Government Engineering College

Vaishali

Course File
of
SATTELITE COMMUNICATION
(Paper Code: 100819)

Prepared by
Dr. Tripta
Assistant Prof.
ECE Department, GEC Vaishali
 CONTENTS

1. Cover Page & Content

2. Vision of the Department
3. Mission of the department
4. PEO’s and PO’s
5. Course objectives & course outcomes (CO’s)
6. Mapping of CO’s with PO’s
7. Course Syllabus
8. Time table
9. Student list
10. Course Handout
11. Lecture Plan
12. Assignment sheets
13. Tutorial Sheets
14. Sessional Question Papers
15. Old End Semester Exam (Final Exam) Question Papers
16. Question Bank
17. Lecture Notes
18. Reference Materials
19. Results
20. Result Analysis
Vision of the Institute

To produce young, dynamic, motivated and globally competent Engineering graduates with an
aptitude for leadership and research, to face the challenges of modernization and globalization, who
will be instrumental in societal development.

Mission of the Institute

1. To impart quality technical education, according to the need of the society.

2. To help the graduates to implement their acquired Engineering knowledge for society &
community development.
3. To strengthen nation building through producing dedicated, disciplined, intellectual &
motivated engineering graduates.
4. To expose our graduates to industries, campus connect programs & research institutions
to enhance their career opportunities.
5. To encourage critical thinking and creativity through various academic programs.

Vision of ECE Department

To bring forth engineers with an emphasis on higher studies and a fervour to serve national and
multinational organizations and, the society.

Mission of ECE Department

M1: - To provide domain knowledge with advanced pedagogical tools and applications.

M2: - To acquaint graduates to the latest technology and research through collaboration
with industry and research institutes.

M3: - To instil skills related to professional growth and development.

M4: - To inculcate ethical valued in graduates through various social-cultural activities.

PEO of ECE

PEO 01 – The graduate will be able to apply the Electrical and Electrical Engineering
concepts to excel in higher education and research and development.

PEO 02 – The graduate will be able to demonstrate the knowledge and skills to solve real
life engineering problems and design electrical systems that are technically sound, economical and
socially acceptable.

PEO 03 – The graduates will be able to showcase professional skills encapsulating team
spirit, societal and ethical values.
Program Educational Objectives:-
PEO 1. Graduates will excel in professional careers and/or higher education by acquiring
knowledge in Mathematics, Science, Engineering principles and Computational skills.
PEO 2. Graduates will analyze real life problems, design Electrical systems appropriate to
the requirement that are technically sound, economically feasible and socially acceptable.
PEO 3. Graduates will exhibit professionalism, ethical attitude, communication skills, team
work in their profession, adapt to current trends by engaging in lifelong learning and
participate in Research & Development.

Program Outcomes of B.Tech in Electronics and Communication Engineering

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics,
natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and
design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research
methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of
the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modelling to complex engineering activities
with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to
the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need
for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader
in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one's own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and life-long learning in the broad tcontext of technological change.
PSO 1. An ability to identify, formulate and solve problems in the areas of Electrical and
Electronics Engineering.
PSO 2. An ability to use the techniques, skills and modern engineering tools necessary for
innovation.
Scope and Objectives of the Course

Satellite communication is a method of transmitting and receiving information using artificial

satellites in orbit around the Earth. It allows for lon-distance communication between two or more
points on the earth’s surface, regardless of the geographical distance between them. Satellite
communication offers several advantages. It provides wide coverage, reaching even remote and
isolated areas that are difficult to connect using traditional terrestrial communication infrastructure.
It enables global connectivity, making it possible to communicate across continents and oceans.
Satellite communication is also reliable and can provide uninterrupted service, as satellites are not
affected by geographical barriers, weather conditions, or natural disasters that can disrupt ground
based communication systems.
Satellite communication has numerous applications, including telecommunication services,
television broadcast, weather forecasting, navigation systems, remote sensing, military
communications, and disaster management. It plays a vital role in connecting people, organizations,
and nations around the world, facilitating information exchange and enhancing global
communication networks.

Course Objectives:
The objectives of the course is:

CO1: Developing a solid understanding of the principles and fundamentals of satellite

communication systems.
CO2: Understanding and comparing the different multiple access techniques
CO3: Exploring various modulation and coding schemes used in satellite communication.
CO4: Understanding the architecture and design principles of satellite networks.
CO5: Acquiring the skills to analyze satellite links, considering factors like path loss, rain
fade, antenna gain, and interference.

Course Outcomes:
On completion of this course, the students will be able to
1. Gain a comprehensive understanding of the basic concepts and principles of satellite
communication.
2. Learn about the various subsystems that make up a satellite communication system,
such as the spacecraft bus, payload, antennas, power systems, and telemetry, tracking,
and control (TT&C) systems.
3. Learn how to design and analyze satellite links, taking into account factors such as path
loss, atmospheric effects, antenna gain, and interference.
4. Gain knowledge about satellite network architectures, including geostationary satellite
networks, low Earth orbit (LEO) satellite networks, and hybrid satellite-terrestrial
networks.
5. Learn about the design and operation of Earth stations, including antenna systems, low-
noise amplifiers (LNAs), upconverters, downconverters, and the integration of these
components into a functional Earth stations.
Mapping of CO’s with PO’s
PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PSO PSO
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2
CO1 3 2 2 1 1 - 2 - - - 1 2 3 1
CO2 2 3 3 2 3 - - - - - 1 1 2 3
CO3 2 2 3 1 3 - - - - - 1 1 1 3
CO4 2 2 1 3 3 1 1 1 - - 2 2 2 3
CO5 1 2 1 3 - - 3 1 2 1 - - 2 3
 Syllabus

Subject Code: 100819

Subject Name: Satellite Communication

Module 1: Introduction to Satellite Communication: Principles and architecture of satellite Communication,
Brief history of Satellite systems, advantages, disadvantages, applications and frequency bands used for
satellite communication.
Module 2: Orbital Mechanics: Orbital equations, Kepler’s laws, Apogee and Perigee for an elliptical orbit,
evaluation of velocity, orbital period, angular velocity etc. of a satellite, concepts of Solar day and Sidereal
day
Module 3: Satellite sub-systems: Study of Architecture and Roles of various subsystems of a satellite system
such as Telemetry, tracking, command and monitoring (TTC and M), Attitude and orbit control system
(AOCS), Communication sub-system.

Module 4: Typical Phenomena in Satellite Communication: Solar Eclipse on satellite, its effects, remedies
for Eclipse, Sun Transit Outage phenomena, its effects and remedies, Doppler frequency shift Phenomena
and expression for Doppler shift

Module 5: Flux density and received signal power equations, Calculation of System noise temperature for
satellite receiver, noise power calculation, C/N ratio calculations in clear air and rainy conditions

Text / References:
1. Timothy Pratt Charles W. Bostian, Jeremy E. Allnutt: Satellite Communications; Wiley D.Roddy & J. Coolen,
‘Electronic Communications’, Prentice Hall of India, 4th Edition,1999.

2. Tri T. Ha: Digital Satellite Communications: Tata McGraw Hill

3. Dennis Roddy: Satellite Communication: 4th Edition, McGraw Hill

 GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE, VAISHALI
Electronics and Communication Engineering Semester – 8th, Session (2019-23)

SUBJECT: Satellite Communication

TIME TABLE:

Monday : 11:20 AM – 12:10 PM

Tuesday : 10:30 AM – 11:20 AM

Thursday: 11:20 AM –12:10 PM

 GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE, VAISHALI
th
8 Sem. Branch:Electronics & Communication Engineering Batch: (2019-23)
Subject :- Satellite Communication
STUDENT LIST:

S.No. Name of Student Registration No.

