APOLLO ENGINEERING COLLEGE

CHENNAI

DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

EC 3461 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS LABORATORY

MANUAL
IV SEMESTER

(Regulation - 2021)

PREPARED BY

Mrs M.SUGANTHI PRIYA

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR/ECE
1
 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

EC 3461 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS LABORATORY

COURSE OBJECTIVES :

● To study the AM & FM Modulation and Demodulation.

● To learn and realize the effects of sampling and TDM.
● To understand the PCM & Digital Modulation.
● To Simulate Digital Modulation Schemes.
● To Implement Equalization Algorithms and Error Control Coding Schemes.

COURSE OUTCOMES:

At the end of the laboratory course, the student will be able to understand the:
CO1:Design AM, FM & Digital Modulators for specific applications.
CO2:Compute the sampling frequency for digital modulation.
CO3:Simulate & validate the various functional modules of Communication system.
CO4:Demonstrate their knowledge in base band signaling schemes through implementation of digital
modulation schemes.
CO5:Apply various channel coding schemes & demonstrate their capabilities towards the improvement of the noise
system.

2
 GENERAL GUIDELINES AND SAFETY NSTRUCTIONS

1. strictly observe your lab timings.

2. Strictly follow the written and verbal instructions given by the teacher / Lab Instructor. If you do not
understand the instructions, the handouts and the procedures, ask the instructor or teacher.
3. Never work alone! You should be accompanied by your laboratory partner and / or the
instructors / teaching assistants all the time.
4. It is mandatory to come to lab in a formal dress and wear your ID cards.
5. Do not wear loose-fitting clothing or jewels in the lab. Rings and necklaces are usual excellent
conductors of electricity.
6. Mobile phones should be switched off in the lab. Keep bags in the bag rack.
7. Keep the labs clean at all times, no food and drinks allowed inside the lab.
8. Intentional misconduct will lead to expulsion from the lab.
9. Do not handle any equipment without reading the safety instructions. Read the handout and
procedures in the Lab Manual before starting the experiments.
10. Do your wiring, setup, and a careful circuit checkout before applying power. Do not make circuit
changes or perform any wiring when power is on.
11. Avoid contact with energized electrical circuits.
12. Do not insert connectors forcefully into the sockets.
13. NEVER try to experiment with the power from the wall plug.
14. Immediately report dangerous or exceptional conditions to the Lab instructor / teacher: Equipment
that is not working as expected, wires or connectors are broken, the equipment that smells or
“smokes”. If you are not sure what the problem is or what's going on, switch off the Emergency
shutdown.
15. Never use damaged instruments, wires or connectors. Hand over these parts to the Lab
instructor/Teacher.
16. Be sure of location of fire extinguishers and first aid kits in the laboratory.
17. After completion of Experiment, return the bread board, trainer kits, wires, CRO probes and other
components to lab staff. Do not take any item from the lab without permission.
18. Observation book and lab record should be carried to each lab. Readings of current lab experiment
are to be entered in Observation book and previous lab experiment should be written in Lab record
book. Both the books should be corrected by the faculty in each lab.
19. Special Precautions during soldering practice
a. Hold the soldering iron away from your body. Don't point the iron towardsyou.
b.Don't use a spread solder on the board as it may cause short circuit.
c. Do not overheat the components as excess heat may damage the components/board.
d. In case of burn or injury seek first aid available in the lab or at the college dispensary.
3
 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING

EC 3461 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS LABORATORY

List of Experiments

1. AM- Modulator and Demodulator

2. FM - Modulator and Demodulator
3. Pre-Emphasis and De-Emphasis.
4. Signal sampling and TDM.
5. Pulse Code Modulation and Demodulation.
6. Pulse Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation.
7. Pulse Position Modulation and Demodulation and Pulse Width Modulation and Demodulation.
8. Digital Modulation – ASK, PSK, FSK.
9. Delta Modulation and Demodulation.
10. Simulation of ASK, FSK, and BPSK Generation and Detection Schemes.
11. Simulation of DPSK, QPSK and QAM Generation and Detection Schemes.
12. Simulation of Linear Block and Cyclic Error Control coding Schemes.

TOTAL = 45 PERIODS

4
 EC 3461 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS LABORATORY
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Sl. No. List of Experiments Page No.

1. AM- Modulator and Demodulator 7
2. FM - Modulator and Demodulator 11
3. Pre-Emphasis and De-Emphasis 15
4. (a)Signal sampling 18
(b)Time Division Multiplexing 22
5. Pulse Code Modulation and Demodulation 28
6. Pulse Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation 32
7. (a)Pulse Position Modulation and Demodulation 36
(b)Pulse Width Modulation and Demodulation. 38
8. (a)Digital Modulation ASK 42
(b)Digital Modulation PSK 46
(c) Digital Modulation FSK. 50
9. Delta Modulation and Demodulation. 54
10. (a)Simulation of ASK Generation and Detection Schemes. 58
(b)Simulation of FSK Generation and Detection Schemes 62
(c)Simulation of BPSK Generation and Detection Schemes 68
11. Simulation of DPSK, QPSK and QAM Generation and DetectionSchemes. 74
12. Simulation of Linear Block and Cyclic Error Control coding Schemes 77

5
 BLOCK DIAGRAM

AM MODULATOR:

Message
Signal
Generator Amplitude
Modulated
AM output
Modulator

Carrier
Generator

AM DEMODULATOR:

Amplitude Demodulated
Envelope
Filter Amplifier
Detector
Modulated Output
I/P

^^
 Ex.No:1 AM MODULATOR AND DEMODULATOR
DATE:

AIM:
To amplitude modulate the given message signal and to recover the message signal by demodulation.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. AM Modulation Kit
2. AM Demodulation Kit
3. Connecting probes
4. CRO

THEORY:
Changing the characteristics of carrier signal in accordance with the message signal is called modulation.
In AM modulation, the amplitude of carrier signal is changed in accordance with the message signal. Both
message and carrier signal is are analog signal. The carrier frequency remains same, but its amplitude varies
according to amplitude variations of the modulating signal. Modulation index = m = Em / EC = maximum
amplitude of modulating signal / carrier signal
Value of Em < EC to avoid any distortion in the modulated signal.
Maximum value of m = 1 when Em = Ec
Minimum value of m = 0
If m > 1 is called over modulation, m < 1 is called under modulation.
Modulation index is calculated from the equation m = ( Emax - Emin) / (Emax + Emin)
Bandwidth = 2fm
AM signal has three components; un modulated carrier, lower sideband and upper sideband.
Total power P = Pc (1 + m2 / 2)
AM modulation is done by
1. Transistor modulator of base, emitter and collector type
2. Low level modulator
3. Medium power AM modulator
AM demodulation is done by
Envelope detector (or) diode detector.

