that of
0
y = e(2x + 3) translated through ( )
4
y = e(2x+3) 2

−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4

Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB 23

Equations of the form eax + b = p

Example: Solve e2x + 3 = 5.

Solution: Take the natural logarithm of each side, remember that ln x is the inverse of ex

 ln (e2x + 3) = ln 5  2x + 3 = ln 5
ln 5−3
 x = = –0695 to 3 S.F.
2

Example: Solve ln (3x – 5) = 4.

Solution:
(i) From the definition of logs loga x = y  x = ay
ln (3x – 5) = 4
 3x − 5 = e4
e4 + 5
 x = = 199 to 3 S.F.
3

5 Curves into straight lines

1) When y and x are related by an equation of the form y = axn, we can obtain a straight line
graph by taking logarithms of both sides
 log y = log a + n log x
and if we plot log y against log x,
we get a straight line with gradient n and intercept on the log y axis of log a.

2) When y and x are related by an equation of the form y = kbx, we can obtain a straight line
graph by taking logarithms of both sides
 log y = log k + x log b
and if we plot log y against x,
we get a straight line with gradient log b and intercept on the log y axis of log k.

24 Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB

6 Differentiation
Chain rule
If y is a composite function like y = (5x2 – 7)9
think of y as y = u9, where u = 5x2 – 7
then the chain rule gives
dy dy du
= 
dx du dx
dy du
 = 9u 8 
dx dx
dy
 = 9(5 x 2 − 7) 8  (10 x) = 90 x(5 x 2 − 7) 8 .
dx
du
The rule is very simple, just differentiate the function of u and multiply by .
dx
dy
Example: y = (x3 – 2x). Find .
dx
1
Solution: y = (x3 – 2x) = ( x 3 − 2 x) 2 . Put u = x3 – 2x
1
 y= u 2
dy dy du
 = 
dx du dx
dy −1 du −1
 = 12 u 2  = 1
2
( x 3 − 2 x) 2
 (3x 2 − 2)
dx dx
dy 3x 2 − 2
 = 1
.
dx 2( x 3 − 2 x) 2

Product rule

If y is the product of two functions, u and v, then

dy dv du
y = uv  = u + v .
dx dx dx

Example: Differentiate y = x2  (x – 5).

1
Solution: y = x2  (x – 5) = x2  ( x − 5) 2

1
so put u = x2 and v = ( x − 5) 2

dy dv du
 = u + v
dx dx dx
−1 1
= x2  1
2
( x − 5) 2
+ ( x − 5) 2  2x
x2
= + 2x x − 5 .
2 x−5

Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB 25

Quotient rule

If y is the quotient of two functions, u and v, then

du dv
v − u
u dy dx dx .
y =  = 2
v dx v

2x − 3
Example: Differentiate y =
x 2 + 5x
2x − 3
Solution: y = , so put u = 2x – 3 and v = x2 + 5x
x 2 + 5x
du dv
v − u
dy dx dx
 = 2
dx v

( x 2 + 5 x)  2 − (2 x − 3)  (2 x + 5)
=
( x 2 + 5 x) 2

2 x 2 + 10 x − (4 x 2 + 4 x − 15) − 2 x 2 + 6 x + 15
= = .
( x 2 + 5 x) 2 ( x 2 + 5 x) 2

3𝑥−2 𝑑𝑦
Example: If y = , find , expressing your answer as a single algebraic fraction in
√𝑥−1 𝑑𝑥
its simplest form.

3𝑥 − 2
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑦= 1
(𝑥 − 1)2
1 −1
𝑑𝑦 (𝑥 − 1)2 × 3 − (3𝑥 − 2) × 12(𝑥 − 1) 2
 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥−1
1 (3𝑥 − 2)
(𝑥 − 1)2 × 3 − 1
𝑑𝑦 2(𝑥 − 1) ⁄2
 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥−1
1 (3𝑥 − 2)
(𝑥 − 1)2 × 3 − 1 1
𝑑𝑦 2(𝑥 − 1) ⁄2 2(𝑥 − 1) ⁄2
 = × 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑥−1 2(𝑥 − 1) ⁄2
𝑑𝑦 6(𝑥 − 1) − (3𝑥 − 2) 6𝑥 − 6 − 3𝑥 + 2
 = 3⁄ = 3
𝑑𝑥 2(𝑥 − 1) 2 2(𝑥 − 1) ⁄2
𝑑𝑦 3𝑥 − 4
 = 3
𝑑𝑥 2(𝑥 − 1) ⁄2

26 Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB

Derivatives of ex and logex  ln x.