1 Sangita kumari 18104135009
2 Saurav Anand 19104135001
3 Aarti Kumari 19104135002
4 Sumit kumar 19104135003
5 Shivam Kumar 19104135004
6 Preety Mala 19104135005
7 Sheelnidhi Thakur 19104135006
8 Vikash Kumar Sharma 19104135007
9 Adarsh Kumar Upadhyay 19104135008
10 Akash kumar 19104135009
11 Shivani Kumar 19104135010
12 Samyak Shan 19104135011
13 Manish Kumar 19104135012
14 Konika kumari 19104135013
15 Vishal Kumar Pal 19104135014
16 Pratham kumar 19104135015
17 Syed Aasif Rizw 19104135016
18 Ashrin parween 19104135017
19 Ayush kumar 19104135018
20 Rajbir kumar 19104135019
21 Raj Prasad 19104135020
22 Vikash Kumar 19104135021
23 Amrendra Kumar 19104135022
24 Bhanu Priya 19104135023
25 Aprajita 19104135024
26 Smriti Kumar 19104135025
27 Manisha Rani 19104135026
28 Sonu Kumar 19104135027
29 Pragya Singh 19104135028
30 Sunidhi kumari 19104135029
31 Abhinav raj 19104135030
32 Saloni Kumari 19104135031
33 Archana kumari 19104135032
34 Anand Raj 19104135033
35 Saurav kumar 19104135034
36 Silky Raj 19104135035
37 Babita kumari 19104135036
38 Sangam Kumari 19104135037
39 Roma Singh 19104135038
40 Annu Kumar 19104135039
41 Anjali kumari 19104135040
42 Prity Raj 19104135041
43 Rashmi Kumari 19104135042
44 Girish nandan kumar 19104135043
45 Puja Kumar 20104135901
46 Devraj Kumar 20104135902
47 Puja kumari 20104135903
48 Aditi kumari 20104135904
49 Prity raj singh 20104135905
50 Md Maslehuddin 20104135906
51 Gautam Kumar 20104135907
52 Ramniwas kumar 20104135908
53 Abhinav Anand Sharma 20104135909
54 Md Nazre Imam Ansari 20104135910
55 Shweta Kumari 20104135911
 COURSE HANDOUT
Institute/College Name: Government Engineering College, Vaishali
Program Name: B.Tech (EEE, 8th semester)
Course Code: 100819
Course Name: Satellite Communication
Lecture/Tutorial(per week): 3/0
Course Credits: 3
Course Co-coordinator Name: Dr. Tripta

1. Scope and Objective of Course

Communication is the basic process of exchanging information. “Analog and Digital
Communication System”, is the subject which deals with the techniques employed in
communication for analog and digital data. The subject basically deals with the different aspects of
a signal and spectra. It also deals with the modulation of signals and systems and different
mathematical aspects related to signals. It gives a more analytical look into the basic entities such
as those of signals, modulation, noise etc. which form the base for higher studies in
telecommunication.

Course Objectives:
After the completion of this course the students will be able to:

CO1: Apply different mathematical concepts like Fourier series and Fourier transform and
different circuit design concept to understand different modulation and demodulation techniques.
CO2: Compare the performance of different modulation techniques.
CO3: Understand working and operation of Digital communication principle.
CO4: Able to compute and analyse error correction codes.
CO5: Able to understand modern communication system.

Course Outcomes:
On completion of this course, the students will be able to
1. Understand different modulation and demodulation techniques analog and digital
communication.
2. Apply signal and system analysis tools in the time and frequency domains, including
Impulse response, convolution, frequency response, Fourier series, Fourier transform, and
Hilbert transform.
3. Develop the ability to compare and contrast the strengths and weaknesses of various
communication systems.
4. Able to understand error control coding techniques.
 5. Prepare and deliver an oral presentation about a topic of current interest in the field of
communications.

2. Textbooks

TB1: Timothy Pratt Charles W. Bostian, Jeremy E. Allnutt: Satellite Communications; Wiley D.Roddy &
J. Coolen, ‘Electronic Communications’, Prentice Hall of India, 4th Edition,1999.

3. Reference Books
RB1: Tri T. Ha: Digital Satellite Communications: Tata McGraw

RB2: Dennis Roddy: Satellite Communication: 4th Edition, McGraw Hill

Other readings and relevant websites

S. Link of journals, Magazines, websites and Research papers

No.
1. https://archive.nptel.ac.in/noc/courses/noc17/SEM2/noc17-ec14/

2. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/598421

3. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1457314

4. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15420981

5. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/satellite_communication/

Syllabus

No. of Weightages
Topics
Lectures (%)
Module 1: Introduction to Satellite Communication: Principles and
architecture of satellite Communication, Brief history of Satellite
systems, advantages, disadvantages, applications and frequency bands
7 25
used for satellite communication.
Module 2: Orbital Mechanics: Orbital equations, Kepler’s laws,
Apogee and Perigee for an elliptical orbit, evaluation of velocity, orbital 9 20
period, angular velocity etc. of a satellite, concepts of Solar day and
Sidereal day
Module 3: Satellite sub-systems: Study of Architecture and Roles of
various subsystems of a satellite system such as Telemetry, tracking, 10 25
command and monitoring (TTC and M), Attitude and orbit control
system (AOCS), Communication sub-system.
Module 4: Typical Phenomena in Satellite Communication: Solar
Eclipse on satellite, its effects, remedies for Eclipse, Sun Transit Outage
phenomena, its effects and remedies, Doppler frequency shift
8 15
Phenomena and expression for Doppler shift
Module 5: Flux density and received signal power equations,
Calculation of System noise temperature for satellite receiver, noise
power calculation, C/N ratio calculations in clear air and rainy
conditions 6 15

Evaluation and Examination Blue Prints:

Internal assessment is done through quiz tests, presentations, assignments and projects
work. Two sets of question paper are asked from each faculty and out of these two, without the
knowledge of faculty, one question paper is chosen for the concerned examination. Examination
rules and regulations are uploaded on the student’s portals. Evaluation is a very transparent process
and the answer sheets of sessional tests, internal assessment assignments are returned back to the
students.

The components of the evaluation along with their weightage followed by the university are
given below:

Component-1 Mid sem-1 20%

Assignments, Quiz’s, Test,

Component-2 10%
Seminars
Component-3 End Term Examination 70%
Totals 100%
 Designation Name

Course Coordinator Dr. Tripta

H.O.D Dr, Ravi Ranjan

Principal Dr. Anant Kumar

 Institute/College Name: Government Engineering College, Vaishali
Program Name: B.Tech (ECE, 8th semester)
Course Code: 100819
Course Name: Satellite Communication
Lecture/Tutorial(per week): 3/1
Course Credits: 3
Course Co-coordinator Name: Dr. Tripta

Lecture Plan

No. of
Topics Lecture Date
Lectures
Module 1:
Introduction to Satellite Communication
2
Principles and architecture of satellite Communication 3
Brief history of Satellite systems 4
Advantages and disadvantages of Satellite systems 5
Applications of Satellite systems 6
Frequency bands used for satellite communication.
7
Brief description of Tansponder 8
Module 2:
Orbital equations,
9
Kepler’s laws
11

Apogee and Perigee for an elliptical orbit 13

Evaluation of velocity, orbital period, angular velocity etc. of a satellite 14
concepts of Solar day and Sidereal day. 16
Module 3:
Study of Architecture of satellite subsystems
18
Roles of various subsystems of a satellite system
19
Telemetry, tracking, command and monitoring (TTC and M)
21
Altitude and orbit control system (AOCS)
23
Communication sub-system.
24
Module 4:
Typical Phenomena in Satellite Communication
25
Solar Eclipse on satellite, its effects, remedies for Eclipse 26
Sun Transit Outage phenomena, its effects and remedies 28
Doppler frequency shift Phenomena 29
Expression for Doppler shift 30
Module 5:
Flux density and received signal power equations
31
Calculation of System noise temperature for satellite receiver 32
noise power calculation 33
C/N ratio calculations in clear air 34
C/N ratio calculations in rainy conditions 36
 Subject: Satellite communication
Assignment I
Short answer type questions:
1. What is Satellite and its types?
1. Define ascending node and descending node
3. Define Geostationary orbit.
4. Define apogee and perigee.
5. Differentiate geostationary and geosynchronous satellite.
6. What is meant by azimuth angle?
7. Define Look angle.
8.What is line of apsides?
9. What is Inclination?
10.Define mean anomaly and true anomaly.
11. Mention the apogee and perigee height.
12. What is sub-satellite point?
13. What is sun transit outage?
14. What is an orbital perturbation?
15. What are the conditions required for an orbit to be Geostationary?
16. What is the difference between solar day and sideral day.
 Subject: Satellite communication
Assignment II
1. Discuss the architecture and principle of satellite communication system.
2. Give a brief comparison between satellite communication system and terrestrial systems.
3. What do you mean by a satellite Transponder? Discuss the working principle of it.
4. List the frequency bands used for satellite communication with applications.
5. State and explain Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion. Discuss its importance in satellite
communications.
6. What are the orbital elements? Explain them.
7. Define orbital period. Derive the expression for orbital velocity.
8. Discuss the difference between satellite systems and terrestrial systems.

Subject: Satellite communication

Assignment III
1. What is meant by input back off of a transponder?
1. How the satellite positions are estimated using the sub-satellite points?
3. What are look angles and derive the expressions for azimuth and elevation?
4. With a neat block diagram, explain the attitude and orbit control system present in the space segment.
5. What is meant by DTH? What are the design issues to be considered for launching DTH systems?
6. What are the main fund ions of TTC sub system?
7. What are the basic problems in satellite digital transmission?
8. Discuss in detail about attitude control of a satellite.
9. Explain in detail transmit receive earth stations.
10. Discuss the effect of non spherical earth on satellite communication. Explain the determination of sub
satellite point.
11. Explain the antenna subsystem.
 Subject: Satellite communication
ASSIGNMENT IV
1. Discuss about sun transit outage.
2. Briefly discuss about the eclipse effect.
3. Briefly explain the effect of Doppler frequency in satellite communication.
5. Derive the expression for the Doppler shift.