^^
MODEL GRAPH: -

V Message signal

time (t)

Carrier signal

Amplitude time (t)

(Volt)

AM – Modulated signal

time (t)

Demodulated signal

time (t)
PROCEDURE:

1. Connections must be given as per the diagram.

2. Low frequency message signal is given as one input to AM modulator.
3. High frequency message signal is given as one input to AM modulator.
4. The amplitude modulated waveform obtained is viewed in CRO.
5. Readings are taken for message, carrier and amplitude modulated wave.
6. The modulated wave is given as input to envelope detector.
7. The demodulated output is noted in CRO.
8. Modulation index have to be calculated as per formula.

CALCULATION:-

Emax  Emin
Modulation Index =
Emax  Emin

TABULATION:

Signal Amplitude (V) Time (ms)

RESULT:

The amplitude modulation and demodulation operations were performed with the given message and
carrier signals and the observed waveforms were plotted in the graph.
BLOCK DIAGRAM

FM MODULATOR:

Message
Signal
Generator
Frequency
Modulated
Frequency output
Modulator

Carrier
Generator

FM DEMODULATOR:

Frequency Demodulated
Modulated VCO
Signal Signal
Ex. No: 2 FM MODULATOR AND DEMODULATOR
DATE:
AIM:
To frequency modulate the given message signal and to recover the message signal by demodulation.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. FM Modulation Kit
2. FM Demodulation Kit
3. Connecting probes
4. CRO
THEORY:
Frequency of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the message signal is called frequency
modulation. Amplitude of the modulated carrier remains constant.
Modulation index m = K1 Em / Wm
Modulation index of FM is directly proportional to peak modulating voltage.
m =  / fm = Maximum frequency deviation / Modulating frequency
m < 1 is called narrow band FM. FCC allows  of 75KHz and fc = 100MHz. Angle modulated signal contains
large number of sidebands depending upon the modulation index.
Bandwidth = 2fm HZ = 2 = 2nfm
Where ‘n’ is the number of significant sidebands obtained from Bessel table.
Based on Carson’s rule, Bandwidth = 2[ + fm (max)] HZ.
Total power = E c2 / 2R. It is constant in FM.
Since, amplitude of FM is constant the noise interference is minimum in FM.
The frequency modulation is done by
i) Direct FM using
a) FET reactance modulator; b) Varactor diode
ii) Indirect FM – Armstrong method
The demodulation is done by
1. Balanced slope detector (or) Round Travis detector
2. Foster seeley discriminator (phase discriminator)
3. Ratio detector
The FM detector should be able to produce the signal whose amplitude is proportional to the deviation in
the frequency of FM signal.
PROCEDURE:-

1. Connections must be given as per the diagram.

2. Low frequency message signal is given as one input to FM modulator.
3. High frequency message signal is given as one input to FM modulator.
4. The amplitude modulated waveform obtained is viewed in CRO.
5. Readings are taken for message, carrier and amplitude modulated wave.
6. The modulated wave is given as input to envelope detector.
7. The demodulated output is noted in CRO.
8. Modulation index have to be calculated as per formula.
MODEL GRAPH:

Message Signal

time (t)

Carrier Signal

time (t)

FM Output

Amplitude time (t)

(Volt)

Demodulated Out Put

time (t)
TABULATION:

Signal Amplitude (V) Time (ms)

RESULT:

The frequency modulation and demodulation operations were performed with the given message and
carrier signals and the observed waveforms were plotted in the graph.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PRE EMPHASIS CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

DE EMPHASIS DIAGRAM :
EX.NO: 3 PRE –EMPHASIS AND DE-EMPHASIS
DATE :

AIM:

To design a pre emphasis circuit to boost the input signal level for a FM transmitter for a cut off
frequency of 1KHz. Attenuate the boosted high frequency signals at the receiver side using a
deemphasis circuit with a cutoff frequency of 1.6KHz. Analyze t he frequency response
characteristics of pre emphasis and de emphasis circuits.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

NAME OF THE
S.NO. EQUIPMENT / RANGE QUANTITY
COMPONENT
1 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (0 – 20MHz) 1

2 Audio Frequency Oscillator (0-2) MHz 1

3 Regulated power supply (0 -30V), 1A 1

1K Ω 2K Ω 10K Ω 68K Ω
4 Resistors 1, 1, 2, 1, 1
100K Ω
5 capacitors 0.1 µF 0.001 µF 23
Semiconductor
6 Q2N2222 1
Device(Transistor)
7 Decade Inductance Box 0.3H 1

THEORY :
During the transmission over a channel, the received signal contains interference (high frequencynoise).
For demodulated FM signals, the interference power increases as the frequency goes up. Thus, De -
emphasis is applied to the demodulated signal to decrease the power of the int erference in high
frequency. However, in order to keep the high frequency component of the demodulated message,
preemphasis must be applied to the message before going through the FM modulator.
PRE-EMPHASIS
Pre-emphasis refers to boosting the relative amplitudes of the modulating voltage for higher
audiofrequencies. Pre-emphasis is done at the transmitting side of the frequency modulator. Signals with
higher modulation frequencies have lower SNR. In order to compensate this, the high frequency signals
are emphasised or boosted in amplitude at the transmitter section of a communication. That is, the pre-
emphasis network allows the high frequency modulating signal to modulate the carrier at higher level,
this causes more frequency deviation. The circuit consist of a transistor, resistor and an inductor. It is
basically a high pass filter or Differentiator. A pre-emphasis circuit produces a constant increase in the
amplitude of the modulating signal with an increase in frequency.
MODEL GRAPH

The cut off frequency is determined by the RC or L/R time constant of the network. Normally, the cut
off frequency occurs at the frequency where capacitive reactance or inductive reactance equals R. The cut
off frequency is given by the formula.By the use of an active pre-emphasis network we can reduce the
signal loss and distortion with the increase of SNR. Also the output amplitude of the network increases with
frequencies above cut off frequency.
DE-EMPHASIS
De-emphasis is the complement of pre-emphasis, in the anti-noise system called emphasis. This circuit is
used to attenuate the high frequency signal that is boosted at the transmitter section. The circuit is placed
at the receiving side. It acts as a low pass filter. The cut off frequency is given by the formula The cut off
frequency is given by the formula.The circuit consists of a passive network consisting of a resistor and a
capacitor. It is basically a low pass filter or integrator. The pre- emphasis network in front of the FM
modulator and a de-emphasis network at the output of the FM demodulator improves the Signal to Noise
Ratio

Result: The characteristics of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis circuits were studied

 BLOCK DIAGRAM

SAMPLER

Message
Signal
Generator

SAMPLE
AND Sampled signal

HOLD
CIRCUIT

Sampling
Pulse
Generator
(Astable)

RECONSTURCTION CIRCUIT

Sampled Reconstructed Message

LPF Amplifier
Input Signal Signal
Ex.No:4( a) SIGNAL SAMPLING AND RECONSTRUCTION
DATE:

AIM:
To get the samples of the given message signal by natural sampling method and to reconstruct the
message signal from the samples.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Analog signal sampler kit
2. Reconstruction Kit
3. CRO
4. Connecting probes

THEORY:
The sampling process is defined as converting the analog signal into a digital signal by using the sampling
and hold circuit.

