INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTIC

(SYNTAX)

GROUP 4

● MUH.ARDAN (1952042031)

● EVI SYAFITRI (1952041047)

● APRIL ADE SUNIA (1952042009)

● MILA DWIREZKY ANGGRAENI (1952042019)

STATE UNIVERSITY OF MAKASSAR

FACULTY LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

 ENGLISH EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

ACADEMIC YEAR 2020-2021

BAB 1
INTRODUCTION
A. Background

In talking about syntax, the fields that become the land are language units in the form
of sentences, clauses and phrases. Humans in speaking greetings, telling stories, or anything
that can be said as language, always raises strung sentences, woven in such a way that they
function optimally for the speaker in an effort to develop his mind and maintain his
cooperation with others.

B. Problem Formulation

1. What is syntax?

2. What is the meaning of the phrase and what are the types?

3. What is the meaning of a clause and what are the types?

4. What is the meaning of a sentence and what are the types?

C. Purpose of Problem Discussion

1. Can explain the meaning of syntax

2. Can explain the meaning and types of phrases

3. Can explain the meaning and types of clauses

4. Can explain the meaning of sentences and the kinds

 BAB II
CONTENT
A. SYNTACTIC
a. Definition of syntax

Based on the experts, Syntax is a central component of human language. Language

has often been characterized as a systematic correlation between certain types of gestures
and meaning. It is not the case that every possible meaning that can be expressed is
correlated with a unique, unanalyzable gesture, be it oral or manual. Rather, each
language has stock of meaning-bearing elements and different ways of combining them
to express different meaning, and these ways of combining them are themselves
meaningful (Robert and Valin, 2001). Syntax can thus be given the following
characterization, taken from Matthews (1982:1) the term ‘syntax’ is from the Ancient
Greek syntaxis, a verbal noun which literally means ‘arrangement’ or ‘setting out
together’. Traditionally, it refers to the branch of grammar dealing with the ways in
which words, with or without appropriate inflections, are arranged to show connections
of meaning within the sentence. Similar to the explanation of Matthew, Robert and Van
Valin (2001) expresses the essence of itself as the following syntax: “First and foremost,
syntax deals with how sentences are constructed, and users of human language employ a
striking variety of possible arrangements of the element in sentences”.

Syntax comes from the Dutch language syntax. In English the term syntax is used.
Syntax is a part or branch of linguistics that discusses the ins and outs of discourse,
sentences, clauses, phrases (Ramlan 2001). Meanwhile, according to Tarigan, syntax is a
branch or grammar that discusses sentence structure, clauses and phrases.

Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed
in particular languages. Syntactic investigation of a given language has as its goal the
construction of a grammar that can be viewed as a device of some sort for producing the
sentences of the language under analysis. (Chomsky, 2002)

The study of syntax is the study of how words combine to from phrases and
ultimately sentences in languages. Because it consists of phrases that are put together in a
particular way, a sentences has a structure. The structure consists of way in which the
words are organized into phrases and the phrases are organized into larger phrases. The
study of phrases and sentences structure is sometimes called grammar. (Tserdanelis and
Wong, 2004)
 The syntax of a language is the set of properties which determine the construction of
sentences in that language. If a sentence is constructed according to those properties it is
well formed or grammatical. If a sentence is constructed in violation of those properties it
is ill-formed or ungrammatical. The study of syntax involves uncovering those properties
of language which are involved in the construction of grammatical sentence in particular
languages. (Hawkins, 2001)

Syntax is the system of rules and categories that allows words to be combined to the
form of sentence. The data that linguists use to study syntax consists primarily of
judgments about grammaticality of individual sentence. Roughly speaking, a sentence is
considered grammatical if speakers judge it to be a possible sentence of their language.
(O’grady, at all, 1989)

Syntax is that part of our linguistics knowledge which concerns the structure of
sentences. Knowing a language also means being able to put words together to form
sentences to express our thoughts. (Fromkin and Rodman, 1983)

From the experts’ explanation above we can conclude that syntax is the study of
internal structure of sentences. In this case, it explains how words are arranged become
phrases and clauses for constructing sentence. It is commonly we call structure. Structure
manages how words can be combined with another for creating good sentence.

b. Basic idea of syntax

1. Word ordering and meaning

The order of words in a sentences or phrases is connected to its literal meaning. The
basic underlying word order in an English sentence is subject-verb-object (S-V-O).
(Murcia and Freeman, 1999). The factors determines the meaning of sentences: (1) the
selection of words plays a role in determining the literal meaning of the sentences, (2) the
orders of words play a role the literal meaning of the sentences. (Tserdanelis and Wong,
2004). See the two examples:

a. The mat is on the cat

b. The cat is on the mat

2. Ambiguity

As we have studied before, there is factor determining what a sentence means.

