IN 1501

Data Communication

Lesson 08 : Data Communication and

Computer Networks
 Content

• Reference Models in Data Communication

– ISO OSI Reference Model
– TCP-IP Reference Model
– Hybrid Model
• The Internet

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 Introduction

• To reduce the design complexity, most of the networks are organized as a

series of layers or levels, each one build upon one below it.
• Each layer adds to the services provided by the lower layers in such a
manner that the highest layer is provided a full set of services to manage
communications and run the applications.
• A basic principle is to ensure independence of layers by defining services
provided by each layer to the next higher layer without defining how the
services are to be performed.
• The basic elements of a layered model are services, protocols and
interfaces.
• A “network architecture” is defined as the collection of layers and
protocols.

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 Basic elements of a layered model

• A service is a set of actions that a layer offers to another (higher) layer.

• Protocol is a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange information with a

peer entity.
• These rules concern both the contents and the order of the messages
used.

• Between the layers service interfaces are defined.

• The messages from one layer to another are sent through those
interfaces.

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 Layered Architecture

• In a n-layer architecture, layer n on one machine carries on conversation

with the layer n on other machine.
• The rules and conventions used in this conversation are collectively known
as the layer-n protocol.
• Basically, a protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties
on how communication is to proceed.
• The entities comprising the corresponding layers on different machines
are called peers.
• In other words, it is the peers that communicate using protocols.

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 Peer-to-Peer Communication

Layer 4/5 interface Layer 4/5 interface

Layer 3/4 interface Layer 3/4 interface

Layer 2/ 3 interface Layer 2/3 interface

Layer 1/2 interface Layer 1/2 interface

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Figure 9.1 Peer-to-Peer Communication
 Network Architecture

• Information flow -
– "Send_to_peer" rather
than "call_next_layer_
down.”
• Examples:
– ISO-OSI 7 layer
architecture
– TCP-IP architecture
(Internet)

Figure 9.2 ISO-OSI and TCP-IP models

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 OSI
ISO Model
OSI Model

• The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving information

between computers over a network medium into SEVEN smaller and
more manageable problems.

Figure 9.3 ISO OSI Reference Model 8

 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)

• International standard organization (ISO) established a committee in 1977

to develop architecture for computer communication and the OSI model is
the result of this effort.
• In 1984, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model was
approved as an international standard for communications architecture.
• The term “open” denotes the ability to connect any two systems which
conform to the reference model and associated standards.
• The OSI model describes how information or data makes its way from
application programs (such as spreadsheets) through a network medium
(such as wire) to another application program located on another
network.

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 ISO OSI Reference Model

1. Physical layer: transmission of bits

2. Data link layer: transform a raw transmission facility into a line that
appears free of undetected transmission errors
3. Network layer: how to send data from source to destination; might
traverse multiple machines. This functionality is routing.
4. Transport layer: Delivery of data between computers (end-to-end).
mechanism for exchange of data between end systems.
5. Session layer: provides mechanisms for controlling the dialogue
between applications in end systems. Might not be required for most
applications;
6. Presentation layer: syntax and semantics of information transmitted
7. Application layer: Application-specific protocols FTP, HTTP, Telnet etc.

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What happen when a message travels from device A to
Device B?

Figure 9.4 Layered Architecture

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What happen when a message travels from device A to
Device B?

• As the message travels from A to B , it may pass through many

intermediate “Nodes”.
• These nodes usually involve only the first three layers of the OSI Model.
• In developing the OSI model, designers identified which networking
functions had related uses and collected those functions into discrete
groups that became the layers.
• Each layer defines a family of functions distinct from other layers.
• By defining and localizing functionality in this fashion , the designers
created an architecture that is both comprehensive and flexible.
• The OSI model allows complete transparency between otherwise
incompatible systems.

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An Exchange Using the OSI Model

Figure 9.5 Data Exchange Using the OSI Model

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OSI Model - Data Transmission

Figure 9.6 OSI Model - Data Transmission

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 OSI Model - Physical Layer

• Transmits raw bits across a medium.

• Concerns are voltage, timing, duplexing, connectors, etc.
• The design issues have to do with making sure that when one side sends a
1 bit, it is received by the other side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit.
• Typical questions here are,
1. How many volts should be used to represent a 1 and how many for a 0?
2. How many nanoseconds a bit lasts?
3. Whether transmission may proceed simultaneously in both directions?
4. How the initial connection is established and how it is torn down when both
sides are finished?
5. The design issues here largely deal with mechanical, electrical, and timing
interfaces, and the physical transmission medium, which lies below the
physical layer?

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OSI Model - Physical Layer

Figure 9.7 OSI Model - Physical Layer

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 OSI Model - Data Link Layer

• Framing - Breaks apart messages into frames. Reassembles frames into

messages.
• Error handling - solves damaged, lost, and duplicate frames.
• Flow control - keeps a fast transmitter from flooding a slow receiver.
• Gaining Access - if many hosts have usage of the medium, how is access
arbitrated.
• Transforms a raw transmission facility into a line that appears free of
undetected transmission errors to the network layer.
• Some traffic regulation mechanism is often needed to let the transmitter
know how much buffer space the receiver has at the moment.

