Physics-PHY101-Lecture #02

Kinematics
"Kinematic" is derived from the Greek word "kinesis," which means to move or
motion. Our world is full of motion. For example, cars move, birds can fly, and fish can
move underwater. It is necessary to understand motion and its causes.
The main topics of this lecture are:
• Displacement
• Velocity
• Acceleration
Whenever we discuss the motion of a body, it is essential to locate its position. To
achieve this, we need an origin point. For example, a point x has a value of x = 0 when
stationary, but as it starts moving, its values begin to increase.
If the position of the vector x depends on "t," then we can express its position as x(t),
where x is referred to as a function of "t." (Think of a function as a factory where you
input raw material and receive products, like inputting a number into a function and
obtaining a result as output.)
In kinematics, we require a specific function denoted as x (t). This function allows us
to input a value of t and obtain the position of a moving particle.
Now, let's delve into the concept of "Displacement."

Displacement:

As we know, the position at time t is denoted as x(t). Here, “t” can be any number, such
as 9, 7, 6, etc. Similarly, when a particle moves at different times “t”, it may be denoted
with different notations, such as x(t1) and x(t2), and its function may be defined as x(t).
Now, when we subtract these two quantities, we will obtain a value △ 𝑥. The
displacement △ 𝑥 in time interval △ 𝑡 = 𝑡2 -𝑡1 is:
△ 𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑡2) - 𝑥(𝑡1 )
Sometimes we don’t want to write equation as 𝑥(𝑡1 ) and 𝑥(𝑡2 ) so we do write the
above equation as:
△ 𝑥 = 𝑥2 -𝑥1
This is what we call displacement. Now consider that a particle is moving in one
dimension. Imagine a graph of particle’s position along the x-axis as a function of time.
 From the Figure. 2.1 we can see that when the particle is at position 𝑥1 the time is 𝑡1
and when at 𝑥2 the time is 𝑡2 .

Figure 2.1. Displacement vs. time graph of an object.

If an object as shown in figure 1. is at 10 m from origin at 𝑡1 and reach at 30 m at time 𝑡2 ,

then, we can define displacement △ 𝑥 as:

△ 𝑥 = 𝑥2 -𝑥1

=30 - 10

△ 𝑥 = 20 m

But if the object at 𝑡1 is at 30 m and reach at 10 m at 𝑡2 , then the magnitude will remain
same but negative sign appears due to net displacement in negative direction.

△ 𝑥 = 𝑥2 -𝑥1

=10 - 30

△ 𝑥 = - 20 m

This is what we call displacement, which can be both positive and negative.

Speed and Velocity:

Speed and velocity measure how position changes with time. There are two major concepts to
consider. First, let's look at average speed:

Total distance
Average speed = Total time
If we divide the particle's total distance travelled by the total time taken, we can determine the
average speed of that particle. Average speed can vary, being either maximum or minimum.
Meanwhile, average velocity can be defined as:

Total displacement
Average velocity = Total time

𝑥2 −𝑥1
= 𝑡2 −𝑡1

∆𝑥
𝑣= ∆𝑡

Note that distance is always positive, while displacement can be positive or negative. It's
important to clarify that this is average velocity because we are dividing displacement by time,
not distance by time. This is also known as slope or gradient. For example, consider a car
moving on a slope – the steeper the slope, the greater the gradient.

Now, consider the Figure. 2.2 (a) where the distance covered by two points creates a slope from
which average velocity is calculated.

Figure 2.2. Displacement vs. time graph of an object presenting (a) constant velocity, (b)
Instantaneous velocity.

In contrast, instantaneous velocity is determined by taking two times very close to each other,
with the interval between them approaching zero. In Figure 2.2 (b). if we take two values so
close to each other that they approach zero, we can call it instantaneous velocity. Now, let's
discuss what is meant by "being too close." Being too close implies approaching a distance of
zero. (It's important to note that approaching zero doesn’t mean you are making the distance
zero.)

Acceleration
Acceleration measures how the velocity changes with time. As we have defined average
velocity, we can also define average acceleration as:

𝑣 −𝑣 △𝑣
Average acceleration = 𝑡2 −𝑡 1= △𝑡
2 1

We can say that average acceleration is change in velocity divided by time taken to undergo
that change. It is also known as slope of graph of velocity against time.

