Particles Physics

Jan-Feb 2023

Particles Physics 1 / 28
Symmetries
◮ Every symmetry of the nature implies a conservation law.
◮ Energy is conserved when a system is invariant under translation
in time and momentum is conserved in case of invariance under
translation in space.
◮ Rotational invariance leads to the conservation of angular
momentum.
◮ Similarly the invariance of the electrodynamics under gauge
transformations yields the conservation of charge. This is an
example of an internal symmetry.
◮ Continuous symmetries for a quantum system may be associated
either with space time symmetry or internal symmetry
transformations.
◮ The set of all symmetry operations has the properties of (i)
closure, (ii) identity, (iii) Inverse, (iv) Associativity. These are the
defining property of a group.
◮ There are two categries of groups - continuous and discrete. In
the former case, elements depend on continuous parameter(s).
Particles Physics 2 / 28
Special Unitary Groups

◮ Groups are made of matrices. For example, the Lorentz group.

◮ Most common groups in elementary particle physics are called
U(n) - the collection of all n × n unitary matrices.
◮ Consider the special case of unitary matrices with determinant 1.
The group is SU(n).
◮ Another example is the group of real, orthogonal n × n matrices
with determinant 1 known as SO(n). This is the group of all
rotations in a n-dimensional space. This group describes the
rotational symmetry of our physical world.
◮ SU(2) is the most important internal symmetry in elementary
particle physics.
◮ The group of spatial rotations in 3-dimensions has a very similar
algebric structures to SU(2).

Particles Physics 3 / 28
SU(2) and Isospin
◮ SU(2) are characterized by 2 × 2 matrices with determinants 1.
◮ The SU(2) group of transformations rotates state vectors in Hilbert
space similar to spatial rotations.
◮ Heisenberg stressed the point in 1932 that the strong interactions
were invariant under an internal symmetry group SU(2).
◮ If the electric charge is truned off, the neutron and proton would
be indistinguishable.
We write the nucleon as a two-column matrix (spinor),

 
p
N=
n
,
with    
1 0
p= ; n=
0 1
Particles Physics 4 / 28
SU(2) and Isospin

◮ In analogy to spin (S), we introduce the isospin (I) which is a

vector in the isospin space.
◮ A general rotation in the internal space of this 2-dimensional
system can be implemented using Pauli spin matrices (σi ) which
are the generators of SU(2). We write the isospin in terms of σi as
σ
Ij = 2j , where j = 1, 2, 3.
     
0 1 0 −i 1 0
σ1 = ; ; σ2 = ; σ3 =
1 0 i 0 0 −1

◮ The nucleon doublet carries the isospin 21 and the third component
has the value of +1
2 for the proton and 2 for the neutron.
−1

