Welcome to

𝑟𝑖
𝑚1 𝑚2
Gravitation
𝑃 𝑚

𝑚 𝑚 𝑚

𝐴 𝑑 𝐵 𝑑 𝐶
𝐸𝑔 𝑃
𝑀
𝑟Ԧ
 Newton’s Law of Gravitation

According to Newton’s law of gravitation, “Every particle in the universe attracts

every other particle with a force whose magnitude is:
• Directly proportional to the product of their masses ⇒ 𝐹𝐺 ∝ 𝑚1 𝑚2
1
• Inversley proportional to the square of the distance between their centers ⇒ 𝐹𝐺 ∝
𝑟2

𝑚1
𝑚2
𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹𝐺 =
𝐹 𝐹 𝑟2

𝐺 : Universal Gravitational Constant

𝑟
 Properties of Gravitational Force

𝑚1 • Acts along the line joining the two masses.

𝑚2
• Always attractive in nature.
𝐹 𝐹 • Always acts as an action-reaction pair.

• Is independent of medium.
𝑟 • Conservative force in nature.
1
• Obeys inverse square law 𝐹𝐺 ∝ .
𝑟2
𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹𝐺 =
𝑟2 • It is a central force

NOTE: Central force is defined as the force whose magnitude depends only on distance 𝑟
from a fixed point and is always directed either away or towards that fixed point.
𝐹Ԧ = 𝑓(𝑟)𝑟Ƹ
 After losing contact with their spacecraft, two astronauts are floating
in free space where there is no external gravitational force acting on
T
them. Which of the following event will occur eventually?
Solution :

𝐹𝐺 𝐹𝐺

No external gravitational force is acting on the astronauts.

The only force present is the gravitational force between themselves.

Since the gravitational force is always attractive, they will

accelerate individually, and will move towards each other.
Vector form of Gravitational Force

Universal Gravitational Constant

• The numerical value of Universal

Gravitational Constant (𝐺) was
determined by Cavendish
experiment in 1798.
 Cavendish Experiment

• Torsion arises in the wire due to

gravitational attraction b/w 𝑚 & 𝑀.
𝜃 𝐺𝑚𝑀
𝐹=
𝑑2

• At Equilibrium, the magnitude of

𝑆1 gravitational torque and restoring torque will
be equal.
𝑑
⇒ 𝐹𝐿 = 𝜏𝜃
𝐴 𝑑 𝐵
𝐿
𝐺𝑀𝑚
⇒ 𝐿 = 𝜏𝜃
𝑆2 𝑑2

𝜏𝜃𝑑 2
⇒𝐺=
Cavendish’s Torsion Balance 𝑀𝑚𝐿

𝐺 = 6.67 × 10−11 𝑁 𝑚2 /𝑘𝑔2

 Properties of G

Gravitational constant has the numerical value of gravitational force between

two bodies with unit mass separated by a unit distance.

𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹𝐺 = =𝐺
𝑟2

• Its value is independent of mass, size, shape etc. of the bodies.

• Its value is medium independent.
• Value of 𝐺 is so small that gravitational forces are normally smaller unless one or
both masses are large.
• Dimensional formula of 𝐺: 𝑀−1 𝐿3 𝑇 −2
 Three particles 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶, each of mass 𝑚, are placed on a line
with 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑑. Find the net gravitational force on a fourth
particle 𝑃 of same mass, placed at a distance 𝑑 from the particle
𝐵 on the perpendicular bisector of the line 𝐴𝐶 .

Solution : Gravitational force on a particle 𝑃 due to 𝐴, 𝐵 and

𝐶:

𝐺𝑚2 𝐺𝑚2
𝐹𝐴 = 𝐹𝐶 = 𝐹𝐵 = 2
2𝑑2 𝑑

∴ 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠45° + 𝐹𝐵 + 𝐹𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑠45°

𝐺𝑚2 1
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 2 1+ (along 𝑃𝐵)
𝑑 2

NOTE: Net Gravitational force on a given particle is the vector

sum of gravitational force exerted by all individual particles
around it. This is also known as Superposition Principle.
 A particle of mass 𝑚 is placed at a distance 𝑑 from one end of a
uniform rod with length 𝐿 and mass 𝑀 as shown in the figure. Find the
magnitude of the gravitational force on the particle due to the rod.