𝑑𝑦
y = ex  = ex
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1
y = ln x  =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1 1
y = ln kx  y = ln k + ln x  = 0+ =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1 1
or y = ln kx  = ×𝑘 = using the chain rule
𝑑𝑥 𝑘𝑥 𝑥

dy 1 k
y = ln xk  y = k ln x  = k× =
dx x x
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑘
or y = ln xk  = × 𝑘𝑥 𝑘−1 = using the chain rule
𝑑𝑥 𝑥𝑘 𝑥

Example: Find the derivative of f (x) = x3 – 5ex at the point where x = 2.

Solution: f (x) = x3 – 5ex

 f (x) = 3x2 – 5ex
 f (2) = 12 – 5e2 = –249

Example: Differentiate the function f (x) = ln 3x – ln x5

Solution: f (x) = ln 3x – ln x5
1 1 −4
 f (x) = 3𝑥 × 3 − 𝑥 5 × 5𝑥 4 =
𝑥

Example: Find the derivative of f (x) = log 10 3x.

ln 3 x
Solution: f (x) = log 10 3x = using change of base formula
ln 10
ln 3 + ln 𝑥 ln 3 ln 𝑥
= = +
ln 10 ln 10 ln 10
1
1
 f (x) = 0 + 𝑥
= .
ln 10 𝑥 ln 10

Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB 27

 2 dy
Example: y = e x . Find .
dx

Solution: y = eu, where u = x2

dy dy du
 = 
dx du dx
dy du 2
 = eu  = eu  2x = 2x e x .
dx dx

dy
Example: y = ln 7x3. Find .
dx

Solution: y = ln u, where u = 7x3

dy dy du
 = 
dx du dx
dy 1 du 1 3
 =  = 3
 21x 2 = .
dx u dx 7x x

(dy/dx) = 1/(dx/dy)

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 1
Using the chain rule we can see that  𝑑𝑦 = 1,  = 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦

𝑑𝑦
Example: x = sin2 3y. Find 𝑑𝑥 .
𝑑𝑥
Solution: First find as this is easier.
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
= 2 sin 3y cos 3y  3 = 6 sin 3y cos 3y
𝑑𝑦

𝑑𝑦 1 1 1 1
 = 𝑑𝑥 = = = cosec 6y
𝑑𝑥 6 sin 3 y cos 3 y 3 sin 6 y 3
𝑑𝑦

Derivative of ax
𝑑𝑦
y = ax  = 𝑎 𝑥 ln 𝑎
𝑑𝑥

Proof:
y = ax
 ln y = ln ax = x ln a
1 𝑑𝑦
 = ln 𝑎
𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
 = y ln a = ax ln a
𝑑𝑥

You should know this proof.

28 Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB

 𝑑𝑦
Example: If y = 5x + 2, find .
𝑑𝑥

Solution 1: y = 5x × 52 = 25 × 5x
𝑑𝑦
 = 25 × 5x ln 5
𝑑𝑥

2 𝑑𝑦
Example: 𝑦 = 7𝑥 , find 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 2
Solution: y = 7u  = 7u ln 7 × 𝑑𝑥 = 7𝑥 ln 7 × 2x using the chain rule
𝑑𝑥

Trigonometric differentiation

x must be in RADIANS when differentiating trigonometric functions.

f (x) f  (x) important formulae

sin x cos x
cos x – sin x sin2 x + cos2 x = 1
tan x sec2 x
sec x sec x tan x tan2 x + 1 = sec2 x
cot x – cosec2 x
cosec x – cosec x cot x 1 + cot2 x = cosec2 x

Chain rule – further examples

dy
Example: y = sin4 x. Find .
dx
Solution: y = sin4 x. Put u = sin x

 y = u4
dy dy du
 = 
dx du dx
dy du
 = 4u 3  = 4 sin 3 x  cos x .
dx dx

Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB 29

 dy
Example: y = e sin x . Find .
dx
Solution: y = eu, where u = sin x
dy dy du
 = 
dx du dx
dy du
 = eu  = esin x  cos x = cos x  esin x .
dx dx

dy
Example: y = ln (sec x). Find .
dx
Solution: y = ln u, where u = sec x
dy dy du
 = 
dx du dx
dy 1 du 1
 =  =  sec x tan x = tan x .
dx u dx sec x

Trigonometry and the product and quotient rules

Example: Differentiate y = x2  cosec 3x.

dy dv du
Solution: = u + v
dx dx dx

y = x2  cosec 3x

Put u = x2 and v = cosec 3x

𝑑𝑦
= x2  (– 3cosec 3x cot 3x) + cosec 3x  2x
𝑑𝑥

= – 3x2 cosec 3x cot 3x + 2x cosec 3x.