Types of sampling is
i. Natural sampling
ii. Impulse sampling
Sampling is performed based on sampling theorem:
A band limited signal having no spectral components above fm HZ can be determined uniquely by values
sampled at uniform intervals of
TS 1/2fm sec.
Nyquist rate fS ≥ 2fm which gives the minimum sampling frequency needed to reconstruct the analog
signal from sampled waveforms.
The sampling is implemented by a circuit sampler is most commonly done with a Sample and Hold
circuit.
If we under sample fS < f Nyquiset then aliasing occurs. Aliasing means overlapping adjacent spectrum
replicates. It leads to loss of information. So, antialiasing filters are used to overcome it.
MODEL GRAPH

V Message Signal

(time) t

Sampling Pulse

(time) t

Sampled signal
Amplitude
(Volts)

(time) t

Demodulated Signal

(time) t
PROCEDURE:-

1. Connections must be given as per the diagram.

2. Low frequency message signal is given as one input to sample / hold circuit
3. Carrier pulse signal is given as another input to to sample / hold circuit.
4. The sampling pulse waveform obtained is viewed in CRO.
5. Readings are taken for message, carrier and sampling pulse.
6. The sampled wave is given as input to reconstruction circuit.
7. The reconstructed circuit output is noted in CRO

TABULATION:-

Signal Amplitude (V) Time (ms)

RESULT:

The message signal was sampled and transmitted and the same message has been reconstructed is
obtained at the receiving end. The observed waveforms were plotted in graph.
BLOCK DIAGRAM

TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXER

Sine Wave
250 Hz

Sine Wave
500 Hz TDM
4X1
Output
Multiplexer

Sine Wave
1 KHz

Sine Wave
2 KHz

TDM DEMULTIPLEXER

Y0
Y1
Low Pass Filter Demultiplexed
1X4 Y2 output
& Amplifier
TDM Y3
Demultiplexer

input
Ex.No:4(b) TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (TDM)
DATE:
AIM:
To obtain time division multiplexed signals for given 3 or 4 signals and also to demultiplex it.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. TDM – multiplexing Kit
2. TDM – demultiplexing Kit
3. CRO
4. Connecting probes
THEORY:
The sampling theorem provides a basis for transmitting the information of band limited signal as
sequence of samples uniformly at a rate slightly higher than the Nyquist rate. The important feature of the
sampling process is a conservation of time.
The principle of TED:
The principle of TDM is sharing common communication channel by independent message sources
without mutual interference among them.
The basic operations of TDM system is:
i) Filtering
ii) Selection of samples
iii) Pulse modulation
iv) Demodulation
v) Distribution of narrow samples
Each input message signal is restricted in bandwidth by a filter. Selection of samples is the function of
commentator. Then it is modulated and transmitted via channel. In the receiver, the demodulated signal is
distributed by decommentator.
Merits:
i) It can easily accommodate both analog and digital sources.
ii) TDM has immune to non-linearity’s in the channel.
Demerits:
It is highly sensitive to amplitude, phase variations in the channel.
MODEL GRAPH:-

TDM INPUT

V Sine Wave - 250 Hz

time (t)

Sine Wave - 500 Hz

time (t)

Sine Wave – 1 KHz

time (t)
Amplitude
(Volt)

Sine Wave – 2 KHz

time (t)
PROCEDURE:-

1. Connections must be given as per the diagram.

2. Four different frequency message signals are given as input to TDM amplitude.
3. The multiplexed waveform obtained is viewed in CRO.
4. Readings are taken for each message signal.
5. The multiplexed wave is given as input to demultiplexer circuit.
6. The demulteplexed output is noted in CRO.
7. The graph is plotted for multiplexed signal, demultiplexed signal.
TDM OUTPUT

V TDM Output

time (t)

Sine Wave - 250 Hz

time (t)

Sine Wave – 500 KHz

time (t)
Amplitude
(Volt)

Sine Wave – 1 KHz

time (t)

Sine Wave – 2 KHz

TABULATION:

Signal Amplitude (V) Time (ms)

Transmitter section:
Sine wave (250 Hz)
Sine wave (500 Hz)
Sine wave (1K Hz)
Sine wave (2 KHz)

TDM wave (Composite of

all above 4 signals)

Receiver section:
Sine wave (250 Hz)
Sine wave (500 Hz)
Sine wave (1K Hz)
Sine wave (2 KHz)

RESULT:

The time division multiplexing and demultiplexing operations were performed with the given multiple
number of message signals and the waveforms were observed and plotted.
BLOCK DIAGRAM

PCM – PULSE CODE MODULATOR:-

Parallel
Modulating Analog Sample & to serial
PCM
signal Compander Hold DAC
Convert
Output
Generator Circuit er

Sampling Pulse Clock Pulse

PCM – DEMODULATOR:-

PCM
Signal Serial to
Recovered
Analog
Parallel DAC LPF
Expander Output
Converter

Clock Pulse
Ex.No:5 Pulse Code Modulation and Demodulation
DATE:
AIM:
To obtain the PCM – Modulated and Demodulated signal for give message signal.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. PCM – Modulation Kit
2. PCM – Demodulation Kit
3. CRO
4. Connecting probes
THEORY:
In PCM, a message signal is represented by sequence of coded pulses. So the signal is discrete in both time
and amplitude.
The basic operations performed in PCM system are
(i) Sampling (ii) Quantizing (iii) Encoding
The incoming message signal is sampled with a train of rectangular pulses. To ensure perfect reconstruction at
the receiver, sampling rate fs > 2w is used. The rounding off sampled signal is called quantization. So that
quantized signal is discrete in both time and amplitude. Then, the quantized signal is translated into a more
appropriate form of code format by encoding. In the channel regenerators are used to increase the immunity of
signal against noise. The receiver has to regenerate, reshape the received pulses and then regroup them into a
recovered signal.
MODEL GRAPH:-