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OSI Model - Data Link Layer

Figure 9.8 OSI Model - Data Link Layer

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Data Link Layer Example

Figure 9.9 Data Link Layer Example

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 OSI Model - Network Layer

• Controls the operation of the subnet.

• The addressing used by the second network may be different from the
first one.
• The second one may not accept the packet at all because it is too large.
• The protocols may differ.

1. Routing –
• What path is followed by packets from source to destination.
• Can be based on a static table, when the connection is created, or
when each packet is sent.
2. Congestion –
• Controls the number packets in the subnet.
3. Heterogeneity –
• Interfacing so one type of network can talk to another.
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 OSI Model - Network Layer

• A subnetwork or subnet is a logical subdivision of an IP network.

• The practice of dividing a network into two or more networks is called
subnetting.

Figure 9.10 Subnet ID Illustration 21

OSI Model - Network Layer

Figure 9.11 OSI Model - Network Layer

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Network Layer Example

Figure 9.12 Network Layer Example

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 OSI Model - Transport Layer

• Main responsibility – Accept data from above, split it up into smaller units
if need be, pass these to the network layer, and ensure that the pieces all
arrive correctly at the other end.
• The transport layer is a true end-to-end layer, all the way from the source
to the destination.
• In other words, a program on the source machine carries on a
conversation with a similar program on the destination machine, using the
message headers and control messages.
• In the lower layers, the protocols are between each machine and its
immediate neighbors, and not between the ultimate source and
destination machines, which may be separated by many routers.

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 OSI Model - Transport Layer

1. Reliability – Ensures that packets arrive at their destination.

Reassembles out of order messages.
2. Hides network – Allows details of the network to be hidden from higher
level layers.
3. Service Decisions – What type of service to provide; error-free point to
point, datagram, etc.
4. Mapping – Determines which messages belong to which connections.
5. Naming – "Send to node xyzzy" must be translated into an internal
address and route.

6. Flow control – Keeps a fast transmitter from flooding a slow receiver.

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OSI Model - Transport Layer

Figure 9.13 OSI Model - Transport Layer

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Transport Layer Example

Figure 9.14 Transport Layer Example

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 OSI Model - Session Layer

• Session Layer –
– Dialog control : keeping track of whose turn it is to transmit

– Token management : preventing two parties from attempting the

same critical operation at the same time
– Synchronization : check pointing long transmissions to allow them to
continue from where they were after a crash

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OSI Model - Session Layer

Figure 9.15 OSI Model - Session Layer

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 OSI Model - Presentation Layer

• Contains syntax and semantics of information transmitted.

• Understands the nature of the data being transmitted.

Figure 9.16 OSI Model - Presentation Layer

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 OSI Model - Application Layer

• Application-specific protocols FTP, HTTP, Telnet etc.

• Contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed by users

Figure 9.17 OSI Model - Application Layer

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 Service Primitives and Parameters

• The services between adjacent layers in the OSI architecture are expressed
in terms of primitives and parameters.
• A primitive specifies the function to be performed.
• The parameters are used to pass data and control information.

Table 2.1 Service Primitive Types

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Summary of Layer Functions

Figure 9.18 Summary of Layer Functions

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The TCP/IP reference model

Figure 9.19 The TCP/IP reference model

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 The TCP/IP reference model : History

• Originally used in the (Advanced Research Project Agency) –ARPANET.

• The ARPANET, and its successor, the worldwide Internet.
• It eventually connected hundreds of universities and government
installations, using leased telephone lines.
• When satellite and radio networks were added later, the existing protocols
had trouble interworking with them, so a new reference architecture was
needed.
• Goals of the model are:
– Seamless interoperability
– Wide-ranging applications
– Fault-tolerant to some extent

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 TCP/IP model - Application Layer

• The application layer contains the logic needed to support the various user
applications.
• Examples include:
• HTTP – The Web
• FTP – File Transfer
• Telnet – Terminal
• SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
• DNS - Domain Name System
• The TCP/IP model does not have session or presentation layers, they are of
little use to most applications.
• It contains all the higher-level protocols.

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 TCP/IP model - Transport Layer

• Concerned with end-to-end data transfer between end systems (hosts).

• Transmission unit is called segment.
• TCP/IP networks such as the Internet provides two types of services to
applications
• TCP
• UDP
• It is designed to allow peer entities on the source and destination hosts to
carry on a conversation, just as in the OSI transport layer.

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 TCP and UDP Headers

Figure 9.20 TCP and UDP Headers

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 TCP/IP model - Transport Layer

Transport Control Protocol (TCP)

• TCP provides a reliable connection oriented protocol that delivers a byte
stream from one node to another.
• Guarantees delivery and provides flow control.
• Allows a byte stream originating on one machine to be delivered
without error on any other machine in the Internet.
• It fragments the incoming byte stream into discrete messages and
passes each one on to the internet layer.
• At the destination, the receiving TCP process reassembles the received
messages into the output stream.