30 Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB

 tan 2 x
Example: Differentiate y =
7x3
du dv
v − u
u dy dx dx
Solution: y =  =
v dx v2

tan 2 x
y =
7x3

Put u = tan 2x and v = 7x3

dy 7 x 3  2 sec 2 2 x − tan 2 x  21x 2

 =
dx (7 x 3 ) 2
dy 14 x 3 sec 2 2 x − 21x 2 tan 2 x
 =
dx 49 x 6
dy 2 x sec 2 2 x − 3 tan 2 x
 =
dx 7x 4

Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB 31

7 Integration
Integrals of ax, ex and 1/x
𝑑
We know that (𝑎 𝑥 ) = 𝑎 𝑥 log 𝑎
𝑑𝑥
𝑎𝑥
 ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 =𝑥
+ 𝑐
log 𝑎

 e x dx = e x + c

 1 dx = ln | x | + c
 for a further treatment of this result, see the appendix
x

 x + 3x
3
Example: Find  dx
 x2

 x + 3x
3
Solution:  dx = 
x+
3
dx = ½ x + 3 ln x + c.
2
 x 2
 x

Standard integrals

x must be in RADIANS when integrating trigonometric functions.

f (x)
 f ( x) dx f (x)
 f ( x) dx

𝑥 𝑛+1
xn
𝑛+1 sin x – cos x
1 ln x cos x sin x
𝑥
ex ex sec x tan x sec x
ekx 𝑒 𝑘𝑥 sec2 x tan x
𝑘

cosec x cot x – cosec x

cosec2 x – cot x

Integration using trigonometric identities

Example: Find ∫ cot 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

Solution: cot2 x = cosec2 x – 1
 ∫ cot 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ cosec 2 𝑥 − 1 𝑑𝑥
= – cot x – x + c.

Example: Find ∫ sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

32 Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB
 Solution: sin2 x = ½ (1 – cos 2x)
1
 ∫ sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 1 − cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
= ½ x – ¼ sin 2x + c.
You cannot change x to 3x in the above result to find ∫ sin2 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 see next example

Example: Find ∫ sin2 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

Solution: sin2 3x = ½ (1 – cos 2  3x) = ½ (1 – cos 6x)
1
 ∫ sin2 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 1 − cos 6𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ½ x – 1/12 sin 6x + c.
2

Example: Find  sin 3x cos 5x dx.

Solution: Using the formula 2 sin A cos B = sin(A + B) + sin(A – B)

This formula is NOT in the formula booklet – you can use the formulae for sin(A ± B) and add them

 sin 3x cos 5x dx
= 1
/2  sin 8x + sin (–2x)
dx = 1
/2  sin 8x – sin 2x dx
= – /16 cos 8x + ¼ cos 2x + c.
1

Integration by ‘reverse chain rule’

Some integrals which are not standard functions can be integrated by thinking of the chain
rule for differentiation.

Example: Find ∫ sin4 3𝑥 cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

Solution: ∫ sin4 3𝑥 cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢
If we think of u = sin 3x, then the integrand looks like 𝑢4 𝑑𝑥 if we ignore the constants,
which would integrate to give 1/5 u5
so we differentiate u5 = sin5 3x
𝑑
to give (sin5 3 𝑥) = 5(sin4 3 𝑥) × 3 cos 3 𝑥 = 15 sin4 3 𝑥 cos 3 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

which is 15 times what w

e want and so
1
∫ sin4 3𝑥 cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 15
sin5 3 𝑥 + 𝑐

Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB 33

 x
Example: Find  (2 x − 3)
2
dx

x
Solution:  (2 x − 3)
2
dx

1 𝑑𝑢
If we think of u = (2x2 – 3), then the integrand looks like if we ignore the
𝑢 𝑑𝑥
constants, which would integrate to ln u
so we differentiate ln u = ln 2x2 – 3
𝑑 1 4𝑥
to give (ln|2𝑥 2 − 3|) = × 4𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 2𝑥 2 −3 (2𝑥 2 −3)

which is 4 times what we want and so

𝑥
∫ (2𝑥 2−3) dx = ¼ ln 2x2 – 3 + c.
𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
𝐈𝐧 𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐥 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑓(𝑥)| + 𝑐
𝑓(𝑥)
2
𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒: Find ∫ 𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 2 2
Solution: First consider (𝑒 2𝑥 ) = 4x 𝑒 2𝑥 , which is 4 × the integrand
𝑑𝑥
2
2𝑥 2
𝑒 2𝑥
 ∫ 𝑥𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
4

𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒: Find ∫ 53𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑
Solution: We know that (53𝑥 ) = 53𝑥 ln 5 × 3, using the chain rule
𝑑𝑥

53𝑥
 ∫5 3𝑥
𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
3 ln 5

Integrals of tan x and cot x

sin x − sin x
 tan x dx =  cos x dx = −
cos x
dx , 
f '( x )
and we now have  f ( x)
dx = ln f ( x ) + c

  tan x dx = – ln cos x + c
  tan x dx = ln sec x + c
cot x can be integrated by a similar method to give
 cot x dx = ln sin x + c

34 Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB

Integrals of sec x and cosec x

sec x (sec x + tan x) sec 2 x + sec x tan x

 sec x dx =  sec x + tan x dx =  sec x + tan x dx
The top is now the derivative of the bottom
f ' ( x)
and we have  f ( x)
dx = ln f ( x) + c

  sec x dx = ln sec x + tan x + c

and similarly
 cosec x dx = –ln cosec x + cot x + c

Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB 35

8 Numerical methods
Locating the roots of f(x) = 0
y

A quick sketch of the graph of y = f (x) can give a rough

idea of the roots of f (x) = 0.
y=f(x)
If y = f (x) changes sign between x = a and x = b and if
f (x) is continuous in this region then a root of f (x) = 0
lies between x = a and x = b. x
−10
a b

The iteration xn + 1 = g(xn)

Example:
(a) Show that a root, , of the equation f (x) = x3 – 8x – 7 = 0 lies between 3 and 4.
(b) Show that the equation x3 – 8x – 7 = 0 can be re–arranged as x = 3
8x + 7 .

(c) Starting with x1 = 3, use the iteration xn + 1 = 3 8 x n + 7 to find the first four
iterations for x.
(d) Show that your value of x4 is correct to 3 S.F.

Solution:
(a) f (3) = 27 – 24 – 7 = –4, and f (4) = 64 – 32 – 7 = +25
Thus f (x) changes sign and f (x) is continuous  there is a root between 3 and 4.
(b) x3 – 8x – 7 = 0  x3 = 8x + 7  x= 3
8x + 7 .
(c) x1 = 3
 x2 = 3
8 3 + 7 you must do the first iteration with the numbers

 = 314138065239
 x3 = 317912997899
 x4 = 318905898325
(d) x4 = 319 to 3 S.F.
f (3185) = 31853 – 8  3185 – 7 = – 017 …
f (3195) = 31953 – 8  3195 – 7 = + 005 …
f (x) changes sign and f (x) is continuous
 there is a root in the interval [3185, 3195]
  = 319 to 3 S.F.

36 Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB

Conditions for convergence

If an equation is rearranged as x = g(x) and if there is a root x = 

then the iteration xn+1 = g(xn), starting with an approximation near x = 

(i) will converge if –1 < g () < 1

y y
y=x y=x

y=g(x)

y=g(x)

x x
X1 X2 X3 X4 X1 X3 X4 X2

(a) will converge without oscillating (b) will oscillate and converge
if 0 < g () < 1, if –1 < g () < 0,

(ii) will diverge if y

g () < –1 or g () > 1.

y=g(x)
y=x

x
X1 X 2 X3 X4

Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB 37

9 Appendix
Derivatives of sin x and cos x
limit of (sin h)/h as h tends to 0
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒉
𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) = 𝟏 C
𝒉→𝟎 𝒉

OAB is a sector of a circle with centre O and radius r. A

1 2
The area of the triangle OAB, r sin h, r tan h
2 r
1 2
is less than the area of the sector OAB, rh
2
1 2 1 2
 r sin h < rh h
2 2 O
sin ℎ r B
 <1 …….I
ℎ
1 2
Also the area of the sector OAB, rh r tan h
2
1 2
is less than the area of the triangle OBC, r tan h,
2
1 2 1 2 sin ℎ
 rh < r tan h  cos h < ……..II
2 2 ℎ
sin ℎ
I and II  cos h < <1
ℎ

and as ℎ → 0, lim cos ℎ = 1

ℎ→0
sin ℎ sin ℎ
 1 < lim ( )<1  lim ( ) =1
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ

h must be in RADIANS, as the formula for the area of sector is only true if h is in radians.