Solution : Consider an elementary mass 𝑑𝑚 of length 𝑑𝑥 at a

distance 𝑥 from 𝑚.

𝑀
𝑑𝑚 = 𝑑𝑥
𝐿

∴ The gravitational force on 𝑚 due to 𝑑𝑚,

𝐺𝑚 𝑑𝑚 𝐺𝑚𝑀
𝑑𝐹 = = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 𝐿𝑥 2

𝐿+𝑑 𝐿+𝑑
𝐺𝑚𝑀 𝑑𝑥 𝐺𝑚𝑀 1
⇒ 𝐹 = න 𝑑𝐹 = න 2= −
𝐿 𝑥 𝐿 𝑥 𝑑
𝑑

𝐺𝑚𝑀 1 1
⇒𝐹= − +
𝐿 𝐿+𝑑 𝑑
𝐺𝑚𝑀
𝐹=
𝑑 𝐿+𝑑
 Gravitational Field and Field Strength

The region surrounding the mass where other masses experience

a gravitational force is known as its gravitational field.

Force experienced by a unit mass

placed at a point in a gravitational field
gives the field strength.

• Vector quantity

𝑀 𝐹Ԧ 𝐸𝑔 • Units: 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛/𝑘𝑔 or 𝑚/𝑠 2

𝑚
• Dimension: [𝑀0 𝐿𝑇 −2 ]
𝑟Ԧ
• Direction: Along the net Gravitational
force on the unit mass
𝐹Ԧ 𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀
𝐸
𝐸𝑔 = = − 2 ( 𝑟ො ) ⇒ 𝑔 = • Near earth’s surface the field
𝑚 |𝑟 | 𝑟2
strength is 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2
 The gravitational field in a region is given by 𝐸𝑔 = 2𝑖Ƹ + 3𝑗Ƹ 𝑁/𝑘𝑔. Show
that no work is done by the gravitational field when a particle is
moved on the line 3𝑦 + 2𝑥 = 5.

Solution : Gravitational Force on a particle of mass 𝑚 is,

𝐹𝑔 = 2𝑚𝑖Ƹ + 3𝑚𝑗Ƹ
3
⇒ Slope, 𝑚1 =
2

Particle moves along the line 3𝑦 + 2𝑥 = 5

2
⇒ Slope, 𝑚2 = −
3

Condition of Orthogonality: 𝑚1 𝑚2 = −1

Hence 𝐹𝑔 & 𝑠Ԧ are perpendicular

∴ 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑔 . 𝑠Ԧ = 0
 Gravitational field on the axis of a Ring

𝐺𝑑𝑚 𝑥
𝐸𝑔 = න 𝑑𝐸𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = න 2 .
𝑟 𝑟

𝐺𝑀𝑥 𝐺𝑀 cos 𝜃
𝐸𝑔 𝑥 = − 3𝑥ො =− 2
𝑥ො
𝑟
𝑥 2 + 𝑅2 2

Variation in 𝒈 due to Earth’s Rotation

𝐺𝑀𝑥 NOTE: Gravitational field due to the ring

𝐸𝑔 𝑥 = 3 on its axis has the maximum magnitude
𝑥 2 + 𝑅2 2 𝑅 2𝐺𝑀
at 𝑥 = and its value is 2.
2 3 3𝑅
At 𝑥 = 0: |𝐸𝑔 | = 0
𝐺𝑀𝑥
At 𝑥 ≪ 𝑅: 𝑥 2 + 𝑅 2 ≈ 𝑅 2 ⇒ |𝐸𝑔 | =
𝑅3
𝐺𝑀
At 𝑥 ≫ 𝑅: 𝑥 2 + 𝑅 2 ≈ 𝑥 2 ⇒ |𝐸𝑔 | = 2
𝑥
 Gravitational Field due to Spherical Shell

In ∆𝑂𝐴𝑃, By cosine rule

𝑅 2 + 𝑟 2 − 𝑧 2 = 2𝑅𝑟cos 𝜃

𝑧 𝑑𝑧
⇒ = sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃 … (2)
𝑅𝑟

And

𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑅2
= cos 𝛼 … (3)
2𝑟𝑧
Assuming uniform mass distribution,

Field at P due to the ring element:

𝑀 𝐺𝑀𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑑𝑚 = × (2𝜋𝑅sin 𝜃)(𝑅𝑑𝜃) 𝐸𝑔 (𝑥) = − 𝑥ො
4𝜋𝑅 2 𝑟2
GM r 2 − R2
𝑑𝐸𝑔 = 1+ dz
𝐺𝑀(cosα)(sinθ)𝑑𝜃 4Rr 2 z2
𝑀 𝑑𝐸𝑔 = … (1)
2𝑧 2
⇒ 𝑑𝑚 = sin𝜃𝑑𝜃
2
 Gravitational Field due to Spherical Shell

Case 1: 𝑃 is outside the shell 𝑟 > 𝑅 Case 2: 𝑃 is inside the shell 𝑟 < 𝑅

𝐺𝑀 𝑟+𝑅 𝑟 2 − 𝑅2 𝐺𝑀
𝐸𝑔 = න 1+ 𝑑𝑧 𝐸𝑔 = − 𝑟Ƹ 𝐺𝑀 𝑅+𝑟 𝑟 2 − 𝑅2 𝐺𝑀 𝑅2 − 𝑟 2 𝑅+𝑟
4𝑅𝑟 2 𝑟−𝑅 𝑧2 𝑟2 𝐸𝑔 = න 1+ 𝑑𝑧 ⇒ 𝐸𝑔 = 𝑧+
4𝑅𝑟 2 𝑅−𝑟 𝑧2 4𝑅𝑟 2 𝑧 𝑅−𝑟
𝐺𝑀
Note: The gravitational field due a uniform 𝐸𝑔 = 2𝑅 − 2𝑅
𝐺𝑀 𝑟 2 − 𝑅2 𝑅+𝑟 4𝑅𝑟 2
spherical shell can be found out by imagining the 𝐸𝑔 = 𝑧−
whole mass as a point mass of same mass, kept at 4𝑅𝑟 2 𝑧 𝑅−𝑟
centre 𝐸𝑔 = zero
 Gravitational Field due to Spherical Shell

Case 1 : Point outside the shell (𝑟 > 𝑅)

𝐸𝑔
𝐺𝑀
𝐸𝑔 = − 2 𝑟Ƹ
𝐺𝑀 𝑟
𝑅2
Case 2 : Point inside the sphere (𝑟 < 𝑅)
1
𝐸g ∝ 𝐸𝑔 = 0
𝑟2

Case 3 : Point on the sphere (𝑟 = 𝑅)

𝐸𝑔 = 0 𝐺𝑀
𝑜 𝑟 𝐸𝑔 = − 2 𝑟Ƹ
𝑅 𝑅
 Four identical particles of mass 𝑀 are located at the corners of a
square of side 𝑎. What should be their speed, if each of them
T revolves under the influence of other’s gravitational field in a
circular orbit circumscribing the square?

Solution :

Net force on 𝐵: Centripetal force is given by,

𝑀𝑣 2 𝑀𝑣 2 2𝑀𝑣 2
𝐹Ԧ𝐵 = 𝐹Ԧ𝐵𝐴 + 𝐹Ԧ𝐵𝐶 + 𝐹Ԧ𝐵𝐷 𝐹𝑐 = = 𝑎 =
𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑟 𝑎
2
As masses are distributed symmetrically
about 𝐵𝐷, net gravitational force on 𝐵
will be only along 𝐵𝐷 But, 𝐹𝑐 = 𝐹𝐵 𝑛𝑒𝑡

𝐹𝐵 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹𝐵𝐷 + 𝐹𝐵𝐴 sin 450 + 𝐹𝐵𝐶 cos 450 𝐺𝑀 1 𝐺𝑀

2
𝑣 = 1+ = 1.35
𝑎 2 2 𝑎
𝐺𝑀2 𝐺𝑀2 1 𝐺𝑀2 1
𝐹𝐵 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 2 + 𝑎2 + 2
2𝑎 2 𝑎 2
𝐺𝑀2 1 𝐺𝑀
𝐹𝐵 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 2 + 2 ⇒ 𝑣 = 1.16
𝑎 2 𝑎
The direction of the force is towards the center
𝑂 and it acts as a centripetal force
 Gravitational Field on the Axis of Disc