Particles Physics 5 / 28
Hadrons

Particles Physics 6 / 28
Hadrons

Particles Physics 7 / 28
Mesons, Leptons, Baryons
◮ Yukawa proposed in 1934 that the strong interaction between the
proton and neutron was mediated by the exchange of some
quantum.
◮ The calculated mass of the particle would fall between the mass
of an electron and proton.
◮ This particle was named as meson meaning ’middle weight’. In
the same spirit an electron is called a lepton (’light weight’).
◮ In 1947, Powell found the middle weight particle called the pion (π)
in cosmic rays. Some other particles were produced in the decay
of the pion. One of them was a muon (π − → µ− + ν̄,
π + → µ+ + ν).
◮ Powell’s group further noted that the muon decayed into an
electron and some other particle (µ− → e− + ν + ν̄,
µ+ → e+ + ν + ν̄).
◮ Cowan and Raines performed the inverse beta decay in a water
tank using antineutrinos from the nuclear reactor in South
Carolina.
Particles Physics 8 / 28
Quantum Numbers
◮ Classically, it is known that a reaction is allowed if it does not
violate any conservation law for example, charge conservation.
Such conservation laws are also found in the quantum world of
elementary particles.
◮ One can find the type of quantum numbers that are conserved in
the experiments with elementary particles.
◮ It is observbed in the reactions of elementary particles that the
number of fermions are conserved. But this not true for photons
and mesons.
◮ Why is the proton stable? Why does not it decay into p → e+ + γ?
◮ Stückelberg proposed the conservation of the baryon number to
explain the stability of the proton in 1938.
◮ Baryon number B = 1 for all baryons and B = −1 for all
antibaryons.
◮ Similar conservation law holds for the leptons and leads to the
lepton quantum number. The absence of the proton decay is also
the result of the conservation of the lepton number.
Particles Physics 9 / 28
Quantum Numbers
◮ Leptons have three families - (e− , νe ), (µ− , µµ ), (τ − , ντ ). They
have different kind of lepton numbers within the family of leptons -
electron lepton number, µ lepton number and τ lepton number.
◮ Unlike leptons and baryons, there is no conservation of mesons.
◮ Heavier mesons (K − , K + , K 0 , K̄ 0 ) and baryons (Λ, Σ so on) were
discovered both in cosmic rays and particle acceleratrs. They
were prduced copiously on a time scale ∼ 10−23 sec but decayed
slowly (∼ 10−8 sec).
◮ These particles were produced in pairs known as associated
production. For example, π − + p → K 0 + Λ , π − + p → K + + Σ− ,
π − + p → K 0 + Σ0 .
◮ Gell-Mann and Nishijima assigned a new quantum number called
strangeness to each particle.
◮ strangeness is conserved in strong interactions.
◮ However, these strange particles decay via weak processes,
Λ → p + π − , K 0 → π + + π − . The conservation of strangeness is
violated in weak processes.
Particles Physics 10 / 28
Elementary Particles

Particles Physics 11 / 28
Leptons

Particles Physics 12 / 28
Discrete Symmetries: Parity (P)

◮ Parity, known as space inversion, is a transformation that takes

one from a left handed coordinate to a right handed one or vice
versa for example
   
ct ct
x 
  →P
 −x
 

y  −y 
z −z

◮ Under the parity operation, a vector ~r becomes −~r , and a scalar

1
r = (~r · ~r ) 2 remains unchanged.

Particles Physics 13 / 28
Discrete Symmetries: Parity (P)

◮ But the angular momentum ~L = ~r × ~p does not change sign under

the parity operation. This vector (~L) is called the pseudo (or axial)
vector. Similarly a pseudo scalar (~a · ~b × ~c ) does not change sign
under the parity operation.
◮ Two successive parity transformations leave the coordinate
system unchanged i.e. ~r →P −~r →P ~r . P being an operator
implementing two successive parity transformations leads to
P 2 = 1.
◮ One can conclude that scalars and pseudovectors have the
eigenvalue +1 and vectors and pseudoscalars have the
eigenvalue -1.
◮ In a theory having parity invariance, a pseudovector should not be
added to a vector. Consider F ~ = q[E ~ + ~v × B].~ B~ is a
pseudovector.

Particles Physics 14 / 28
Discrete Symmetries: Parity (P)

◮ Hadrons are eigenstates of parity.

◮ The parity of a particle in the ground state is the product of
parities of its constituents.
◮ It is chosen that quarks have positive intrinsic parities and
antiquarks have negative parities.
◮ The baryon octet and decuplet have positive parity (+1) whereas
the meson octet has the negative parity (-1). Photons are vector
particles. Its intrinsic parity is -1.
◮ The parity invariance in strong and electromagnetic interactions
implies that the parity is conversed in all such processes.
◮ However, the parity invariance is violated in weak interactions.

Particles Physics 15 / 28
Parity violation in beta deacy of 60 Co

T.D. Lee and C.N. Yang predicted in 1956 that weak interactions
violated parity.
C. S. Wu performed an experiment using the polarized Cobalt nucleus.
The Cobalt nucleus undergoes the beta decay as
60 Co →60 Ni + e − + ν¯ . Nuclear spins were polarized using a
e
magnetic field.