Consider the following examples:

a. Can you tell me the time?

b. We had the president for dinner.

 c. We need more intelligent administrators.

d. Pat shot the soldier with a telescope.

All three sentences are ambiguous-that is, they have more than one meaning. The
first sentences is ambiguous because it can be used either as a straightforward question
(“are you able to tell me the time?”). We call this pragmatic ambiguity. The second
sentence is ambiguous because the expression have for dinner can mean either “host for
dinner” or “have for dinner”. This type of ambiguity is called lexical ambiguity. The third
sentence, this sentence also has two meaning. On one meaning, we need administrators
who are more intelligent. On the other meaning, we need a greater number of intelligent
administrators. The type of ambiguity is called structure ambiguity. (Tserdanelis and
Wong, 2004)

B. PHRASE

Phrases are grammatical units consisting of two or more words that do not exceed
the limits of the clause element function. Phrases are groups of words that occupy a
function (subject, predicate, complement, object, and description) and the unity of
meaning in a sentence.

To make it easier for you to learn about phrases, see the following examples: Two
students are reading a new book in the library. The sentence consists of one clause,
namely two students reading a new book in the library. Meanwhile, the clause consists of
four elements, namely, two students, reading a new book, and in the library.

Each element has one function. Two students occupy the S element, reading has
the P function, the new book has the O function, and the library has the KET function.
Such is the clause element consisting of two or more words which does not exceed the
limit of that function. Is a grammatical unit called a phrase. So the phrase itself is a
grammatical unit consisting of two or more words that do not exceed the limits of the
clause element function.

a. Phrase: Definition, Types & Examples

Phrase and clause are the most important elements of English grammar. Phrase and
clause cover everything a sentence has. Clauses are the center of sentences and phrases
strengthen the sentences to become meaningful. If the clauses are the pillars of a building,
the phrases are the bricks. A phrase usually is always present within a clause, but a phrase
cannot have a clause in it .The basic difference between a clause and a phrase is that a
clause must have a finite verb and a phrase must not.

A phrase, therefore, is a group of words which has no finite verb in it and acts to
complete the sentence for making it meaningful.
 “A phrase is a small group of words that form a meaningful unit within a clause.”(Oxford
Dictionary)

“In linguistic analysis, a phrase is a group of words (or possibly a single word) that
functions as a constituent in the syntax of a sentence, a single unit within a grammatical
hierarchy.”(- Osborne, Timothy, Michael Putnam, and Thomas Gross (2011))

b. Types of Phrases

The phrases are generally of six types.

1. Noun Phrase

2. Adjective Phrase

3. Adverbial Phrase

4. Prepositional Phrase

5. Conjunctional Phrase

6. Interjectional Phrase

1.Noun Phrase

A noun phrase is usually assembled centering a single noun and works as a

subject, an object or a complement in the sentence.

Example:

● I like to swing the bat hard when I am at the crease. (An object)

● Reading novels is a good habit. (A subject)

● The probability of happening that match is not much. (A subject)

● We are sorry for her departure.

2.Adjective Phrase

An adjective phrase is comprised of an adjective and works as a single adjective

in the sentence.

Example:
 ● Alex is a well-behaved man.

● He is a man of friendly nature.

● Julie is a woman of gorgeous style.

● She leads a very interesting life.

● A lot of people do not sleep at night.

3.Adverbial Phrase

An adverbial phrase modifies the verb or the adjective and works as an adverb in
the sentence.

Example:

● The horse runs at a good speed.

● I was in a hurry then.

● I ran as fast as possible.

● He works very slowly.

4.Prepositional Phrase

A prepositional phrase always begins with a preposition and connects nouns.

Example:

● He sacrificed his life for the sake of his country.

● In the end, we all have to die.

● He is on the way.
 ● By working aimlessly, you will not get success.

● In spite of working hard, he was insulted by his boss.

Note: Prepositional phrases include all other types of phrases.

5.Conjunctional Phrase

A conjunctional phrase works as a conjunction in the sentence.

Example:

● As soon as you got in, he went out.

● We have to work hard so that we can win the next match.

● I will attend the ceremony provided that you come.

● John started working early in order that he could finish early.