Subject: Satellite communication

ASSIGNMENT V
1.Give the formulae to compute the uplink carrier to noise ratio.
2. With a neat sketch, explain the power budget for a satellite link considering back off and rain fade margin.
3. How does the system noise temperature affect the performance? Derive the expression for overall system
noise temperature at the receiving earth station.
4. Why is noise temperature an important parameter in communication receivers?
5. List the earth station parameters affecting the C/N ratio.
6. What is the relationship between EIRP and antenna gain?
7. What are the factors contributing to noise in an earth station receiving channel? Explain.
8. From system noise temperature calculation, prove that C/N ratio is directly proportional to G/T ratio.
9. A satellite downlink at 12 GHz operates with a transmit power of 6 W and an antenna gain of 48.2 dB.
Calculate the EIRP in dBW.
10. An antenna has a noise temperature of 35 K and is matched into a receiver which has a noise temperature
of 100 K. Calculate the noise power density and the noise power for a bandwidth of 36 MHz.
11. Derive the link power budget equation.
12. A LNA is connected to a receiver which has a noise figure of 12 dB. The gain LNA is 30dB and its
noise temperature is 12k. Calculate the overall noise temperature referred to the LNA input.
13. Explain the intermodulation noise in satellite communication systems.
14. An antenna has a noise temperature of 35K and is matched into a receiver which has a noise temperature
of 100K. Calculate the noise power density and the noise power for a bandwidth of 36 MHz.
15. With a neat sketch, explain the power budget for a satellite link considering back off and rain fade
margin.
16. What is the effect of a rain on the uplink and downlink of satellite systems?
17. Explain the different types of noise to be considered in the design of satellite communication system.
18. Explain the calculation of combined uplink and downlink C/N ratio.
20. Explain with proper diagrams, how measurements on 𝐺⁄𝑇 and 𝐶⁄𝑁 are made.
 Question Bank

Satellite Communication
1. What are look angles? Explain how they are determined for geo stationary orbits? what are
sun synchronous orbit

2. State Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion. Illustrate in each case their relevance to
artificial satellites orbiting the earth.

3. What are the orbital elements? Explain them. Discuss about the orbital perturbation.

4. i) Explain about Geo-stationary & near Geo-stationary orbits.

ii) Determine the limits of visibility for an earth station situated at mean sea level, at latitude
48.42o north and longitude 89.26o west. Assume a minimum angle of elevation of 5o

5. i) Explain the significance of station keeping.

ii) Discuss about launching satellite orbits.

6. Explain how satellite position are estimated using Sub-satellite points.

7. i) What is meant by polar orbiting? Explain in detail.

ii) Explain about frequency allocations for satellite services.

8. Write a brief note on launch vehicles and propulsion.

9. i) Define ascending node and descending .

ii) What is Satellite? and its types

10. i) Define Geostationary orbit.

ii) List out the orbital parameters.
iii) What is meant by azimuth angle?
11. i)Explain in detail the geocentric-equatorial coordinate system which is based on the earth’s
equatorial plane.

ii) List the differences between LEO and MEO satellites.

12. A satellite moving is orbiting in the equatorial plane with a period from period from perigee
to perigee of 12hrs.Given the eccentricity is 0.02. Calculate the semimajor axis. The earth’s
equatorial radius is 6378.1414 km.

13. Find the viewing angle of a geostationary satellite orbiting at 42000km from an earth station
making an elevation angle of 25 degrees.

14. i) Distinguish between LEO system and GEO system.

ii) Name the Keplerian element set.

15. i) What is meant by sun transit outage?

ii) State its effect and remedies.

16. A satellite is in an elliptical orbit with eccentricity of 0.6 and perigee altitude 1000 Km.
Determine: a) The semi major axis b) The period of revolution.

17. Assume a circular orbit: Using Newton’s law of gravitation and Newton’s second law,
determine the acceleration of a satellite.

18. Define look angle and explain look angle determination in detail. (b) If a satellite is at a height
of 36000 km and orbiting in equatorial plane, comment whether the satellite will be under
eclipse on equinox days and find the duration of the eclipse.
19. A satellite in polar orbit has a perigee height of 600 km and an apogee height of 1200 km.
Calculate the mean motion and the rate of regression of the nodes. Assume the polar radius of
the earth to be equal to 6357 kms.
20. A satellite is orbiting in the equatorial plane with a period from perigee to perigee of 12 h.
Given that the Eccentricity is 0.002. Calculate the semi major axis. The earth’s equatorial
radius is 6378.1414km.
21. Determine the limits of visibility for an earth station situated at mean sea level, at a
latitude48.42° north and longitude 89.26° west. Assume a minimum angle of elevation 5°
22. Estimate the suitable equations for look angles and the range for geostationary satellite.

23. i) Derive the equation for a satellite orbit.

iii) Derive the equations which permit the elevation angle to be calculated.

24. A satellite is in a circular orbit around the earth. The altitude of the satellite’s orbit above
the surface of the earth is 1400 Km. i) What are the centripetal and centrifugal
accelerations acting on the satellite in its orbit? Give your answer in m/s2 ii) What is the
velocity of the satellite in this orbit? Give your answer in km/s. iii) What is the orbital
period of the satellite in this orbit? Give your answer in hours, minutes and seconds.
25. The state of Virginia may be represented roughly as a rectangle bounded by 39.5° N latitude
on the north, 36.5° N latitude on the south, 76.0° W longitude on the east and 86.3° W
longitude on the west. If a geostationary satellite must be visible throughout virginia at an
elevation angle no lower than 20°, what is the range of longitudes within which the sub-
satellite point of the satellite must lie?
26. A ground station lies at latitude = 39.2906 degrees N and longitude = 280.2629 degrees E. A
Geostationary satellite at radius r = 42164 km has a longitude of 280.2629 degrees E.
Calculate the range and look angles (azimuth and elevation angles) to the satellite?
Satellite Communication
Lecture Notes
 Module-1
Introduction to Satellite Communication

Satellite communication is transporting information from one place to another using a communication satellite in orbit
around the Earth. Watching the English Premier League every weekend with your friends would have been impossible
without this. A communication satellite is an artificial satellite that transmits the signal via a transponder by creating a
channel between the transmitter and the receiver at different Earth locations.

Telephone, radio, television, internet, and military applications use satellite communications. Believe it or not, more than
2000 artificial satellites are hurtling around in space above your heads.

Need for Satellite Communication

We know that there are different ways to communicate, and the propagation of these waves can occur in different ways.
Ground wave propagation and skywave propagation are the two ways communication takes place for a certain distance.
The maximum distance covered by them is 1500 km, which was overcome by the introduction of satellite
communication.

Working of Satellite Communications

The communication satellites are similar to the space mirrors that help us bounce signals such as radio, internet data, and
television from one side of the earth to another. Three stages are involved, which explain the working of satellite
communications. These are:

• Uplink
• Transponders
• Downlink
Let’s consider an example of signals from a television. In the first stage, the signal from the television broadcast on the
other side of the earth is first beamed up to the satellite from the ground station on the earth. This process is known as
uplink.

The second stage involves transponders such as radio receivers, amplifiers, and transmitters. These transponders boost the
incoming signal and change its frequency so that the outgoing signals are not altered. Depending on the incoming signal
sources, the transponders vary.

The final stage involves a downlink in which the data is sent to the other end of the receiver on the earth. It is important
to understand that usually, there is one uplink and multiple downlinks.
 Satellite Communication Services

There are two categories in which satellite communication services can be classified:

• One-way satellite communication

• Two- way satellite communication

One-way Satellite Communication

In one-way satellite communication, the communication usually takes place between either one or multiple earth stations
through the help of a satellite.

The communication takes place between the transmitter on the first earth satellite to the receiver which is the second earth
satellite. The transmission of the signal is unidirectional. Some common one-way satellite communication is:

• Position location services are provided by the radio

• Tracking is a part of space operations services
• Internet services take place with broadcasting satellites

Following is the figure which explains the one-way satellite communication:

Two-Way Satellite Communication

In two-way satellite communication, the information is exchanged between any two earth stations. It can be said that there
is a point to point connectivity.

The signal is transmitted from the first earth station to the second earth station such that there are two uplinks and two
downlinks between the earth stations and the satellite.

Following is the figure for the two-way satellite communication:

 Pros and Cons of Satellite Communication:
In this section, let us have a look at the advantages and disadvantages of satellite communication.

Following are the advantages of using satellite communication:

• Area of coverage is more than that of terrestrial systems
• Each and every corner of the earth can be covered
• Transmission cost is independent of coverage area
• More bandwidth and broadcasting possibilites
 Following are the disadvantages of using satellite communication :

• Launching of satellites into orbits is a costly process.

• Propagation delay of satellite systems is more than that of conventional terrestrial systems.
• Difficult to provide repairing activities if any problem occurs in a satellite system.
• Free space loss is more
• There can be congestion of frequencies.