Particles Physics 16 / 28
Discrete Symmetries: Charge Conjugation (C)
◮ The Charge conjugation (C) is a discrete transformatin in the
internal Hilbert space of a quantum mechanical object.
◮ This transformation affects the internal properties of the state
keeping the space-time coordinates unchanged.
◮ The charge conjugation inverts all internal quantum numbers of
states. This operation relates particles with their antiparticles.
◮ A state could be an eigenstate of the operator C if it is electrically
neutral.
◮ But all charge neutral states are not eigenstates of C. For
example, |ni →C |n̄i |K 0 i →C |K̄ 0 i.
◮ Two consecutive charge conjugation operations on a state leaves
the state unchanged. The eigenvalues of C are ±1.
◮ C is conserved in Strong and electromagnetic interactions
(π → γ + γ) but not in the weak interaction. In the latter case,
|νL i →C |ν̄L i |νR i →C |ν̄R i. The left handed antineutrinos and
right handed neutrinos do not exist in nature.
Particles Physics 17 / 28
Discrete Symmetries: Time Reversal (T)
◮ It is quite difficult to test the time reversal (T) than P or C.
◮ Consider the reaction n + p → d + γ and run this reaction
backward in time i.e. d + γ → n + p. For given conditions of
momentum, energy, spin, the reaction rate should be the same in
both cases. This is known as the detailed balance.
◮ The principle of the detailed balance can be derived directly from
the time reversal invariance.
◮ This holds good for strong and electromagnetic interactions i.e. no
violation of T symmetry.
◮ Like P or C, the time resersal is violated in weak intearactions. For
example, Λ → p + + π − is a weak decay process. The reverse
reaction p + + π − → Λ does not happen because the strong
interaction dominates the weak interaction.
◮ The critical tests of T invariance include precise measurements of
quantities that should be zero if T is a perfect symmetry.
◮ The most sensitive experimental tests on the electric dipole
moment of the neutron gives an upper limit dn < 6 × 10−26
Particles Physics 18 / 28
Discrete Symmetries: TCP

◮ Under C transformation, π + → µ+ + νµ becomes π − → µ− + ν¯µ

and not invariant. The joint CP operation turns the left handed
antimuon to the right handed muon which we observe in nature.
◮ The combined operation of T, C, P in any order is an exact
symmetry of any interaction.
◮ If the TCP is correct, every particle must have precisely the same
mass and lifetime as its antiparticle. An example of it is the
measurement of K 0 − K̄ 0 mass difference which is known to be
< 10−15 .

Particles Physics 19 / 28
Quarks

◮ There was a hint that the anomalous magnetic of the neutron

could be the result of the complex internal currents.
◮ Murray Gell-Mann and Gerrge Zweig predicted after studying the
observed spectra of hadrons that those pasrticles could be made
of more fundamental objects.
◮ A series of experiments carried out in late 1960s at the Stanford
Linear Accelerator Centre (SLAC) on electron scattering from the
hydrogen and deuteron revealed that the data could be explained
if protons and neutrons had sub-structures.
◮ Momentum transfers in the inelastic scattering of electrons were
so large that the fundamental constituents of nucleons were
probed.
◮ However, leptons do not exhibit any sub-structure at large
momentum transfers. Leptons are treated as elementary particles.

Particles Physics 20 / 28
The Eightfold Way

◮ The Eightfold way proposed by Murray Gell-Mann and Ne’eman

arranged the baryons and mesons into geometrical patterns
according to their charge and strangeness number.
◮ Eight lighest baryons fit into a hexagonal array i.e the baryon
octet.
◮ Similarly mesons are organised in the meson octet.
◮ Ten (10) heavier baryons were inserted into the decuplet.
◮ These were experimentally verified in late 1960s.
◮ Why do hadrons fit into such patterns?
Particles Physics 21 / 28
The Quark Model

◮ Murray Gell-Mann coined the word ’quark’.