6.Interjectional Phrase

Interjections that have more than one words are called the interjectional phrases.

Example:

● What a pity! He is dead.

● What a pleasure! I won the first prize.

● Oh please! Don’t say that again

c. Phrase Structure

1. Lexical categories
 In English the main categories are Nouns (N), Verb (V), Adjectives (A),
Prepositions (P), and Adverbs (Adv).

2. Phrasal categories

The phrasal categories are built up from the lexical categories (their head) in the
ways that we have already illustrated. The phrasal categories are NP (noun phrases), VP
(verb phrases), AP (adjective phrases), PP (preposition phrases). AdvP (adverb phrase).
(Tserdanelis and Wong, 2004)

a. Noun phrases is any phrase which can act as a complete subject, object, etc. in a
sentence; e.q. “The big red block”, “Most of the three coaches”.

b. Verb phrases is basically a verb plus its complement (s); e.g. “ gave the parcel to
the clerk”

c. Prepositional phrases may be required (for instance, by a verb that it comes after)
to contain a particular preposition.

d. Adjective phrases usually consist of single adjectives, but it is possible for these
to be accompanied by an indication of degree ad some number of adverb as
modifier, as in “very commonly used”.

C. CLAUSES

a.Clauses: Definition, Types & Examples

Clause is comprised of a group of words which includes a subject and a finite

verb. A clause contains only one subject and one verb. The subject of a clause can be
mentioned or hidden, but the verb must be apparent and distinguishable.

A clause “a group of words containing a subject and predicate and functioning as

a member of a complex or compound sentence. (Merriam-Webster)

Example:

● I graduated last year. (One clause sentence)

● When I came here, I saw him. (Two clause sentence)

● When I came here, I saw him, and he greeted me. (Three clause sentence)

b.Types of Clause
Clauses are mainly of two types:

1. Independent Clause

2. Dependent Clause

1.Independent Clause

An independent clause functions on its own to make a meaningful sentence and

looks much like a regular sentence. In a sentence two independent clauses can be
connected by the coordinators: and, but, so, or, nor, for*, yet*.

Example:

● He is a wise man.

● I like him.

● Can you do it?

● Do it please. (Subject you is hidden)

● I read the whole story.

● I want to buy a phone, but I don’t have enough money. (Two independent
clauses)

● He went to London and visited the Lords. (Subject of the second clause is
‘he,' so “he visited the Lords” is an independent clause)

● Alex smiles whenever he sees her. (One independent clause)

2.Dependent Clause

A dependent clause cannot function on its own because it leaves an idea or

thought unfinished. It is also called subordinate clause. Dependent clauses help the
independent clauses complete the sentence. A dependent clause alone cannot form a
complete sentence.
 The subordinators do the work of connecting the dependent clause to another
clause to complete the sentence. In each of the dependent clause, the first word is a
subordinator. Subordinators include relative pronouns, subordinating conjunctions, and
noun clause markers.

Example:

● When I was dating Diana, I had an accident.

● I know the man who stole the watch.

● He bought a car which was too expensive.

● I know that he cannot do it.

● He does not know where he was born.

● If you don’t eat, I won’t go.

● He is a very talented player though he is out of form.

D. SENTENCE

a.Sentence: Definition & Types

A sentence is the largest unit of any language. In English, it begins with a capital
letter and ends with a full-stop, or a question mark, or an exclamation mark. The sentence
is generally defined as a word or a group of words that expresses a thorough idea by
giving a statement/order, or asking a question, or exclaiming.

Example:

● He is a good boy (statement), Is he a good boy? (question), What a nice

weather! (exclaiming).

Ideally, a sentence requires at least one subject and one verb. Sometimes the
subject of a sentence can be hidden, but the verb must be visible and present in the
sentence. Verb is called the heart of a sentence.
Example:

● Do it. (In this sentence, a subject ‘you’ is hidden but verb ‘do’ is visible)

“[A sentence is] a group of words, usually containing a verb, that expresses a thought in
the form of a statement, question, instruction, or exclamation and starts with a capital
letter when written.” - (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary & Thesaurus ©
Cambridge University Press.)

More Examples of Sentences

In other words, a complete English sentence must have three characteristics:

1. In written form, a sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a period (i.e.,
a full stop) [.], a note of interrogation (i.e., a question mark) [?], or a note of
exclamation (i.e., an exclamation mark) [!].