Applications of Satellite Communication

Satellite communication plays a vital role in our daily life. Following are the applications of satellite communication −
• Radio broadcasting and voice communications
• TV broadcasting such as Direct To Home (DTH)
• Internet applications such as providing Internet connection for data transfer, GPS applications, Internet surfing, etc.
• Military applications and navigations
• Remote sensing applications
• Weather condition monitoring & Forecasting

History of Satellite Systems

There is a long history of the development of satellites system from a communications point of view. Some important
events are shown below in a tabular form:

Year Description
1945 Arthur C. Clarke publishes an essay titled "Extra Terrestrial
Relays"

1957 First satellite, SPUTNIK

1960 First Reflecting communication satellite, ECHO

1963 First Geostationary satellite, SYNCOM

1965 First Commercial geostationary satellite, "Early Bird"

(INTEKSAT I): 240 duplex telephone channels or 1 TV channel,
1.5 year lifetime.

1976 Three MARISAT satellites for maritime communication.

1982 First mobile satellite telephone system, INMARSAT - A

1988 First satellite system for mobile phones and data communication,
INMARSAT -C

1993 First digital satellite telephone system

1998 Global satellite systems for small mobile phones.

Satellite Frequency Band Applications

Band Freque Type of satellite Application

spect ncy service

rum range

L 1.518- MSS (Mobile Civilian mobile

Band 1.675 Satellite Service) communication

GHz services and

global

positioning

systems (GPS)

Example:

Inmarsat

utilizes this

band for

communication

across air,
 water, and land

weather radar

S 1.97 - MSS Satellite

Band 2.69 television,

GHz mobile

broadband

services, radio

broadcasting,

and inflight

connectivity

Example:

Communicatio
n between IS.S

and the space

shuttle
C 3.4GH FSS (Fixed Data services,

Band z - Satellite Service) raw satellite

7.025 feeds, and

GHz satellite TV

networks

Example:

Telstar

satellites use

this frequency

for operating

transportation

X 7.25 - FSS Military

Band 8.44 services, pulsed

GHz radar, synthetic

operative

radars,

continuous

wave radar,
 weather

monitoring, air

traffic control,

maritime traffic

control, defense

tracking, and

vehicle speed

detection

Ku 10.7 - FSS, BSS Fixed satellite

Band 14.5 (Broadband television data

GHz Satellite Service) services

Ka 17.3 - FSS, BSS Mobile and

Band 30 fixed two-way

GHz broadband

services, fixed

satellite

television,
 close-range

targeting radars

in military

systems

Q/V 37.5 - MSS, BSS High-speed

Band 51.4 broadband

GHz services (fixed

and mobile) and

in-flight

connectivity

Band Frequency Type of Application

spectrum range satellite

service
L Band 1.518- MSS Civilian mobile

1.675 (Mobile communication

GHz Satellite services and

Service) global

positioning

systems (GPS)

Example:

Inmarsat

utilizes this

band for

communication

across air,

water, and land

weather radar

S Band 1.97 - 2.69 MSS Satellite

GHz television,

mobile

broadband
 services, radio

broadcasting,

and inflight

connectivity

Example:

Communication

between IS.S

and the space

shuttle

C Band 3.4GHz - FSS (Fixed Data services,

7.025 Satellite raw satellite

GHz Service) feeds, and

satellite TV

networks

Example:

Telstar

satellites use

this frequency
 for operating

transportation

X Band 7.25 - 8.44 FSS Military

GHz services, pulsed

radar, synthetic

operative

radars,

continuous

wave radar,

weather

monitoring, air

traffic control,

maritime traffic

control, defense

tracking, and

vehicle speed

detection
Ku Band 10.7 - 14.5 FSS, BSS Fixed satellite

GHz (Broadband television data

Satellite services

Service)

Ka Band 17.3 - 30 FSS, BSS Mobile and

GHz fixed two-way

broadband

services, fixed

satellite

television,

close-range

targeting radars
in military

systems

Q/V 37.5 - 51.4 MSS, BSS High-speed

Band GHz broadband

 services (fixed

and mobile) and

in-flight

connectivity

Module-2
Satellite Communication - Orbital Mechanics
We know that the path of satellite revolving around the earth is known as orbit. This path can be represented

with mathematical notations. Orbital mechanics is the study of the motion of the satellites that are present in

orbits. So, we can easily understand the space operations with the knowledge of orbital motion.

Orbital Elements

Orbital elements are the parameters, which are helpful for describing the orbital motion of satellites.

Following are the orbital elements.

• Semi major axis

• Eccentricity

• Mean anomaly

• Argument of perigee

• Inclination

• Right ascension of ascending node

The above six orbital elements define the orbit of earth satellites. Therefore, it is easy to discriminate one

satellite from other satellites based on the values of orbital elements.

Semi major axis

The length of Semi-major axis (a) defines the size of satellite’s orbit. It is half of the major axis. This runs from

the center through a focus to the edge of the ellipse. So, it is the radius of an orbit at the orbit's two most

distant points.
Both semi major axis and semi minor axis are represented in above figure. Length of semi major axis (a) not

only determines the size of satellite’s orbit, but also the time period of revolution.

If circular orbit is considered as a special case, then the length of semi-major axis will be equal to radius of

that circular orbit.

Eccentricity

The value of Eccentricity (e) fixes the shape of satellite’s orbit. This parameter indicates the deviation of the

orbit’s shape from a perfect circle.

If the lengths of semi major axis and semi minor axis of an elliptical orbit are a & b, then the mathematical

expression for eccentricity (e) will be

The value of eccentricity of a circular orbit is zero, since both a & b are equal. Whereas, the value of

eccentricity of an elliptical orbit lies between zero and one.

The following figure shows the various satellite orbits for different eccentricity (e) values

In above figure, the satellite orbit corresponding to eccentricity (e) value of zero is a circular orbit. And, the

remaining three satellite orbits are of elliptical corresponding to the eccentricity (e) values 0.5, 0.75 and 0.9.
 Mean Anomaly

For a satellite, the point which is closest from the Earth is known as Perigee. Mean anomaly (M) gives the

average value of the angular position of the satellite with reference to perigee.

If the orbit is circular, then Mean anomaly gives the angular position of the satellite in the orbit. But, if the

orbit is elliptical, then calculation of exact position is very difficult. At that time, Mean anomaly is used as an

intermediate step.

Argument of Perigee

Satellite orbit cuts the equatorial plane at two points. First point is called as descending node, where the

satellite passes from the northern hemisphere to the southern hemisphere. Second point is called

as ascending node, where the satellite passes from the southern hemisphere to the northern hemisphere.

Argument of perigee (ω) is the angle between ascending node and perigee. If both perigee and ascending

node are existing at same point, then the argument of perigee will be zero degrees

Argument of perigee is measured in the orbital plane at earth’s center in the direction of satellite motion.

Inclination

The angle between orbital plane and earth’s equatorial plane is known as inclination (i). It is measured at the

ascending node with direction being east to north. So, inclination defines the orientation of the orbit by

considering the equator of earth as reference.

 There are four types of orbits based on the angle of inclination.

• Equatorial orbit − Angle of inclination is either zero degrees or 180 degrees.

• Polar orbit − Angle of inclination is 90 degrees.

• Prograde orbit − Angle of inclination lies between zero and 90 degrees.

• Retrograde orbit − Angle of inclination lies between 90 and 180 degrees.

Right Ascension of Ascending node

 We know that ascending node is the point, where the satellite crosses the equatorial plane while going from

the southern hemisphere to the northern hemisphere.

Right Ascension of ascending node (Ω) is the angle between line of Aries and ascending node towards east

direction in equatorial plane. Aries is also called as vernal and equinox.

Satellite’s ground track is the path on the surface of the Earth, which lies exactly below its orbit. The ground

track of a satellite can take a number of different forms depending on the values of the orbital elements.

Orbital Equations

In this section, let us discuss about the equations which are related to orbital motion.

Forces acting on Satellite

A satellite, when it revolves around the earth, it undergoes a pulling force from the earth due to earth’s

gravitational force. This force is known as Centripetal force (F1) because this force tends the satellite towards

it.

Mathematically, the Centripetal force (F1) acting on satellite due to earth can be written as

Where,

• G is universal gravitational constant and it is equal to 6.673 x 10 -11 N∙m2/kg2.

• M is mass of the earth and it is equal to 5.98 x 1024 Kg.

• m is mass of the satellite.

• R is the distance from satellite to center of the Earth.

A satellite, when it revolves around the earth, it undergoes a pulling force from the sun and the moon due to

their gravitational forces. This force is known as Centrifugal force (F2) because this force tends the satellite

away from earth.

Mathematically, the Centrifugal force (F2) acting on satellite can be written as

Where, v is the orbital velocity of satellite.

Orbital Velocity

Orbital velocity of satellite is the velocity at which, the satellite revolves around earth. Satellite doesn’t deviate

from its orbit and moves with certain velocity in that orbit, when both Centripetal and Centrifugal forces

are balance each other.

So, equate Centripetal force (F1) and Centrifugal force (F2).

 Where,

• G is gravitational constant and it is equal to 6.673 x 10 -11 N∙m2/kg2.

• M is mass of the earth and it is equal to 5.98 x 10 24 Kg.

• R is the distance from satellite to center of the Earth.