Alternative formula for derivative

y
R y = f (x)
The gradient of the curve at P will be nearly P
equal to the gradient of the line QR. Q S
QM = f (x – h) and RN = f (x + h)
 RS = f (x + h) – f (x – h)
QS = MN = 2h
𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ) – 𝑓 (𝑥 – ℎ) M N x
 gradient of QR = 2ℎ
x–h x x+h
and as h → 0, the gradient of QR → f (x) =
gradient of the curve at P
limit 𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ) – 𝑓 (𝑥 – ℎ)
 f (x) = ℎ→0 2ℎ
limit 𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
Preiously we used the formula f (x) = ℎ→0 ℎ

38 Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB

Derivatives of sin x and cos x
limit 𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ) – 𝑓 (𝑥 – ℎ)
f (x) = sin x and f (x) = ℎ→0 2ℎ
limit sin (𝑥 + ℎ) – sin (𝑥 – ℎ)
 f (x) = ℎ→0 2ℎ
limit (sin 𝑥 cos ℎ +cos 𝑥 sin ℎ ) − (sin 𝑥 cos ℎ−cos 𝑥 sin ℎ )
= ℎ→0 2ℎ
limit 2cos 𝑥 sin ℎ
= ℎ→0 2ℎ
limit sin ℎ
= ℎ→0
cos 𝑥 ℎ
limit sin ℎ
but ( ) = 1
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑑
 f (x) = (sin 𝑥) = cos x
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
Similarly, we can show that (cos 𝑥) = – sin x
𝑑𝑥

x must be in RADIANS.

Integral of 1/x for negative limits

We know that the ‘area’ under any curve, from x = a to x = b is approximately
𝑏 𝑏
∑ 𝑦 𝛿𝑥 → ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥, 𝑎𝑠 𝛿𝑥 → 0
𝑎 𝑎

If the curve is above the x-axis, all the y values are positive, and if a < b then all values of  x
are positive, and so the integral is positive.

This gives us a way of defining

−𝑏
−𝑏
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = [ln|x|] = ln 𝑏 − ln 𝑎 for positive 𝑎 and 𝑏
−𝑎 𝑥
−𝑎

Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB 39

 −3 1
Example: Find  −1 x
dx .

Solution: The integral wanted is shown as A in

y

the diagram. 1

By symmetry |𝐴′| = A (A positive) A x

−12 −11 −10 −9 −8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 A' −1 1 2 3
and we need to decide whether the integral is
+A or − A. −1

From x = −1 to x = −3, we are going in the −2

direction of x decreasing
 all  x are negative. −3

And the graph is below the x-axis,

−4

 the y values are negative,  y  x is positive

−3
 ∑−3
−1 𝑦 𝛿𝑥 > 0 = ∫−1 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 > 0

 the integral is positive and equal to A.

3 1
The integral, A = A =  1 x
dx =  ln x  13 = ln 3 − ln 1 = ln 3

−3 1
 A =  −1 x
dx = ln 3

Notice that this is what we get if we write ln x in place of ln x

−3 1
 −1 x
dx =  ln | x | −−31 = ln 3 – ln 1 = ln 3

As it will always be possible to use symmetry in this way, since we can never have one
positive and one negative limit (because there is a discontinuity at x = 0), it is correct to write
ln |𝑥| for the integral of 1/x .

40 Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB

Index
algebraic fractions Integration
1/ for negative limits, 39
adding and subtracting, 5 x
equations, 6 ex, 32
multiplying and dividing, 5 ln x, 32
chain rule, 25 reverse chain rule, 33
further examples, 29 sec x and cosec x, 35
cosecant, 16 standard integrals, 32
cotangent, 16 tan x and cot x, 34
curves using trigonometric identities, 32
sketching, 15 inverse functions
curves into straight lines, 24 domain and range, 11
derivative finding inverse, 10
ax, 28 graphs, 9
ex, 27 iteration
ln x, 27 conditions for convergence, 37
differentiation iteration equation, 36
dydx = 1 dxdy, 28 justification of accuracy, 36
proof of results for sin x and cos x, 38 locating the roots, 36
trigonometric functions, 29 logarithm
equations graph of ln x, 23
graphical solutions, 36 natural logarithm, 23
exponential product rule, 25
eax + b = p, 24 further examples, 30
graph of y = e(ax + b) + c, 23 quotient rule, 26
graph of y = ex, 23 further examples, 30
functions, 7 R cos(x + ), 21
combining functions, 9 secant, 16
defining functions, 8 trigonometrical identities, 18
domain, 7 trigonometry
modulus functions, 12 finding exact values, 19
range, 7 graphs of sec, cosec and cot, 16
graphs harder equations, 20
combining transformations, 14 inverse functions, 17
standard functions, 13 proving identities, 20

Pure 3 MAY 2022 SDB 41