△𝑣
𝑎 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 △𝑡
△𝑡→0

Now to understand definition better we will again construct a graph as shown in Figure. 3:

Add more about +ve and -ve acc. Done

Figure 2.3. Velocity vs. time graph of an object presenting (a) constant acceleration, (b) Instantaneous
acceleration.
When 𝑡1 and 𝑡2 come closer, 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 also come closer and we draw a tangent line at that
point which is known as slope of tangent acceleration as shown in Figure 2.3 (b). Remember
that we are approaching t to zero, not making it zero.

The acceleration can be positive and negative. Moreover, it is not necessary for acceleration
to be in the direction of velocity. They can have different direction as shown in Figure 2.4, in
which velocity of train is decreasing as time passes which presents deacceleration. By
convention we take positive x-axis in right direction and negative x-axis in left direction. If the
velocity of an object is increasing in positive x-axis direction than its acceleration is positive.
If the velocity of the object is increasing in negative x-axis, then its acceleration will be
negative, but it never be deacceleration or retardation. The SI unit of acceleration is m s-2.
 Figure 2.4. The negative acceleration of a train.

Constant Acceleration

When an object's acceleration stays constant over time, it's referred to as having constant
acceleration. Stated differently, the object's velocity changes at a constant rate.

Let us talk about constant acceleration in more detail. For this purpose, let’s do simple
calculations.

For convenience, take:

t1 = 0, t 2 = t

Then:

x1 = xo and x2 = x

𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑜 and 𝑣2 = 𝑣

At time t1, the velocity of particle is 𝑣1 which is 𝑣𝑜 , and at time t2 its velocity becomes 𝑣2 = 𝑣.
If acceleration is constant, then we can write the average acceleration as:

v2 − v1
avg =
t2 − t1

And as acceleration is constant, so, v is equals to,

v = vo + at ………. (2)

The average velocity as “it is the average of v and vo divided by 2”.

Mathematically:
1
𝑣𝑎𝑣 = 2 (𝑣𝑜 + 𝑣)
If we want to write in previous notation, then:

𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝑣𝑎𝑣 =
𝑡2 − 𝑡1

If we substitute values from equation given above, then:

𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 𝑣 + 𝑣𝑜
=
𝑡−0 2
𝑥−𝑥𝑜 𝑣𝑜 +𝑎𝑡+𝑣0
= 2
𝑡

𝑥−𝑥𝑜 1
= 𝑣𝑜 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑡 2
1
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2

As we have discussed earlier that x is function of t. So, by putting t = 0 in above equation, we

will have value of x as xo, which is the initial point from, we started.

From all that procedure we have got two main equations:

1
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2 ……. (A)

𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜 + 𝑎𝑡 ………. (B)

Now let’s plot again them on a graph for better understanding:

Figure 2.5. (a) Displacement vs. time, (b) velocity vs. time graph of an object with constant acceleration.

From the graphs in Figure. 2.5 it can be observed that as the time increases particle start
moving away from the origin and its velocity increases linearly, while its displacement
increases quadratically.

From equation (A) and (B),

 𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜
𝑡=[ ]
𝑎
𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜 1 𝑣 − 𝑣𝑜 2
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 + 𝑣𝑜 [ ]+ 𝑎[ ]
𝑎 2 𝑎

𝑣𝑜 𝑣−𝑣𝑜2 𝑣 2 +𝑣𝑜2 +2𝑣𝑣𝑜

𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 = +
𝑎 2𝑎

2𝑣𝑜 𝑣−2𝑣𝑜2 + 𝑣 2 +𝑣𝑜2 +2𝑣𝑣𝑜

𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 = 2𝑎

2𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 ) = 𝑣 2 − 𝑣𝑜2

𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )

Where 𝑣 is function of 𝑥. This equation tells us when the value of x changes, the value of v
also changes.

Example:

For better understanding, let's consider an example with cars. In the context of cars equipped
with a speedometer ranging from 0 to 160 km/h, the initial state of the car is at rest, denoted as
v = 0. When the car is started, its speed, let's consider it as =70 km/h, increases to this value
and moves at this speed for some time. Afterward, it changes its velocity to 60 km/h, indicating
negative acceleration. If we bring the car to a stop, its velocity will gradually decrease and
eventually become zero, signifying that the car is at rest.