So, the orbital velocity mainly depends on the distance from satellite to center of the Earth (R), since G & M

are constants.
 Satellite Communication - Kepler’s Laws

We know that satellite revolves around the earth, which is similar to the earth revolves around the sun. So,

the principles which are applied to earth and its movement around the sun are also applicable to satellite and

its movement around the earth.

Many scientists have given different types of theories from early times. But, only Johannes Kepler (1571-

1630) was one of the most accepted scientist in describing the principle of a satellite that moves around the

earth.

Kepler formulated three laws that changed the whole satellite communication theory and observations. These

are popularly known as Kepler’s laws. These are helpful to visualize the motion through space.

Kepler’s First Law

Kepler’s first law states that the path followed by a satellite around its primary (the earth) will be an ellipse.

This ellipse has two focal points (foci) F1 and F2 as shown in the figure below. Center of mass of the earth

will always present at one of the two foci of the ellipse.

If the distance from the center of the object to a point on its elliptical path is considered, then the farthest

point of an ellipse from the center is called as apogee and the shortest point of an ellipse from the center is

called as perigee.

Eccentricity "e" of this system can be written as −

 Where, a & b are the lengths of semi major axis and semi minor axis of the ellipse respectively.

For an elliptical path, the value of eccentricity (e) is always lie in between 0 and 1, i.e. 00 < e� < 11, since a

is greater than b. Suppose, if the value of eccentricity (e) is zero, then the path will be no more in elliptical

shape, rather it will be converted into a circular shape.

Kepler’s Second Law

Kepler’s second law states that for equal intervals of time, the area covered by the satellite will be same with

respect to center of mass of the earth. This can be understood by taking a look at the following figure.
Assume, the satellite covers p1 and p2 distances in the same time interval. Then, the areas B1 and B2 covered

by the satellite at those two instances are equal.

Kepler’s Third Law

Kepler’s third law states that, the square of the periodic time of an elliptical orbit is proportional to the cube

of its semi major axis length. Mathematically, it can be written as follows −

Where, ‘n’ is the mean motion of the satellite in radians per second.

Note − A satellite, when it revolves around the earth, undergoes a pulling force from the earth, which is

gravitational force. Similarly, it experiences another pulling force from the sun and the moon. Therefore, a

satellite has to balance these two forces to keep itself in its orbit.

Earth Orbit Satellites

Satellite should be properly placed in the corresponding orbit after leaving it in the space. It revolves in a

particular way and serves its purpose for scientific, military or commercial. The orbits, which are assigned to

satellites with respect to earth are called as Earth Orbits. The satellites present in those orbits are called

as Earth Orbit Satellites.

We should choose an orbit properly for a satellite based on the requirement. For example, if the satellite is

placed in lower orbit, then it takes less time to travel around the earth and there will be better resolution in

an onboard camera. Similarly, if the satellite is placed in higher orbit, then it takes more time to travel around

the earth and it covers more earth’s surface at one time.

 Following are the three important types of Earth Orbit satellites −

• Geosynchronous Earth Orbit Satellites

• Medium Earth Orbit Satellites

• Low Earth Orbit Satellites

Now, let us discuss about each type of earth orbit satellites one by one.

Geosynchronous Earth Orbit Satellites

A Geo-synchronous Earth Orbit (GEO) Satellite is one, which is placed at an altitude of 22,300 miles above

the Earth. This orbit is synchronized with a side real day (i.e., 23 hours 56 minutes). This orbit can have

inclination and eccentricity.

It may not be circular. This orbit can be tilted at the poles of the earth. But, it appears stationary when observed

from the Earth. These satellites are used for satellite Television.

The same geo-synchronous orbit, if it is circular and in the plane of equator, then it is called as Geostationary

orbit. These Satellites are placed at 35,900kms (same as Geosynchronous) above the Earth’s Equator and

they keep on rotating with respect to earth’s direction (west to east).

The satellites present in these orbits have the angular velocity same as that of earth. Hence, these satellites

are considered as stationary with respect to earth since, these are in synchronous with the Earth’s rotation.

The advantage of Geostationary orbit is that no need to track the antennas in order to find the position of

satellites.
Geostationary Earth Orbit Satellites are used for weather forecasting, satellite TV, satellite radio and other

types of global communications.

The following figure shows the difference between Geo-synchronous and Geo-stationary orbits. The axis of

rotation indicates the movement of Earth.

Note − Every Geostationary orbit is a Geo-synchronous orbit. But, the converse need not be true.
Medium Earth Orbit Satellites

Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) satellites will orbit at distances of about 8000 miles from earth's surface. Signals

transmitted from a MEO satellite travel a shorter distance. Due to this, the signal strength at the receiving

end gets improved. This shows that smaller and light weight receiving terminals can be used at the receiving

end.

Transmission delay can be defined as the time it takes for a signal to travel up to a satellite and back down

to a receiving station. In this case, there is less transmission delay. Because, the signal travels for a shorter

distance to and from the MEO satellite.

For real-time communications, the shorter the transmission delay, the better will be the communication

system. As an example, if a GEO satellite requires 0.25 seconds for a round trip, then MEO satellite requires

less than 0.1 seconds to complete the same trip. MEOs operate in the frequency range of 2 GHz and above.

These satellites are used for High speed telephone signals. Ten or more MEO satellites are required in order

to cover entire earth.

Low Earth Orbit Satellites

Low Earth Orbit LEO) satellites are mainly classified into three categories. Those are little LEOs, big LEOs,

and Mega-LEOs. LEOs will orbit at a distance of 500 to 1000 miles above the earth's surface. These satellites

are used for satellite phones and GPS.

This relatively short distance reduces transmission delay to only 0.05 seconds. This further reduces the need

for sensitive and bulky receiving equipment. Twenty or more LEO satellites are required to cover entire earth.

Little LEOs will operate in the 800 MHz (0.8 GHz) range. Big LEOs will operate in the 2 GHz or above range,

and Mega-LEOs operates in the 20-30 GHz range.

The higher frequencies associated with Mega-LEOs translates into more information carrying capacity and

yields to the capability of real-time, low delay video transmission scheme.

The following figure depicts the paths of LEO, MEO and GEO

Orbital Slots
Here, a question may arise that with more than 200 satellites that are in geosynchronous orbit, how do we

keep them from running into each other or from attempting to use the same location in space?

To answer this problem (question), international regulatory bodies like the International Telecommunications

Union (ITU) and national government organizations like the Federal Communications

Commission (FCC) designate the locations on the geosynchronous orbit, where the communications satellites

can be located.

These locations are specified in degrees of longitude and are called as orbital slots. The FCC and ITU have

progressively reduced the required spacing down to only 2 degrees for C-band and Ku-band satellites due to

the huge demand for orbital slots.

Look Angles & Orbital Perturbations

Earth station will receive the maximum signal level, if it is located directly under the satellite. Otherwise, it

won’t receive maximum signal level and that signal level decreases as the difference between the latitude

and longitude of earth station increases.

So, based on the requirement we can place the satellite in a particular orbit. Now, let us discuss about the

look angles.

Look Angles
 The following two angles of earth station antenna combined together are called as look angles.

• Azimuth Angle

• Elevation Angle

Generally, the values of these angles change for non-geostationary orbits. Whereas, the values of these

angles don’t change for geostationary orbits. Because, the satellites present in geostationary orbits appear

stationary with respect to earth.

These two angles are helpful in order to point at the satellite directly from the earth station antenna. So,

the maximum gain of the earth station antenna can be directed at satellite.

We can calculate the look angles of geostationary orbit by using longitude & latitude of earth station and

position of satellite orbit.

Azimuth Angle

The angle between local horizontal plane and the plane passing through earth station, satellite and center of

earth is called as azimuth angle.

The formula for Azimuth angle (α) is

 Where,

• L is Latitude of earth station antenna.

• G is the difference between position of satellite orbit and earth station antenna.

The following figure illustrates the azimuth angle.

Measure the horizontal angle at earth station antenna to north pole as shown in figure. It represents azimuth

angle. It is used to track the satellite horizontally.

Elevation Angle

The angle between vertical plane and line pointing to satellite is known as Elevation angle. Vertical plane is

nothing but the plane, which is perpendicular to horizontal plane.

The formula for Elevation angle (β) is

We can calculate the elevation angle by using above formula. The following figure illustrates the elevation

angle.
Measure the vertical angle at earth station antenna from ground to satellite as shown in the figure. It

represents elevation angle.

 Orbital Perturbations

Following are the orbital perturbations due to gravitational and non-gravitational forces or parameters.

• Irregular gravitational force around the Earth due to non-uniform mass distribution. Earth’s magnetic field too

causes orbital perturbations.

• Main external perturbations come from Sun and Moon. When a satellite is near to these external bodies, it

receives a stronger gravitational pull.

• Low-orbit satellites get affected due to friction caused by collision with atoms and ions.

• Solar radiation pressure affects large GEO satellites, which use large solar arrays.

• Self-generated torques and pressures caused by RF radiation from the antenna.

Most satellites use a propulsion subsystem in order to maintain a proper spin axis direction and control the

altitude of the satellite against perturbation forces.