V
Message Signal

time (t)

Sampling Pulse

time (t)

Sampled output

Amplitude time (t)

(Volts)

PCM output

time (t)

LPF output – Demodulated signal

time (t)

Analog expander output

time (t)
PROCEDURE:-

1. Connections must be given as per the diagram.

2. Low frequency message signal is given as one input to sampler.
3. Clock pulse signal is given as another input to sampler.
4. The sampled, encoded waveform obtained is viewed in CRO
5. Readings are taken for message, pulse and PCM wave.
6. The PCM wave is given as input to demodulator circuit.
7. The demodulated. output is noted in CRO.
8. The graph is plotted for PCM, modulated and demodulated wav

TABULATION:-

Signal Amplitude (V) Time (ms)

RESULT:

The Pulse code modulation and demodulation has been performed with the given message signal and
the observed waveforms was plotted in graph.
BLOCK DIAGRAM

PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATOR

Audio Frequency
Signal Generator
Monostable
Multivibrator PAM O/P
Astable Multivibrator

DEMODULATOR

PAM
Demodulated Low Pass
modulated Signal Demodulated
Amplifier
Signal Signal

TABULATION:

Signal Amplitude (V) Time (ms)

EX.NO:6 PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION
DATE:
AIM:
To obtain the pulse amplitude modulated waveform for given message signal.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. PAM Modulation Kit and Demodulation Kit
2. CRO
3. Connecting probes
THEORY:
The amplitude of the train of rectangular pulses are varied in accordance with the message signal is called
pulse amplitude modulation.
The message signal is an analog signal
PAM use sampling of two types
i) Natural sampling
ii) Flat top sampling
It is better to use flat top PAM, because during transmission noise interferes the top of pulses. This noise can
be removed easily.
Bandwidth of the transmission channel depends on width of the pulse.
In PAM, noise interference is high.
It requires less transmitting power.
Multiplexing of several PAM signal at different time is possible with PAM.

PROCEDURE:-

1. Connections must be given as per the diagram.

2. Low frequency message signal is given as one input to PAM modulator.
3. Carrier pulse signal is given as another input to PAM modulator.
4. The pulse amplitude modulated waveform obtained is viewed in CRO.
5. Readings are taken for message, carrier and pulse amplitude modulated wave.
6. The modulated wave is given as input to demodulator
7. The demodulated output is noted in CRO.
8. The graph is plotted for PAM.
MODEL GRAPH:

V
Message Signal

time (t)

Train of Rectangular Pulse (Sampling pulse)

time (t)

Amplitude
(Volt)
Pulse Amplitude
Modulated wave

time (t)

Demodulated Signal

time (t)
RESULT:

Thus for given message signal PAM modulation and demodulation is obtained. It is plotted in graph.
BLOCK DIAGRAM

Audio Frequency
Signal Generator

Pulse Pulse Position Modulated Output

Position
Astable Modulator
Multivibrator

Pulse Position Low

Modulated Pass Demodulated
Amplifier
Signal Filter Signal

TABULATION:

Signal Amplitude (V) Time (ms)

EX.NO:7 (a) PULSE POSITION MODULATION
DATE:

AIM:
To obtain the pulse position modulated waveform for given message signal.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. PPM Modulation Kit and Demodulation Kit
2. CRO
3. Connecting probes
THEORY:
The positions of the regularly spaced train of pulses are varied in accordance with the message signal. Bandwidth
of transmission channel depends on rising time of the pulse.
BT ≥ 1 / 2tr
PPM has minimum noise interference. This modulation is similar to PM. It requires less transmitting power.
PT (PPM) << PT (PWM).

PROCEDURE:-

1. Connections must be given as per the diagram.

2. Low frequency message signal is given as one input to PPM modulator.
3. Carrier pulse signal is given as another input to PPM modulator.
4. The pulse amplitude modulated waveform obtained is viewed in CRO.
5. Readings are taken for message, carrier and pulse position modulated wave.
6. The modulated wave is given as input to demodulator
7. The demodulated output is noted in CRO.
8. The graph is plotted for PPM.

RESULT:

Thus for given message signal PPM modulation and demodulation is obtained. It is plotted in graph.
BLOCK DIAGRAM

Audio Frequency
Signal Generator

Pulse PWM Output

Width
Astable
Modulator
Multivibrator

Pulse Width Low

Modulated Pass Demodulated
Amplifier
Signal Filter Signal

TABULATION:

Signal Amplitude (V) Time (ms)

 EX.NO:7(b) PULSE WIDTH MODULATION
DATE:

AIM:
To obtain the pulse width modulation for given message signal.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. PWM Modulation Kit and Demodulation Kit
2. CRO
3. Connecting probes
THEORY:
The widths of regularly spaced train of pulses are varied in accordance with the message signal.
Bandwidth of transmission channel depends on rise time of the pulse.
BT >> 1 / 2tr
PWM has less noise interference. This type of modulation is similar to FM.
Transmitting power PT (PWM) >> PT (PPM).

PROCEDURE:-

1. Connections must be given as per the diagram.

2. Low frequency message signal is given as one input to PWM modulator.
3. Carrier pulse signal is given as another input to PWM modulator.
4. The pulse width modulated waveform obtained is viewed in CRO.
5. Readings are taken for message, carrier and pulse width modulated wave.
6. The modulated wave is given as input to demodulator
7. The demodulated output is noted in CRO.
8. The graph is plotted for PWM.
MODEL GRAPH: -

Message Signal

time (t)

Sampling pulse
(Train of
rectangular pulses)

time (t)

Pulse width
modulated wave
Amplitude
(volt)
time (t)

Demodulated wave

time (t)
RESULT:

Thus for given message signal PWM modulation and demodulation is obtained. It is plotted in graph.
BLOCK DIAGRAM

ASK MODULATOR

ASK DEMODULATOR
Ex No:8(a) GENERATION AND DETECTION OF ASK
DATE:

AIM

To construct and generate Amplitude Shift Keying signal and detect the message signal.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

ASK kit, CRO and connecting probes

THEORY

ASK or ON-OFF key is the simplest digital modulation technique. In this method there is only
one unit energy carrier it is switched ON/OFF depending upon the input binary sequence to transmit
symbol 0 & 1. No pulse is transmitted output contains some complete no of cycle of carrier
frequency. The disadvantage of ASK is the modulated carrier signal is not continuously transmitted.
The peak power requirement is also high. The bit error probability rate is also not required in this
technique.
PROCEDURE

1. Make connections as shown in the diagram.

2. Set the input signal and carrier signal.
3. Obtain ASK signal
4. Measure the amplitude and frequency
5. Obtain the demodulated output.
MODEL GRAPH