Introduction to Vectors

Up until now, the discussion has focused on motion in one dimension. Now, the exploration
will extend to motion in two and three dimensions. Vectors exhibit two primary properties:

• Magnitude
• Direction

Consider the position vector r in two dimensions. For example, envision drawing a vector on a
map of Pakistan, where one end (origin) is in Karachi, and the other end is in Islamabad. To
achieve this, two essential considerations are needed:

• Set the origin at Karachi.

 • Choose coordinates for distance (in kilometres) and direction (North, West, East,
South)

Two sets of numbers or coordinates are necessary. Subsequently, two arrows will be drawn,
representing vectors originating from Islamabad and Karachi.

Consider a car moving on a non-uniform surface. We will notice that’s its velocity is changing
its direction. Although it is moving with constant speed, but its direction keep changing. The
components of vector in two dimensions can be expressed as,
𝑟𝑋 = 𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑟𝑦 = 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

The position vector is written as,

r = ( rX , ry ) = (x, y)

Figure 2.6. The point (x, y) is in two-dimensional plane with origin (0,0). So, we write this vector
as r or in two coordinates (x, y). We call these coordinates as components.
For x = rcos(θ):
From the first trigonometric identity, we have:
cos(θ) = x/r
Multiplying both sides by r, we get:
rcos(θ) = x
Therefore, x = rcos(θ)
For y = rsin(θ):
Similarly, from the second trigonometric identity, we have:
sin(θ) = y/r
Multiplying both sides by r, we get:
rsin(θ) = y
Therefore, y = rsin(θ).
Mathematically we write them as x and y as:

𝑟𝑋 = 𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑟𝑦 = 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

We are already familiar from these basic trigonometric formulas.

x 2 + y 2 = r 2 (sin 2  + cos 2  )
x 2 + y 2 = r 2 (1) = r 2

Which proves that if we square two rectangular components and then add them, we get a
constant number.

Although the length of the vector doesn’t depend on the direction of vectors. We can write it
mathematically as:

Where r = |r|
y
 = tan −1
x

Magnitude of r can be found by Pythagorean theorem.

|r| = r = x2 + y 2

Where r is independent of value of angle.

Vectors can be of different types. We have discussed position vector till now. For instance, we
have also discussed velocity vector with example of moving car. Acceleration is a vector itself
although it made up from velocity but still it is independent of it.

Vector addition:

We can add vectors in one dimension. For example, consider a vector in one direction with a
length of 10 m and another in the opposite direction with a length of 20 m.

20 m −10 m = 10 m

So, adding vectors in one dimension is an easy task. Now, let’s discuss two dimensions.
We want to add two vectors A and B and resultant as C. As,

C = A+B

Graphically if we add these two vectors, they form a triangle with a resultant vector C.

We can arrange the vectors any way we want if we maintain their length and direction.

Parallelogram method for vector addition:

We can also add two vectors by parallelogram method, Continuing from previous example,
 Figure 2.7. We translate the vectors A and B and form the sides of a parallelogram. The
diagonal between them represents their resultant vector, denoted as C. This method is known as
the parallelogram method.

In the parallelogram method for vector addition, the vectors are translated, (i.e., moved) to
a common origin and the parallelogram constructed as follows:

Figure 2.8. The resultant R is the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from the common
origin.

Component Method:
 The components of a vector are those vectors which, when added together, give the
original vector. The sum of the components of two vectors is equal to the sum of these
two vectors. When we add two vectors their components do get added.

Figure 2.9. Figure presents the concept of vector addition by component method.

Here vector A and B have two components along x-axis and along y-axis we get a resultant.

vector R by adding these vectors components in x and y direction.

Summarizing it as,

• Add components.
𝑹𝒙 = 𝑨𝒙 + 𝑩𝒙

𝑹𝒚 = 𝑨𝒚 + 𝑩𝒚

Bold letters present the vector nature.

• Then calculate the magnitude from following formula,

𝑅 = √𝑅𝑋 2 + 𝑅𝑦 2

• Calculate the angle by using formula.

𝑅𝑦
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑅
𝑋