Satellite Communication - Launching

Satellites stay in space for most of their life time. We know that the environment of weightlessness is present

in the space. That’s why satellites don’t require additional strong frames in space. But, those are required

during launching process. Because in that process satellite shakes violently, till the satellite has been placed

in a proper orbit.
 The design of satellites should be compatible with one or more launch vehicles in order to place the satellite

in an orbit.

We know that the period of revolution will be more for higher apogee altitude according to Kepler’s second

law. The period of geostationary transfer orbit is nearly equal to 16 hours. If perigee is increased to GEO

altitude (around 36,000 km), then the period of revolution will increase to 24 hours.

Launching of Satellites

The process of placing the satellite in a proper orbit is known as launching process. During this process, from

earth stations we can control the operation of satellite. Mainly, there are four stages in launching a satellite.

• First Stage − The first stage of launch vehicle contains rockets and fuel for lifting the satellite along with launch

vehicle from ground.

• Second Stage − The second stage of launch vehicle contains smaller rockets. These are ignited after

completion of first stage. They have their own fuel tanks in order to send the satellite into space.

• Third Stage − The third (upper) stage of the launch vehicle is connected to the satellite fairing. This fairing is a

metal shield, which contains the satellite and it protects the satellite.

• Fourth Stage − Satellite gets separated from the upper stage of launch vehicle, when it has been reached to

out of Earth's atmosphere. Then, the satellite will go to a “transfer orbit”. This orbit sends the satellite higher

into space.
 When the satellite reached to the desired height of the orbit, its subsystems like solar panels and

communication antennas gets unfurled. Then the satellite takes its position in the orbit with other satellites.

Now, the satellite is ready to provide services to the public.

Satellite Launch Vehicles

Satellite launch vehicles launch the satellites into a particular orbit based on the requirement. Satellite launch

vehicles are nothing but multi stage rockets. Following are the two types of satellite launch vehicles.

• Expendable Launch Vehicles (ELV)

• Reusable Launch Vehicles (RLV)

Expendable Launch Vehicles

Expendable launch vehicles (ELV) get destroyed after leaving the satellites in space. The following image

shows how an ELV looks.

The ELV contains three stages. First and second stages of ELV raise the satellite to an about 50 miles and

100 miles. Third stage of ELV places the satellite in transfer orbit. The task of ELV will be completed and its

spare parts will be fallen to earth, when the satellite reached to transfer orbit.

Reusable Launch Vehicles

Reusable launch vehicles (RLV) can be used multiple times for launching satellites. Generally, this type of

launch vehicles will return back to earth after leaving the satellite in space.

The following image shows a reusable launch vehicle. It is also known as space shuttle.
The functions of space shuttle are similar to the functions of first and second stages of ELV. Satellite along

with the third stage of space shuttle are mounted in the cargo bay. It is ejected from the cargo bay when the

space shuttle reaches to an elevation of 150 to 200 miles.

Then, the third stage of space shuttle gets fired and places the satellite into a transfer orbit. After this, the

space shuttle will return back to earth for reuse.

 Module-3
Satellite Communication - Subsystems

In satellite communication system, various operations take place. Among which, the main operations are orbit controlling,
altitude of satellite, monitoring and controlling of other subsystems. A satellite communication consists of mainly two
segments. Those are space segment and earth segment. So, accordingly there will be two types of subsystems namely,
space segment subsystems and earth segment subsystems. The following figure illustrates this concept.
As shown in the figure, the communication takes place between space segment subsystems and earth segment subsystems
through communication links.

Space Segment Subsystems The subsystems present in space segment are called as space segment subsystems. Following
are the space segment subsystems. AOC Subsystem TTCM Subsystem Power and Antenna Subsystems Transponders
Earth Segment Subsystems The subsystems present in the ground segment have the ability to access the satellite repeater
in order to provide the communication between the users. Earth segment is also called as ground segment. Earth segment
performs mainly two functions. Those are transmission of a signal to the satellite and reception of signal from the satellite.
Earth stations are the major subsystems that are present in earth segment.
Satellite Communication - TTCM Subsystem

Telemetry, Tracking, Commanding and Monitoring (TTCM) subsystem is present in both satellite and earth station. In
general, satellite gets data through sensors. So, Telemetry subsystem present in the satellite sends this data
to earth station(s). Therefore, TTCM subsystem is very much necessary for any communication satellite in order to operate
it successfully. It is the responsibility of satellite operator in order to control the satellite in its life time, after placing it in
the proper orbit. This can be done with the help of TTCM subsystem. We can make this TTCM subsystem into the
following three parts. Telemetry and Monitoring Subsystem Tracking Subsystem Commanding Subsystem Telemetry and
Monitoring Subsystem The word ‘Telemetry’ means measurement at a distance. Mainly, the following operations take
place in ‘Telemetry’. Generation of an electrical signal, which is proportional to the quantity to be measured. Encoding
the electrical signal. Transmitting this code to a far distance. Telemetry subsystem present in the satellite performs mainly
two functions − receiving data from sensors, and transmitting that data to an earth station. Satellites have quite a few
sensors to monitor different parameters such as pressure, temperature, status and etc., of various subsystems. In general,
the telemetry data is transmitted as FSK or PSK. Telemetry subsystem is a remote controlled system. It sends monitoring
data from satellite to earth station. Generally, the telemetry signals carry the information related altitude, environment and
satellite.

Tracking Subsystem Tracking subsystem is useful to know the position of the satellite and its current orbit. Satellite
Control Center (SCC) monitors the working and status of space segment subsystems with the help of telemetry downlink.
And, it controls those subsystems using command uplink. We know that the tracking subsystem is also present in an earth
station. It mainly focusses on range and look angles of satellite. Number of techniques that are using in order to track the
satellite. For example, change in the orbital position of satellite can be identified by using the data obtained from velocity
and acceleration sensors that are present on satellite. The tracking subsystem that is present in an earth station keeps
tracking of satellite, when it is released from last stage of Launch vehicle. It performs the functions like, locating of satellite
in initial orbit and transfer orbit. Commanding Subsystem Commanding subsystem is necessary in order to launch the
satellite in an orbit and its working in that orbit. This subsystem adjusts the altitude and orbit of satellite, whenever there
is a deviation in those values. It also controls the communication subsystem. This commanding subsystem is responsible
for turning ON / OFF of other subsystems present in the satellite based on the data getting from telemetry and tracking
subsystems. In general, control codes are converted into command words. These command words are used to send in the
form of TDM frames. Initially, the validity of command words is checked in the satellite. After this, these command words
can be sent back to earth station. Here, these command words are checked once again. If the earth station also receives the
same (correct) command word, then it sends an execute instruction to satellite. So, it executes that command. Functionality
wise, the Telemetry subsystem and commanding subsystem are opposite to each other. Since, the first one transmits the
satellite’s information to earth station and second one receives command signals from earth station.

Satellite Communication - AOC Subsystem

We know that satellite may deviates from its orbit due to the gravitational forces from sun, moon and other planets. These
forces change cyclically over a 24-hour period, since the satellite moves around the earth. Altitude and Orbit Control
(AOC) subsystem consists of rocket motors, which are capable of placing the satellite into the right orbit, whenever it is
deviated from the respective orbit. AOC subsystem is helpful in order to make the antennas, which are of narrow beam
type points towards earth. We can make this AOC subsystem into the following two parts. Altitude Control Subsystem
Orbit Control Subsystem Now, let us discuss about these two subsystems one by one.

Altitude Control Subsystem

Altitude control subsystem takes care of the orientation of satellite in its respective orbit. Following are the two methods
to make the satellite that is present in an orbit as stable. Spinning the satellite Three axes method Spinning the satellite In
this method, the body of the satellite rotates around its spin axis. In general, it can be rotated at 30 to 100 rpm in order to
produce a force, which is of gyroscopic type. Due to this, the spin axis gets stabilized and the satellite will point in the
same direction. Satellites are of this type are called as spinners. Spinner contains a drum, which is of cylindrical shape.
This drum is covered with solar cells. Power systems and rockets are present in this drum. Communication subsystem is
placed on top of the drum. An electric motor drives this communication system. The direction of this motor will be opposite
to the rotation of Satellite body, so that the antennas point towards earth. The satellites, which perform this kind of
operation are called as de-spin. During launching phase, the satellite spins when the small radial gas jets are operated.
After this, the de-spin system operates in order to make the TTCM subsystem antennas point towards earth station. Three
Axis Method In this method, we can stabilize the satellite by using one or more momentum wheels. This method is called
as three-axis method. The advantage of this method is that the orientation of the satellite in three axes will be controlled
and no need of rotating satellite’s main body. In this method, the following three axes are considered. Roll axis is
considered in the direction in which the satellite moves in orbital plane. Yaw axis is considered in the direction towards
earth. Pitch axis is considered in the direction, which is perpendicular to orbital plane. These three axes are shown in below
figure
Let X , Y and Z are the roll axis, yaw axis and pitch axis respectively. These three axis are defined by considering the
satellite’s position as reference. These three axes define the altitude of satellite. Let X, Y and Z are another set of Cartesian
axes. This set of three axis provides the information about orientation of the satellite with respect to reference axes. If
there is a change in altitude of the satellite, then the angles between the respective axes will be changed. In this method,
each axis contains two gas jets. They will provide the rotation in both directions of the three axes. The first gas jet will be
operated for some period of time, when there is a requirement of satellite’s motion in a particular axis direction. The
second gas jet will be operated for same period of time, when the satellite reaches to the desired position. So, the second
gas jet will stop the motion of satellite in that axis direction.