TABULAR COLUMN

S.No Name of the signal Amplitude in V Time period in Sec Frequency in Hz

1 Modulating Signal

2 Carrier Signal

3 Modulated Signal

4 Demodulated
Signal
RESULT

Thus the Amplitude Shift Keying signal was generated and the message signal was reconstructed
BLOCK DIAGRAM

FSK MODULATOR

FSK DEMODULATOR
Ex.No :8(b) GENERATION AND DETECTION OF FSK
DATE:

AIM

To generate a Frequency Shift Keying signal using FSK modulator and detect the
message signal from FSK signal using FSK detector.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

FSK kit, CRO and connecting probes

THEORY

Frequency Shift Keying is the process generating a modulated signal from a digital data
input. If the incoming bit is 1, a signal with frequency f1 is sent for the duration of the bit. If the
bit is 0, a signal with frequency f2 is sent for the duration of this bit. This is the basic principle
behind FSK modulation.
Basically a 555 timer is used as an Astable multivibrator, which generates a clock pulse
of frequency determined by the values of R and C in this circuit. This is divided by 2, 4, 8 and
16 using 74163 IC, and two of these outputs are used in a NAND logic gates circuit, to generate
a FSK modulated wave. To this NAND gates circuit a binary data sequence is also supplied. The
circuit operation causes a frequency f1 for bit 1, and f2 for bit 0.
In the demodulator circuit, the FSK modulated signal is applied to a high Q tuned filter.
This filter is tuned to the frequency of either 0 or 1. This filter passes the selected frequency and
rejects the other. The output is then passed through a FWR (Full Wave Rectifier) circuit and the
output is now above zero volts only. It is then passed through a comparator; if the input to the
comparator is greater than threshold value, the output is 1, else it is 0. This digital output of the
comparator is the demodulated FSK output.

PROCEDURE:

1. Make connections as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Set the input signal and carrier signal.
3. Obtain FSK signal
4. Tabulate the output data and draw the graph.
5. Justify the obtained output with theoretical calculation.
MODEL GRAPH

TABULAR COLUMN

S.No Name of the signal Amplitude in V Time period in Sec Frequency in Hz

1 Modulating Signal

2 Carrier Signal 1

3 Carrier Signal 2

4 Modulated Signal

5 Demodulated
Signal
RESULT

Thus the Frequency Shift Keying signal wag generated using FSK modulator and the
message signal was detected from FSK signal using FSK detector.
BPSK MODULATOR

BPSK DEMODULATOR
Ex:No: 8(c) GENERATION AND DETECTION OF PSK
DATE:
AIM:
To construct and generate Phase Shift Keying signal and detect the message signal.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

PSK kit, CRO and connecting probes

THEORY
PSK is a digital modulation scheme which is analogues to phase modulation. In binary
phase shift keying two output phases are possible for a single carrier frequency one out of phase
represent logic 1 and logic 0. As the input digital binary signal change state the phase of output
carrier shift two angles that are 180o out of phase.
In a PSK modulator the carrier input signal is multiplied by the digital data. The input
carrier is multiplied by either a positives or negatives consequently the output signal is either
+1sinwct or - 1sinwct. The first represent a signal that is phase with the reference oscillator the
latter a signal that is 180o out of phase with the reference oscillator. Each time a change in input
logic condition will change the output phase consequently for PSK the output rate of change equal
to the input rate range and widest output bandwidth occurs when the input binary data are
alternating 1/0 sequence. The fundamental frequency of an alternate 1/0 bit sequence is equal to
one half of the bit rate.

PROCEDURE

1. Make connections as shown in the diagram.

2. Set the input signal and carrier signal.
3. Obtain PSK signal
4. Measure the output data and draw the graph.
MODEL GRAPH

TABULAR COLUMN

S.No Name of the signal Amplitude in V Time period in Sec Frequency in Hz

1 Modulating Signal

2 Carrier Signal

3 Modulated Signal

4 Demodulated
Signal
RESULT

Thus the Phase Shift Keying signal wag generated using PSK modulator and the
message signal was detected.
BLOCK DIAGRAM

DM – MODULATOR

Delta
ANALOG 1 – BIT Modulated
SIGNAL SAMPLER COMPARATOR QUANTIZER
Out put
GENERATOR

INVTEGRATOR

DM – DEMODULATOR

Delata Demodulated
Σ LPF
Modulated Signal
Signal

DELAY TS
Ex.No:9 Delta Modulation and Demodulation
DATE:

AIM:
To obtain delta Modulated and Demodulated signal for give message signal.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Delta Modulation Kit
2. Delta Demodulation Kit
3. CRO
4. Connecting probes
THEORY:
Delta modulation is a 1 bit version of PCM. It transmits only one bit per sample. That is the present
sample value is compared with the previous sample value. The input signal x(t) is approximated to step signal
by the delta modulator. This step size is fixed. The step size has two levels +  and - .
i) If the difference between the input signal is positive, then step size is increased by one step.
ii) If the difference is negative, then step size is decreased by one step.
+  means ‘1’ is transmitted
-  means ‘0’ is transmitted
The basic building blocks of delta modulator is
i) One bit quantizer ii) Accumulator iii) Summer
At the receiver, i) the accumulator ii) filter are used.
Advantages:
i) Signaling rate and transmission channel bandwidth is quite small.
ii) Simple modulation and demodulation circuits are used.
MODEL GRAPH:

V
Message signal

time (t)

Sampling pulse

time (t)

Amplitude
(Volt)

Delta modulated signal

time (t)

DM-Demodulated signal

time (t)

TABULATION:

Signal Amplitude (V) Time (ms)

Message Signal
Clock Pulse DM
Wave Demodulated
Wave
PROCEDURE:-

1. Connections must be given as per the diagram.

2. Low frequency message signal is given as one input to DM modulator circuit
3. pulse signal is given as another input to DM modulator circuit
4. The delta modulated waveform obtained is viewed in CRO
5. Readings are taken for message, pulse and DM wave.
6. The delta modulated wave is given as input to demodulator circuit.
7. The demodulated output is noted in CRO.
8. The graph is plotted for delta modulated and demodulated wave.