◮ The quark model gives a classification scheme for hadrons in
terms of their valence quarks and antiquarks.
◮ All quarks are spin 12 particles. Therefore they are fermions.
◮ There are six flavors of quarks - up, down, strange, charm,
bottom, top.
◮ All quarks are assigned a baryon number of 31 .
◮ Up, charm and top quarks have an electric charge of 32 e whereas
3 e.
the electric charge of down, strange and bottom quarks is −1
◮ The quark model explains the Eightfold way and underlies the
SU(3) flavour symmetry.

Particles Physics 22 / 28
Quark Structures of Hadrons

Particles Physics 23 / 28
Color Quarks
◮ Three baryons (∆++ , ∆− , Ω− ) at the corners of the decuplet have
quark structures uuu,ddd ,sss, respectively.
◮ Those three baryons have spins 23 . This implies three 12 -spin
quarks in any of those baryons are parallel. This violates the Pauli
principle. Furthermore, each component of the total wave function
(ψ = ψspin ψspace ψflavor ) is symmetric under the exchange of any
two quarks. However, the requitement for fermions is that the total
wave function has to be antisymmetric.
◮ This leads to the introduction of a new quantum number known as
’color ’ for each quark. Three colors are labeled as Red (R),
Green (G), and Blue (B).
◮ As hadrons are colorless object, it is the color-anticolor
combination in mesons and equal mixtures of R, G, and B in
baryons. With the introduction of color, the total wavefunction for a
baryon is now ψ = ψspin ψspace ψflavor ψcolor . The antisymmetric
ψcolor is, ψcolor = √1 [RGB + BRG + GBR − RBG − BGR − GRB].
6
Particles Physics 24 / 28
Experimental Confirmation of color in quarks
The production of hadrons in electron-positron annihilation at high
energy,
e− + e+ → γ → q + q̄ , (1)
+ +
e +e →µ +µ .
− −
(2)
The ratio of cross sections at given energy can be written,
P 2 2 2
σ(e− e+ → hadrons) i Q qi ( 23 ) + ( 13 ) + ( 13 )2 2
R= = 2
= 2
= . (3)
σ(e e → µ µ )
− + − + Qµ 1 3
If 3 colors for each quark flavor are considered, R = 2.

Particles Physics 25 / 28
Color Gluons
◮ The force between quarks is mediated by the exchange of gluons.
◮ The field that binds quarks is a color field.
◮ What the electric charge is to the electrongmagnetic interaction
between charged particles, the color is to the strong interaction
between quarks.
◮ Gluons are massless, spin-1 particles and carry the color charge.
◮ There are 8 color gluons as the source of quark-quark interaction.
◮ Quarks change their colors as they emit and absorb gluons.
◮ The confirmation of the existence of gluons originates from the
experiment e− + e+ → γ → q + q̄. In this case, a pair of highly
energetic quark-antiquark moving in opposite directions. In the
time scale of strong interaction, quark and antiquark are
converted into two jets of hadrons in opposite directions.
◮ However, in some cases, three or more jets were observed. As
this is not possible for e− + e+ to produce any combination of
quarks and antiquarks totalling 3. The plausible explanation is
then an energetic quark emits a gluon that forms the third jet.
Particles Physics 26 / 28
Screening in QED versus anti-screening in QCD
◮ A test particle with positive charge polarizes a dielectric medeium
creating pairs of opposite charges.
◮ As a result the charge of the test particle is shielded.
◮ The magnitude of the charge increases as it is probed at short
distances. The true charge of the test particle is obtained at large
momentum transfers.
◮ The color charge also polarizes the medium but in a complex way.
◮ It is noted in the QCD that the color charge is anti-screened.
◮ The effective color charge is larger far away from the test particle.
At large momentum transfer or shorter distance, the color charge
decreases.
◮ The color charge vanishes asymptotically. This is known as the
asymptotic freedom. This was independently concluded by David
Politzer, David Gross, Frank Wilczek and Gerard ’t Hooft.
◮ The asymptotic freedom tells us that quarks are weakly interacting
particles at infinite energies.
Particles Physics 27 / 28
Books

Read the following book

1. Introduction to Nuclear and Particle Physics, A. Das and T. Ferbel

Particles Physics 28 / 28