Orbit Control Subsystem Orbit control subsystem is useful in order to bring the satellite into its correct orbit, whenever
the satellite gets deviated from its orbit. The TTCM subsystem present at earth station monitors the position of satellite. If
there is any change in satellite orbit, then it sends a signal regarding the correction to Orbit control subsystem. Then, it
will resolve that issue by bringing the satellite into the correct orbit. In this way, the AOC subsystem takes care of the
satellite position in the right orbit and at right altitude during entire life span of the satellite in space.

Power & Antenna Subsystems

In this chapter, let us discuss about Power systems from which various subsystems of satellite gets power and Antenna
subsystems one by one. Power Systems We know that the satellite present in an orbit should be operated continuously
during its life span. So, the satellite requires internal power in order to operate various electronic systems and
communications payload that are present in it. Power system is a vital subsystem, which provides the power required for
working of a satellite. Mainly, the solar cells (or panels) and rechargeable batteries are used in these systems. Solar Cells
Basically, the solar cells produce electrical power (current) from incident sunlight. Therefore, solar cells are used primarily
in order to provide power to other subsystems of satellite.
We know that individual solar cells generate very less power. So, in order to generate more power, group of cells that are
present in an array form can be used. Solar Arrays There are two types of solar arrays that are used in satellites. Those are
cylindrical solar arrays and rectangular solar arrays or solar sail. Cylindrical solar arrays are used in spinning satellites.
Only part of the cylindrical array will be covered under sunshine at any given time. Due to this, electric power gets
generated from the partial solar array. This is the drawback of this type. The drawback of cylindrical solar arrays is
overcome with Solar sail. This one produce more power because all solar cells of solar sail are exposed to sun light.
Rechargeable Batteries During eclipses time, it is difficult to get the power from sun light. So, in that situation the other
subsystems get the power from rechargeable batteries. These batteries produce power to other subsystems during launching
of satellite also. In general, these batteries charge due to excess current, which is generated by solar cells in the presence of sun light.
Antenna Subsystems Antennas are present in both satellite and earth station. Now, let us discuss about the satellite antennas. Satellite
antennas perform two types of functions. Those are receiving of signals, which are coming from earth station and transmitting signals
to one or more earth stations based on the requirement. In other words, the satellite antennas receive uplink signals and transmit
downlink signals. We know that the length of satellite antennas is inversely proportional to the operating frequency. The operating
frequency has to be increased in order to reduce the length of satellite antennas. Therefore, satellite antennas operate in the order of
GHz frequencies.
Satellite Antennas

The antennas, which are used in satellite are known as satellite antennas. There are mainly four types of Antennas. They
are: Wire

Antennas Horn Antennas Array Antennas Reflector Antennas Now, let us discuss about these antennas one by one.

Wire Antennas

Wire antennas are the basic antennas. Mono pole and dipole antennas come under this category. These are used in very
high frequencies in order to provide the communication for TTCM subsystem. The length of the total wire, which is being
used as a dipole, if equals half of the wave length (i.e., l = λ/2), such an antenna is called as half-wave dipole antenna.
Wire antennas are suitable for covering its range of access and to provide signal strength in all directions. That means,
wire antennas are Omni-directional antennas. An Antenna with an aperture at the end can be termed as an Aperture
antenna. The edge of a transmission line when terminated with an opening, radiates energy. This opening which is an
aperture, makes it as an aperture antenna. Horn antenna is an example of aperture antenna. It is used in satellites in order
to cover more area on earth. Horn antennas are used in microwave frequency range. The same feed horn can be used for
both transmitting and receiving the signals. A device named duplexer, which separates these two signals. Array Antennas
An antenna when individually can radiate an amount of energy, in a particular direction, resulting in better transmission,
how it would be if few more elements are added it, to produce more efficient output. It is exactly this idea, which lead to
the invention of Array Antennas or Antenna

arrays. Array antennas are used in satellites to form multiple beams from single aperture. Reflector Antennas Reflector
antennas are suitable for producing beams, which have more signal strength in one particular direction. That means, these
are highly directional antennas. So, Parabolic reflectors increase the gain of antennas in satellite communication system.
Hence, these are used in telecommunications and broadcasting. If a Parabolic Reflector antenna is used for transmitting a
signal, the signal from the feed, comes out of a dipole or a horn antenna, to focus the wave on to the parabola. It means
that, the waves come out of the focal point and strikes the Paraboloidal reflector. This wave now gets reflected as
collimated wave front. If the same antenna is used as a receiver, the electromagnetic wave when hits the shape of the
parabola, the wave gets reflected onto the feed point. The dipole or the horn antenna, which acts as the receiver antenna
at its feed, receives this signal, to convert it into electric signal and forwards it to the receiver circuitry
If the same antenna is used as a receiver, the electromagnetic wave when hits the shape of the parabola, the wave gets reflected
onto the feed point. The dipole or the horn antenna, which acts as the receiver antenna at its feed, receives this signal, to convert it
into electric signal and forwards it to the receiver circuitry
 Module-4

With the rapid development of modern science and technology, people’s demand for information transmission is getting
higher and higher. As we know that communication satellites with the characteristics of large coverage, long
communication distance, short construction period, and its communication cost are independent of distance, which have
an indispensable position and play an important strategic role in satellite communication system. However, at the same
time, the communication effect of communication satellites is affected by many aspects. This time we will analyze the
impact of the sun outage and eclipse on the communication satellite below.
 Fig.1 Diagram of Sun outage

Effects of sun outage for communication satellites

The orbit of the earth rotates with the sun at an inclination angle of 23.5°, so the sun passes over the earth’s equator on March 21
(spring equinox) and September 23 (autumn equinox) each year. Every year around the spring equinox and autumnal equinox, when
the sun shines directly on the earth’s equator, the electromagnetic waves emitted by the receiving line of the satellite. The sun outage
diagram is shown below figure 1.
Since communication satellites operate at multiple fixed points over the equator, during this period, if the sun, communication
satellites, and ground satellite receiving antennas happen to be in a straight line, the electromagnetic waves at this time will have the
strongest impact on artificial satellites, which may cause obstruction of satellite signal transmission. The satellite receiving system
on the earth will also receive a large amount of solar radiation clutter while receiving satellite signals. Because useful signals cannot
be identified, the signal quality will be degraded or even interrupted. The movement of the moon will also have the same effect on
the satellite, but it is much weaker than the sun, so it will not cause the interruption of the satellite signal.
It can be seen that the sun outage is an unavoidable natural phenomenon encountered by the satellite communication system. But the
sun outage only affects the downlink of the satellite earth station, not its uplink. It occurs twice a year, namely during the vernal
equinox (March 21) and autumnal equinox.
Therefore, in order to ensure the stable operation of the satellite communication system, the date and time of the solar outage should
be accurately predicted, so that effective measures can be taken in time to prevent and reduce the interference of the solar outage to
the satellite communication system. The solution is to prepare a spare receiving antenna to receive signals from other satellites as a
backup when the sun outage occurs. The date and time of the solar outage are related to the geographic location of the satellite earth
station and the electrical characteristics of its receiving satellite antenna.

The relationship between geographical location and sun outage It can be divided into the effect of longitude and latitude on the
duration of the sun outage. Latitude affects the dates on which solar outage begin and end each year. At the spring equinox, the higher
the latitude of the earth station, the earlier the start and end dates of the solar outage; at the autumnal equinox, the higher the latitude,
the later the start and end dates of the solar outage. If the longitudes of the two places are the same, then for every 3°difference in
latitude, there will be a difference of 1 day between the beginning and end dates of the solar outage in the two places. Longitude
affects when the daily solstice begins and ends. The wester the longitude of the earth station, the earlier the start and end of the daily
outage; the easter the longitude, the later the start and end of the daily outage.
For an earth station, its sun outage duration begins when the sun enters the 3dB beamwidth of its antenna and ends when it leaves its
3dB beamwidth. Therefore, the duration of the sun outage of the earth station is related to its receiving frequency and the size of the
antenna diameter. The higher the receiving frequency and the narrower the 3dB beamwidth of the antenna, the shorter the duration
of the solar outage. The larger the antenna aperture and the narrower the 3dB beamwidth, the shorter the duration of the solar outage.
Effects of satellite eclipse for communication satellites