RESULT:

The delta modulation and demodulation were performed with the given message signal and the
observed waveforms were plotted.
SIMULATION WAVEFORM
Exp.No:10(a) SIMULATION OF ASK GENERATION AND DETECTION SCHEME
DATE:

AIM:
To generate and demodulate amplitude shift keyed (ASK) signal using MATLAB.
THEORY
Generation of ASK
Amplitude shift keying - ASK - is a modulation process, which imparts to a sinusoid two or more
discrete amplitude levels. These are related to the number of levels adopted by the digital message. For
a binary message sequence there are two levels, one of which is typically zero. The data rate is a sub-
multiple of the carrier frequency. Thus the modulated waveform consists of bursts of a sinusoid. One of
the disadvantages of ASK, compared with FSK and PSK, for example, is that it has not got a constant
envelope. This makes its processing (eg, power amplification) more difficult, since linearity becomes
an important factor. However, it does make for ease of demodulation with an envelope detector.
Demodulation
ASK signal has a well defined envelope. Thus it is amenable to demodulation by an envelope
detector. Some sort of decision-making circuitry is necessary for detecting the message. The signal is
recovered by using a correlator and decision making circuitry is used to recover the binary sequence.
ALGORITHM
Initialization commands
ASK modulation
1. Generate carrier signal.
2. Start FOR loop
3. Generate binary data, message signal(on-off form)
4. Generate ASK modulated signal.
5. Plot message signal and ASK modulated signal.
6. End FOR loop.
7. Plot the binary data and carrier.
ASK demodulation
1. Start FOR loop
2. Perform correlation of ASK signal with carrier to get decision variable
3. Make decision to get demodulated binary data. If x>0, choose ‘1’ else choose ‘0’
PROGRAM
%ASK Modulation
clc;
clear all;
close all;
%GENERATE CARRIER SIGNAL
Tb=1; fc=10;
t=0:Tb/100:1;
c=sqrt(2/Tb)*sin(2*pi*fc*t);
%generate message signal
N=8;
m=rand(1,N);
t1=0;t2=Tb
for i=1:N
t=[t1:.01:t2]
if m(i)>0.5 m(i)=1;
m_s=ones(1,length(t));
else
m(i)=0;
m_s=zeros(1,length(t));
end
message(i,:)=m_s;
%product of carrier and message
ask_sig(i,:)=c.*m_s;
t1=t1+(Tb+.01);
t2=t2+(Tb+.01);
%plot the message and ASK signal subplot(5,1,2);
axis([0 N -2 2]);
plot(t,message(i,:),'r');
title('message signal');
xlabel('t--->');
ylabel('m(t)');
grid on
hold on
 subplot(5,1,4);
plot(t,ask_sig(i,:));
title('ASK signal');
xlabel('t--->');
ylabel('s(t)');grid on
hold on
end
hold off
%Plot the carrier signal and input binary data
subplot(5,1,3);plot(t,c);
title('carrier signal');xlabel('t--->');ylabel('c(t)');grid on
subplot(5,1,1);stem(m);
title('binary data bits');xlabel('n--->');ylabel('b(n)');grid on
% ASK Demodulation
t1=0;t2=Tb for
i=1:N
t=[t1:Tb/100:t2]
%correlator
x=sum(c.*ask_sig(i,:));
%decision device
if x>0
demod(i)=1;
else
demod(i)=0;
end
t1=t1+(Tb+.01);
t2=t2+(Tb+.01);
end
%plot demodulated binary data bits
subplot(5,1,5);stem(demod);

title('ASK demodulated signal');

xlabel('n--->');
ylabel('b(n)');
grid on

Result
The program for ASK modulation and demodulation has been simulated in MATLAB and
necessary graphs are plotted.
SIMULATION WAVEFORM
Ex.No:10(b) SIMULATION OF BPSK GENERATION AND DETECTION SCHEMES
DATE:

AIM:
To generate and demodulate Binary phase shift keyed (BPSK) signal using MATLAB
Generation of PSK signal

PSK is a digital modulation scheme that conveys data by changing, or modulating, the phase of a
reference signal (the carrier wave). PSK uses a finite number of phases, each assigned a unique pattern of
binary digits. Usually, each phase encodes an equal number of bits. Each pattern of bits forms the symbol
that is represented by the particular phase. The demodulator, which is designed specifically for the
symbol-set used by the modulator, determines the phase of the received signal and maps it back to the
symbol it represents, thus recovering the original data.

In a coherent binary PSK system, the pair of signal S1(t) and S2 (t) used to represent binary
symbols 1 & 0 are defined by
S1 (t) = √2Eb/ Tb Cos 2πfct
S2 (t) =√2Eb/Tb (2πfct+π) = - √ 2Eb/Tb Cos 2πfct where 0 ≤ t< Tb and
Eb = Transmitted signed energy for bit
The carrier frequency fc =n/Tb for some fixed integer n.
Antipodal Signal:
The pair of sinusoidal waves that differ only in a relative phase shift of 180° are called antipodal signals.
BPSK Transmitter
PROGRAM
% BPSK modulation
clc;
clear all;
close all;
%GENERATE CARRIER SIGNAL
Tb=1;
t=0:Tb/100:Tb; fc=2;
c=sqrt(2/Tb)*sin(2*pi*fc*t);
%generate message signal
N=8;
m=rand(1,N);
t1=0;t2=Tb
for i=1:N
t=[t1:.01:t2]
if m(i)>0.5 m(i)=1;
m_s=ones(1,length(t));
else
m(i)=0;
m_s=-1*ones(1,length(t));
end
message(i,:)=m_s;
%product of carrier and message signal
bpsk_sig(i,:)=c.*m_s;
%Plot the message and BPSK modulated signal
subplot(5,1,2);axis([0 N -2 2]);plot(t,message(i,:),'r');
title('message signal(POLAR form)');xlabel('t--->');ylabel('m(t)');
grid on; hold on;
subplot(5,1,4);plot(t,bpsk_sig(i,:));
title('BPSK signal');xlabel('t--->');ylabel('s(t)');
grid on; hold on;
 The input binary symbols are represented in polar form with symbols 1 & 0 represented by constant
amplitude levels √Eb& -√Eb. This binary wave is multiplied by a sinusoidal carrier in a product modulator.
The result in a BSPK signal.
BSPK Receiver:

The received BPSK signal is applied to a correlator which is also supplied with a locallygenerated
reference signal c1 (t). The correlated o/p is compared with a threshold of zero volts. If x> 0, the receiver
decides in favour of symbol 1. If x< 0, it decides in favour of symbol 0.
Algorithm
Initialization commands
BPSK modulation
1. Generate carrier signal.
2. Start FOR loop
3. Generate binary data, message signal in polar form
4. Generate PSK modulated signal.
5. Plot message signal and PSK modulated signal.
6. End FOR loop.
7. Plot the binary data and carrier.
BPSK demodulation
1. Start FOR loop
2. Perform correlation of PSK signal with carrier to get decision variable
3. Make decision to get demodulated binary data. If x>0, choose ‘1’ else choose ‘0’
4. Plot the demodulated binary data
t1=t1+1.01; t2=t2+1.01;
end
hold off
%plot the input binary data and carrier signal
subplot(5,1,1);stem(m);
title('binary data bits');xlabel('n--->');ylabel('b(n)');
grid on;
subplot(5,1,3);plot(t,c);
title('carrier signal');xlabel('t--->');ylabel('c(t)');
grid on;
% PSK Demodulation
t1=0;t2=Tb
for i=1:N
t=[t1:.01:t2]
%correlator
x=sum(c.*bpsk_sig(i,:));
%decision device
if x>0
demod(i)=1;
else
demod(i)=0;
end
t1=t1+1.01;
t2=t2+1.01;
end
%plot the demodulated data bits
subplot(5,1,5);stem(demod);
title('demodulated data');xlabel('n--->');ylabel('b(n)');
grid on;
 Result
Thus the program for BPSK modulation and demodulation has been simulated in MATLAB
and necessary graphs are plotted.
SIMULATION WAVEFORM
Ex.No:10(c) SIMULATION OF FSK GENERATION AND DETECTION SCHEME
DATE:
AIM

To generate and demodulate frequency shift keyed (FSK) signal using MATLAB

THEORY

Generation of FSK
Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is a frequency modulation scheme in which digital
information is transmitted through discrete frequency changes of a carrier wave. The simplest FSK is
binary FSK (BFSK). BFSK uses a pair of discrete frequencies to transmit binary (0s and 1s) information.
With this scheme, the "1" is called the mark frequency and the "0" is called the space frequency.
In binary FSK system, symbol 1 & 0 are distinguished from each other by transmitting one of the two
sinusoidal waves that differ in frequency by a fixed amount.
Si (t) = √2E/Tb cos 2πf1t 0≤ t ≤Tb
0 elsewhere
Where i=1, 2 &Eb=Transmitted energy/bit
Transmitted freq= ƒi = (nc+i)/Tb, and n = constant (integer), Tb = bit interval
Symbol 1 is represented by S1 (t)
Symbol 0 is represented by S0 (t)
BFSK Transmitter

The input binary sequence is represented in its ON-OFF form, with symbol 1 represented by constant
amplitude of √Ebwith & symbol 0 represented by zero volts. By using inverter in the lower channel,
we in effect make sure that when symbol 1is at the input, The two frequency f1& f2 are chosen to be
equal integer multiples of the bit rate 1/Tb.By summing the upper & lower channel outputs, we get
BFSK signal.
PROGRAM
% FSK Modulation
clc;
clear all;
close all;
%GENERATE CARRIER SIGNAL
Tb=1; fc1=2;fc2=5;
t=0:(Tb/100):Tb;
c1=sqrt(2/Tb)*sin(2*pi*fc1*t);
c2=sqrt(2/Tb)*sin(2*pi*fc2*t);
%generate message signal
N=8;
m=rand(1,N);
t1=0;t2=Tb
for i=1:N
t=[t1:(Tb/100):t2]
if m(i)>0.5
m(i)=1;
m_s=ones(1,length(t));
invm_s=zeros(1,length(t));
else
m(i)=0;
m_s=zeros(1,length(t));
invm_s=ones(1,length(t));
end
message(i,:)=m_s;
%Multiplier
fsk_sig1(i,:)=c1.*m_s;
fsk_sig2(i,:)=c2.*invm_s;
fsk=fsk_sig1+fsk_sig2;
%plotting the message signal and the modulated signal
subplot(3,2,2);axis([0 N -2 2]);plot(t,message(i,:),'r');
title('message signal');xlabel('t --- >');ylabel('m(t)');grid on;hold on;
 BFSK Receiver

The receiver consists of two correlators with common inputs which are supplied with locally
generated coherent reference signals c1(t) and c2 (t).
The correlator outputs are then subtracted one from the other, and the resulting difference x is
compared with a threshold of zero volts. If x >0, the receiver decides in favour of symbol 1 and if x <0,
the receiver decides in favour of symbol 0.
ALGORITHM
Initialization commands
FSK modulation
1. Generate two carriers signal.
2. Start FOR loop
3. Generate binary data, message signal and inverted message signal
4. Multiply carrier 1 with message signal and carrier 2 with inverted message signal
5. Perform addition to get the FSK modulated signal
6. Plot message signal and FSK modulated signal.
7. End FOR loop.
8. Plot the binary data and carriers.
FSK demodulation
1. Start FOR loop
2. Perform correlation of FSK modulated signal with carrier 1 and carrier 2 to get two decision
variables x1 and x2.
3. Make decisionon x = x1-x2 to get demodulated binary data. If x>0, choose ‘1’ else choose ‘0’.
4. Plot the demodulated binary data.
subplot(3,2,5);plot(t,fsk(i,:));
title('FSK signal');xlabel('t --- >');ylabel('s(t)');grid on;hold on;
t1=t1+(Tb+.01); t2=t2+(Tb+.01);
end
hold off
%Plotting binary data bits and carrier signal
subplot(3,2,1);stem(m);
title('binary data');xlabel('n --- >'); ylabel('b(n)');grid on;
subplot(3,2,3);plot(t,c1);
title('carrier signal-1');xlabel('t --- >');ylabel('c1(t)');grid on;
subplot(3,2,4);plot(t,c2);
title('carrier signal-2');xlabel('t --- >');ylabel('c2(t)');grid on;

% FSK Demodulation
t1=0;t2=Tb for
i=1:N
t=[t1:(Tb/100):t2]
%correlator
x1=sum(c1.*fsk_sig1(i,:));
x2=sum(c2.*fsk_sig2(i,:));
x=x1-x2;
%decision device
if x>0
demod(i)=1;
else
demod(i)=0; end
t1=t1+(Tb+.01);
t2=t2+(Tb+.01);
end
%Plotting the demodulated data bits
subplot(3,2,6);stem(demod);
title(' demodulated data');xlabel('n --- >');ylabel('b(n)'); grid on;
Result
Thus the program for FSK modulation and demodulation has been simulated in MATLABand necessary
graphs are plotted.
PROGRAM