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 TCP/IP model - Transport Layer

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

• UDP provides an unreliable connection-less protocol for applications that
provide their own.
• Do not want TCP’s sequencing or flow control and wish to provide their
own.
• It is also widely used for one-shot, client-server-type request-reply queries
and applications in which prompt delivery is more important than
accurate delivery, such as transmitting speech or video.

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 TCP/IP model - Internet Layer

• Provides packet switched connectionless service.

– The IP (Internet Protocol) does delivery and congestion control
– End systems inject datagrams into the networks
– A transmission path is determined for each packet (routing)
– A “best effort” service
• Datagrams might be lost
• Datagrams might be arrive out of order

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 TCP/IP model - Internet Layer

• Its job is to permit hosts to inject packets into any network and have them
travel independently to the destination (potentially on a different
network).
• They may even arrive in a different order than they were sent, in which
case it is the job of higher layers to rearrange them, if in-order delivery is
desired.

• The internet layer defines an official packet format and protocol called IP
(Internet Protocol).
• TCP/IP internet layer is similar in functionality to the OSI network layer.

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 TCP/IP model - Host-to-Network Layer

• The Host-to-Network Layer

– Somehow, host has to connect to the network and be able to send IP
Datagrams
– This lowest level is not defined in this model. Various mechanisms are
used
• The TCP/IP reference model does not really say much about what happens
below the internet layer, except to point out that the host has to connect
to the network using some protocol so it can send IP packets to it.

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 The TCP/IP reference model

Figure 9.21 Protocol Data Units (PDUs) in the TCP/IP Architecture

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Protocols in the TCP/IP reference model

Figure 9.22 Some Protocols in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite

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 Hybrid Model

• Application: supporting network applications

– Ftp, SMTP,
• Transport: host-host data transfer
– TCP, UDP
• Network: routing of datagrams from source to
destination
– IP, routing protocols
• Link: data transfer between neighboring network
elements
– PPP, Ethernet
• Physical: bits “on the wire”

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 The Internet

• Growing exponentially.
• All nodes run TCP/IP.
• Means that all nodes have an IP address by which they can be contacted.
• Services provided include: e-mail, news, remote login, file transfer, the web.
• What is the Internet?
– “network of networks”
– “collection of networks interconnected by routers”
– “a communication medium used by millions”
– Email, chat, Web “surfing”, streaming media

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 Internet & Web

• It is important to learn that the Internet is an example of yet another

network.
• Network’s don’t mean the Internet!!!
• The Web is not a computer network but a distributed application that runs
on top of the Internet.

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 Architecture of the Internet

A Point Of Presence :
location where a long- A Network Access Point is a
distance carrier could public network exchange
terminate services and facility where Internet service
provide connections into a providers (ISPs) connected
local telephone network with one another in peering
arrangements

Figure 9.23 Architecture of the Internet

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 Architecture of the Internet

• POP (Point of Presence), where they are removed from the telephone system and
injected into the ISP’s regional network.
• From this point on, the system is fully digital and packet switched.
• If the packet is destined for a host served directly by the ISP, the packet is delivered
to the host.
• Otherwise, it is handed over to the ISP’s backbone operator.
• If a packet given to the backbone is destined for an ISP or company served by the
backbone, it is sent to the closest router and handed off there.
• To allow packets to hop between backbones, all the major backbones connect at
the NAPs discussed earlier.
• Basically, a NAP - Network Access Point is a room full of routers, at least one per
backbone.

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 The Internet: Some History

• Many independent networks

• By the late 1970s: blossoming of computer networks
– Smaller, cheaper computers
– Single organization owned several computers
– Need to interconnect them
– Proliferation of LANs
• WAN technologies also emerged in the 70s.
• Besides links, also used specialized computers called routers or switches.
• Few WANs, many LANs.
– WANs are more expensive
– Harder to deploy and administer

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 The Internet: Some History

• Need for a single network

– Interconnecting various LANs
– Companies that are geographically distributed
– Researchers that need to collaborate
• Late 1970’s/ early 1980’s: the ARPANET (funded by ARPA).
– Connecting university, research labs and some government agencies
– Main applications: e-mail and file transfer
• Features:
– Decentralized, non-regulated system
– No centralized authority
– No structure
– Network of networks

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 The Internet: Some History

• TCP/IP protocol suite.

• Public-domain software.
– To encourage commercialization and research
• Internet as an open system.
• Between 1980 and 2000: the boom
– Internet changed from small, experimental research project into the
world’s largest network.
– In 1981, 100 computers at research centers and universities.
– 20 years later, 60M computers!
– Early 1990’s, the Web caused the Internet revolution: the Internet’s killer
application
• Today:
• Almost 60 million hosts as of 01.99
• Doubles every year

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END

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