Satellite eclipse, refers to the phenomenon that the artificial satellite is blocked by the surrounding celestial bodies and cannot receive
sunlight. There are two types of eclipses: terrestrial eclipses and lunar eclipses. Like solar eclipse and lunar eclipse, when the earth
moves between the sun and the communication satellite, the satellite is in the shadow of the earth, which is the terrestrial eclipse; and
when the moon moves between the sun and the communication satellite, the same situation will occur, which is a lunar eclipse. The
diagram of eclipse is shown below figure 2

Fig 2 Diagram of satellite eclipse

Measures should be taken to reduce the energy consumption on the satellite when a satellite eclipse occurs. Generally, some measures
are taken to reduce power consumption by shutting down some equipment on the satellite. For communication satellites in GEO
orbits, eclipses usually occur around the spring and autumnal equinoxes, and each time they occur continuously for 45 days, a total
of 90 days, and the 2 days of spring and autumnal equinoxes have the longest eclipse duration of 72 minutes. The capacity of the
current satellite battery has been greatly improved. During the period of satellite eclipse, the satellite can be guaranteed to work
normally. Therefore, the problem of satellite eclipse can be ignored, but the phenomenon of satellite eclipse still exists. In order to
make the satellite eclipse occur in the time when the communication service in the service area is the lowest, the sub-satellite point
(that is, the intersection point between the satellite and the center of the earth and the earth’s surface) should be moved eastward or
westward to adjust the time when the satellite eclipse occurs to ensure the normal operation of the satellite. However, the offset will
change the elevation angle of the earth station to point the satellite, which will bring adverse effects, increase the transmission loss,
and weaken the receiving field strength. If the receiving antenna has a small aperture and poor antenna accuracy, it will cause the
phenomenon of signal pause and discontinuity. In order to prevent the influence of satellite eclipse, it is necessary to increase the
aperture of the receiving antenna and calibrate the precision of the antenna so that the receiving field strength of the antenna is at the
strongest value, which can effectively reduce the influence.
 Module-5
Introduction

We know that ‘link’ corresponds to something that connects two different ends. The term satellite link is associated with
the radio link that connects the earth station to the satellite i.e., uplink, and satellite to earth station i.e., downlink. While
the link budget is a set of calculations that is a summarized analysis of the performance and feasibility of a particular
communication link.
We know that as far as signal transmission and reception is concerned the calculation of power is associated with
calculating the transmitted power and received power. This determination of power relative to transmission and reception
is known as link budget calculation.
The key parameter of link budget calculation is equivalent isotropic radiated power i.e., EIRP.
A noteworthy point over here is that as satellites are moving bodies in space thus the satellite link budget is calculated for
the complete region from where reception is decided.

Now the question arises what is the need for a link budget?
Basically, during communication via satellite system, various losses and gains exist due to which the performance of the
satellite system gets affected. To get the idea of the actual performance of the whole system, a combined study of losses
and gains is required to be made. This study helps in regulating the performance of the system in adverse conditions.

Thus, the link budget estimation is a crucial aspect of a satellite communication system as the system is optimized
according to the various losses and gains considerations. Usually, link budget calculation is done by decibel and decilog
quantities.

Factors Affecting Link Design

Derivation of Link Design Formula

Let Pt denotes the transmitted power. The power density is defined as the amount of power, an antenna receives in an unit

area. Thus if we consider the region as spherical then the power density will be given as:
And its unit is W/m2
: 4πr2 is the area of the sphere with radius r.
However, the above-given expression is for an isotropic type of transmitting antenna that radiates uniformly in all
directions. But if the transmit antenna is directional in nature with gain Gt, then the power density will be given as:

Here PtGt represents the effective isotropic radiated power along the direction of radiation of the directional antenna.

For Pt in watts, EIRP is written as:

If the antenna has effective aperture Ae at the receiver end, then the total received power will be given as:

Since, Ae = ηA
: Ae represents aperture efficiency,
A shows the physical area of the mouth of the antenna

However, we know
: Gr is the receiver gain and λ is the wavelength

Thus, Ae can be written as,

On substituting the value of Ae in the above-given equation of Pr, we will get,

The above-given equation is the link equation and is used for the calculation of the power budget.

Representing the link equation in the form of decibels, we will get,

On simplifying, we can have,

Hence, with this equation, transmit power, transmit and receive antenna gains, receive power, distance, and wavelength
of operation can be calculated.

Link Budget Calculation

In the calculation of the link budget, losses involved in transmission play a crucial role. Let us understand each
transmission loss separately.

Transmission Losses

EIRP acts as the input power to the transmission line that is needed to be transmitted at the other end. However, in
actuality, the total EIRP is not transmitted to the receiver end due to the losses involved in between. These losses that
change the power received at the other end can be constant or variable. The constant losses are determined through
statistical data while some are dependent on the weather conditions, especially rainfall.
There are various factors on which these losses depend thus the conditions are as follows:

Free-space transmission

The power received at the other end will be given as:

Here GR represents the gain of the receiving antenna and r is the distance between transmitter and receiver

From the above expression, it is clear that the free space loss is a function of the square of the distance and frequency.

Feeder Losses
These are the losses at the receiver end due to the presence of couplers, filters, and waveguides thus known as receiver
feeder losses, and add to free space loss. These same losses are noticed at the transmitter end also, however; these are not
inclusive in the EIRP.

Antenna misalignment losses

The alignment of the earth station and satellite link antenna must provide maximum gain value. So, whenever there is
some kind of mismatching in the alignment of the two then such losses are regarded as antenna misalignment losses.
 The figure given below represents the alignment between the earth station and satellite for maximum gain.

However, when there is a misalignment between the earth station and satellite then there will be an off-axis loss, and this
off-axis loss at the earth station is referred to as antenna pointing loss. Its value is between 0.2 to 0.9 dB.
This is clearly shown in the figure given below:

Along with pointing loss, another misalignment loss can be due to misalignment in the direction of polarization. These
losses are quite small. Thus, antenna misalignment loss is inclusive of pointing loss as well as polarization loss. These
losses are determined through statistical data that are taken into consideration according to the errors from various earth
stations while the complete estimation is inclusive of losses associated with uplink and downlink.

Atmospheric and Ionospheric losses

The various gases present in the atmosphere lead to cause losses due to absorption of the transmitted signal and are
generally some fraction of decibel. These are denoted as [AA]. Now, coming to ionospheric losses, so these are basically
depolarization losses sometimes called polarization mismatch loss thus denoted as [PL].

Link-Power Budget Equation

EIRP is the input power to the transmission link. We have recently discussed the losses involved while transmitting the

signal from one end to another. Thus, the power received will be given by:

FSL i.e., free space loss is regarded as the major source of loss in the ground-satellite link.

We have recently discussed the various losses that correspond to free space loss. Thus the losses can be written by the

equation given below:

Thus, the received power decibel equation will be given as:

: [PR] is the received power,

[EIRP] is the effective isotropic radiated power,

[FSL] denotes free-space spreading loss,

[RFL] denotes receiver feeder loss,

[AA] is the atmospheric absorption,

[PL] is the polarization mismatch loss and

[AML] is antenna misalignment loss.

System Noise

From the above discussion, it is clear that the power received at the other end is quite small. However, by amplifying the
signal to the desired level the strength of the received signal can be raised. But you must note here that some form of noise
 exists at the input and the original signal must necessarily have more strength than the noise component as only then the
amplification will be justified as the amplifier amplifies the signal as well as noise to the same extent.

Electrical noise in the equipment is generally, the result of random thermal motion of electrons within the active and
resistive devices at the receiver. The antenna picks the thermal noise as radiation.

The expression for noise power generated by thermal noise source is given as:

Here, TN is the equivalent noise temperature,

BN is the equivalent noise bandwidth and
k represents Boltzmann’s constant whose value is 1.38 * 10-23 J/K
Here bandwidth is in hertz and temperature is in kelvins.

In the case of thermal noise, we have a flat frequency spectrum, thus, the noise power per unit bandwidth is constant. This
is known as noise power spectral density and is denoted by N0. Thus, is given by the expression:

You must note here that the noise temperature from various sources can be added to have the value of overall noise.

Antenna Noise
Noise is introduced by the satellite and the antenna present at the ground station. The antenna noise is classified as:

• Sky-noise
• Noise from the antenna
Sky noise corresponds to the microwave radiations distributed over the universe and is present due to the existence of
matter with a finite temperature. We know that satellites are directed towards the surface of the earth thus receives the
thermal radiation coming from it. Here the equivalent noise temperature is around 290K. The antenna losses add to the
noise received as radiation.
When clear sky condition is considered then the overall noise temperature in C-band is 60K while that in Ku-
band is 80K.
Carrier to Noise Ratio (C/N)
It is defined as the ratio of carrier power to the noise power at the input terminals of the receiver and is a measure of the
performance of the satellite link.

Thus, is expressed as:

On substituting the values of PR and PN in the above equation,

We know that the ratio of G and T specifies the performance of the system receiving the signal, thus the gain of the
receiving antenna GR and noise temperature of the system i.e., TS can be combinedly written as:

Thus, the modified equation will be:

Since we know,

Therefore,

We can write it as:

Hence,

Substituting the value of CN in the above equation, we will get,

The above expression defines the ratio of carrier to noise power density.