% QPSK Modulation
clc;
clear all;
close all;
%GENERATE QUADRATURE CARRIER SIGNAL
Tb=1;t=0:(Tb/100):Tb;fc=1;
c1=sqrt(2/Tb)*cos(2*pi*fc*t);
c2=sqrt(2/Tb)*sin(2*pi*fc*t);
%generate message signal
N=8;m=rand(1,N);
t1=0;t2=Tb
for i=1:2:(N-1)
t=[t1:(Tb/100):t2]
if m(i)>0.5 m(i)=1;
m_s=ones(1,length(t));
else
m(i)=0;
m_s=-1*ones(1,length(t));
end
%odd bits modulated signal
odd_sig(i,:)=c1.*m_s;
if m(i+1)>0.5
m(i+1)=1;
m_s=ones(1,length(t));
else
m(i+1)=0;
m_s=-1*ones(1,length(t));
end
%even bits modulated signal
even_sig(i,:)=c2.*m_s;
%qpsk signal
qpsk=odd_sig+even_sig;
%Plot the QPSK modulated signal
subplot(3,2,4);plot(t,qpsk(i,:));
title('QPSK signal');xlabel('t ---->');ylabel('s(t)');grid on; hold on;
t1=t1+(Tb+.01); t2=t2+(Tb+.01);
end
hold off
%Plot the binary data bits and carrier signal
subplot(3,2,1);stem(m);
title('binary data bits');xlabel('n --- >');ylabel('b(n)');grid on;
subplot(3,2,2);plot(t,c1);
title('carrier signal-1');xlabel('t --- >');ylabel('c1(t)');grid on;
subplot(3,2,3);plot(t,c2);
title('carrier signal-2');xlabel('t --- >');ylabel('c2(t)');grid on;
Ex:No:11 Simulation of DPSK, QPSK and QAM Generation and Detection Schemes
DATE:
AIM
To generate and demodulate quadrature phase shifted (QPSK) signal using MATLAB
THEORY

Generation of Quadrature phase shift keyed (QPSK) signal

QPSK is also known as quaternary PSK, quadriphase PSK, 4-PSK, or 4-QAM. It is a phase
modulation technique that transmits two bits in four modulation states.

Phase of the carrier takes on one of four equally spaced values such as p/4, 3p/4, 5p/4
and7p/4.

ALGORITHM

Initialization commands

QPSK modulation

1. Generate quadrature carriers.

2. Start FOR loop
3. Generate binary data, message signal(bipolar form)
4. Multiply carrier 1 with odd bits of message signal and carrier 2 with even bits of message
signal
5. Perform addition of odd and even modulated signals to get the QPSK modulated signal
6. Plot QPSK modulated signal.
7. End FOR loop.
8. Plot the binary data and carriers.
:

Result

The program for QPSK modulation and demodulation has been simulated in MATLAB and
necessary graphs are plotted.
LINEAR BLOCK CODE

PROGRAM: 1
clc;
w=[1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0];
fprintf('The original code is:');
disp(w);
P=[1 1 0;0 1 1;0 0 1];
I=[1 0 0;0 1 0;0 0 1];
pt=P';
H=[pt,I];
ht=H';
disp('The value of ht matrix is');ht
for(i=1:3)
s1=0;
for(j=1:6)
s1=xor(s1,ht(j,i)*w(j));
end
s(i)=s1;
end
fprintf('The syndrome is:');
disp(s);
for(k=1:6)
if(s==ht(k,:))
temp=k;
end
end
fprintf('The error is in the position %d\n',temp);
w(temp)=xor(w(temp),1);
disp('corrected code is:');
disp(w);

The original code is: 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0

The value of ht matrix is
ht =

1 1 0
0 1 1
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

The syndrome is: 0 1 1

The error is in the position 2
corrected code is:
1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
Ex.No: 11 SIMULATION OF LINEAR BLOCK AND CYCLIC
DATE: ERROR CONTROL CODING SCHEMES

AIM:
To generate various error control coding technique using MATLAB and to decode it.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Personal Computer
2. MATLAB software
THEORY:
Source coding is used to reduce all the redundant bits in the encoded data signal by applying the
information theory concepts. As a result, it is not possible to arrive at a system with low error rate.
So, we go for channel coding. It builds redundancies in the signal so that the error can be rectified.
Various channel codes are error control codes.
They must have
i) The capability to detect and correct errors.
ii) Work in a fast and efficient way.
Types of error control methods are
a) Error detection and retransmission (ARQ)
b) Error detection and correction (ECC)
Error – correction codes are divided as
a) Block codes and
b) Convolution codes.
Algorithm:
 Data is given as input(m).
 Generator matrix G=[ P IK] is generated by using parity (P) and identity matrix (IK).
 Code word is generated using C=mG matrix operation. It is transmitted through channel.
 The received vector has one error means it is detected using the syndrome(S)
S=rHT
 H is the parity check matrix H=[ PT In-k ]
 Syndrome matches with the row of H. So, the error present in which bit is detected.
 Correcet code word C=r EX-OR e[error pattern]
PROGRAM: 2
clc;
clear;
w=[1 0 0 0 1 0];
fprintf('The original code is:');
disp(w);
P=[1 1 0;0 1 1 ;0 0 1];
I=[1 0 0 ;0 1 0 ;0 0 1 ];
pt=P';
H=[pt,I];
ht=H';
disp('The value of ht matrix is');ht
for(i=1:3)
s1=0;
for(j=1:6)
s1=xor(s1,ht(j,i).*w(j));
end
s(i)=s1;
end
fprintf('The syndrome is:');
disp(s);
for(k=1:6)
if(s==ht(k,:))
temp=k;
end
end
fprintf('The error is in the position %d\n',temp);
w(temp)=xor(w(temp),1);
disp('corrected code is:');
disp(w);

The original code is: 1 0 0 0 1 0

The value of ht matrix is

ht =

1 1 0
0 1 1
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

The syndrome is: 1 0 0

The error is in the position 4
corrected code is:
1 0 0 1 1 0
PROGRAM: 3
clc;
clear;
w=[1 0 1 0 1 1 1];
fprintf('The original code is:');
disp(w);
P=[1 1 1;1 1 0 ;1 0 1; 0 1 1];
I=[1 0 0 ;0 1 0 ;0 0 1 ];
pt=P';
H=[pt,I];
ht=H';
disp('The value of ht matrix is');ht
for(i=1:3)
s1=0;
for(j=1:7)
s1=xor(s1,ht(j,i).*w(j));
end
s(i)=s1;
end
fprintf('The syndrome is:');
disp(s);
for(k=1:7)
if(s==ht(k,:))
temp=k;
end
end
fprintf('The error is in the position %d\n',temp);
w(temp)=xor(w(temp),1);
disp('corrected code is:');
disp(w);

The original code is: 1 0 1 0 1 1 1

The value of ht matrix is
ht =

1 1 1
1 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
The syndrome is: 1 0 1
The error is in the position 3
corrected code is: 1 0 0 0 1 1 1

Result:
The Linear and cyclic coding scheme is simulated and the output is obtained.