2. It must express a complete thought, not fragmented.

3. It must contain at least one subject (hidden/visible) and one verb comprising an
independent clause. (An independent clause contains an independent subject and
verb and expresses a complete thought.)

b.Types of Sentences

Structurally, sentences are of four types:

● Simple sentence

● Compound sentence

● Complex sentence, and

● Compound-complex sentence

1.Simple sentence

A simple sentence must have a single clause (a single verb) which is independent,
and it cannot take another clause.

Example:

I always wanted to become a writer. (One clause – one verb)

2.Compound sentence

A compound sentence must have more than one independent clause with no
dependent clauses. Some specific conjunctions, punctuation, or both are used to join
together these clauses.

Example:

I always wanted to become a writer, and she wanted to become a doctor. (Two
independent clauses – two verbs)

3.Complex sentence

A complex sentence also has more than one clause but of one them must be an
independent clause and the other/others must be (a) dependent clause (es). There are also
some particular connectors for the clauses of a complex sentence to be connected.

Example:

I know that you always wanted to be a writer. (Here, a dependent clause is followed by a
connector and an independent clause. The other way around is also possible.)

4.Compound-complex sentence

A compound-complex sentence (or complex–compound sentence) is a mixture of

the features of compound and complex sentences in one sentence. So, it must contain at
least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.

Example:

I know that you always wanted to become a writer, but I always wanted to become a
doctor. (Here, one dependent clause is followed by a complex connector and two
independent clauses with a compound conjunction between them.)

c.Functionally, sentences are of mainly four types:

1. Declarative sentence

2. Imperative sentence

3. Interrogative sentence, and

4. Exclamatory sentence
1.Declarative sentence:

An assertive sentence (declarative sentence) simply expresses an opinion/feeling,

or makes a statement, or describes things. In other words, it declares something. This type
of sentence ends with a period (i.e., a full-stop).

Examples:

● I want to be a good cricketer. (a statement)

● I am very happy today. (a feeling)

● More Examples of Declarative Sentence

2. Imperative sentence:

We use an imperative sentence to make a request or to give a command.

Imperative sentences usually end with a period (i.e., a full stop), but under certain
circumstances, it can end with a note of exclamation (i.e., exclamation mark).

Examples:

● Please sit down.

● I need you to sit down now!

● More Examples of Imperative Sentence

3. Interrogative sentence:

An interrogative sentence asks a question. Interrogative sentences must end with a

note of interrogation (i.e., question mark)

Examples:

● When are you going to submit your assignment?

● Do you know him?

4.Exclamatory sentence.

An exclamatory sentence expresses overflow of emotions. These emotions can be

of happiness, wonder, sorrow, anger, etc.
 Examples:

● What a day it was!

● I cannot believe he would do that!

E. CONCLUSION
 Syntax is a central component of human language by the expert. Generally, syntax is
a part of linguistics knowledge which concerns the structure of sentences. There are two
basic ideas of syntax, which are: word ordering and meaning, and ambiguity.
Phrases are grammatically units consisting of two or more words that do not exceed
the limit of clause element function. There are many types of phrases, consist of, noun
phrase, adjective phrase, adverbial phrase, prepositional phrase, conjunctional phrase, and
interjectional phrase. While, there are two structure of phrase, which are, Lexical categories
and Phrasal categories.
Clause is comprised of a group of words which includes a subject and a finite verb. A
clause contains only one subject and one verb. There are two types of clause, which are,
independent clause and dependent clause.
Sentence is the largest unit of any language. In English, it begins with a capital letter
and ends with a full-stop or an exclamation mark. There are three types of sentences, simple
sentence, compound sentence, and complex sentence. Functionally, sentences of mainly four
types: Declarative sentence, Imperative sentence, interrogative sentence, and exclamatory
sentence.
References

Chomsky, N. (1957 & 2002). Syntactic Structures. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter GmBH.

Fromkin, Victoria, Robert Rodman. (1983). An Introduction to Language. New York: CBS
college publishing.

Fromkin, Victoria, Robert Rodman, Nina Hyams. (2007). An introduction to Language. Boston:
Thomson Wadsworth.

Hawkins, R. (2001). Second Language Syntax: A Generative Introduction. Massachusetts:

Blackwell Publishers .

Murcia,M.C and Diane Larsen Freeman. (1999). The Grammar Book: An ESL/EFL teacher's
course. Boston: Internasional Thomson Publising.

Kridalaksana. H. 1982. Kamus Lingistik, Jakarta: Gramedia

https://www.learngrammar.net/english-grammar/clauses