2𝐺𝑀 𝑥
𝐸𝑔 𝑥 = − 2 1 − 𝑥ො
𝑀 𝑅 2
𝑥 +𝑅 2
𝑅
𝑑𝐸𝑔 𝜃 𝑃

𝑟 𝑥
2𝐺𝑀
𝐸𝑔 𝑥 = − 2 (1 −cos 𝜃)𝑥ො
𝑅
𝑑𝑚
Field Due to a Uniform Solid Sphere

Case 1 : Point outside the sphere (𝑟 > 𝑅)

𝐺𝑀
𝐸𝑔 = − 2 𝑟Ƹ
𝑟

Case 2 : Point inside the sphere (𝑟 < 𝑅)

𝐺𝑀𝑟
𝐸𝑔 = − 3 𝑟Ƹ
𝑅

Case 3 : Point on the sphere (𝑟 = 𝑅)

𝐺𝑀
𝐸𝑔 = − 2
𝑟Ƹ
𝑅
 The gravitational field, due to the ‘left over’ part of a uniform sphere
(from which a part as shown has been ‘removed out’) at a very far off
point 𝑃, located as shown, would be (nearly)
Solution :

Gravitational field due to Gravitational field due to complete sphere 𝐸𝑃 𝑆 − Gravitational field due to
=
remaining part at point 𝑃 𝐸𝑃 𝑛𝑒𝑡 removed part 𝐸𝑃 𝑅

Mass of the removed part, 𝑀′: Gravitational field at 𝑃:

𝑀 4 𝑅
3
𝑀 𝐸𝑃 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐸𝑃 𝑆𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 − 𝐸𝑃 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡
′
𝑀 = × 𝜋 = 7𝐺𝑀
4 3 3 2 8 𝑀
𝜋𝑅 𝐺 𝑅 𝐸𝑃 =
3 𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀 𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝐸𝑃 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 2 − 8
2 = 2 − 2 ∵𝑥≫ 8𝑥 2
𝑥 𝑅
+𝑥
𝑥 8𝑥 2
2
 𝜌 𝑅
The density of a solid sphere of radius 𝑅 is given by 𝜌 = 𝑜 where 𝜌𝑜 is
𝑟
the density at the surface and 𝑟 denotes the distance from the centre.
Find the gravitational field due to this sphere at a distance 2𝑅 from its
centre.

Solution : Gravitational Field at point 𝑃

𝑅
𝐺
𝐸𝑃 = 2 න 𝑑𝑚
4𝑅 0

𝑅
𝑀 = න 𝑑𝑚 = 2𝜋𝜌𝑜 𝑅3
0

𝜋𝐺𝜌𝑜 𝑅
𝐸𝑃 =
2
 Acceleration due to Gravity

Force of attraction on the body of

(No air resistance) mass 𝑚 close to the surface of the
Earth:
𝑚 = 2 𝑘𝑔 𝑚 = 0.01 𝑘𝑔
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐹 =
𝑅2
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑚𝑔 =
𝑅2

𝐺𝑀
𝑔= 2
𝑅

𝑔 does not depend on the mass of the falling object

 Variation of g with Height & Depth

Due to Height Due to Depth

𝑑
ℎ

𝑅 𝑅

2ℎ 𝑑
𝑔′ =𝑔 1− (ℎ ≪ 𝑅) 𝑔′ =𝑔 1−
𝑅 𝑅
 Variation of 𝒈 with 𝒓

Case 1 : 𝑔′ inside the Earth (𝑟 < 𝑅)

𝑔

𝑑 𝑔 𝑅−𝑑 𝑔𝑟
𝑔′ =𝑔 1− = =
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

Case 2 : 𝑔′ on the Earth (𝑟 = 𝑅)

𝑔′ ∝ 𝑟
′
𝐺𝑀
1 𝑔 =𝑔= 2
𝑔′ ∝ 2 𝑅
𝑟

Case 3 : 𝑔′ outside the Earth (𝑟 > 𝑅)

𝐺𝑀
𝑔′ = 2
𝑟
𝑅 𝑟
 Find the ratio of the heights from the earth’s surface at which
the acceleration due to gravity is 0.99 𝑔𝑒 and 0.64 𝑔𝑒 respectively.
Here 𝑔𝑒 is the acceleration due to gravity at the
surface of the earth.

Solution : Given : At ℎ1 𝑔𝑒′ = 0.99𝑔𝑒

At ℎ2 𝑔𝑒′ = 0.64𝑔𝑒

ℎ1
To Find : Ratio of heights
ℎ2

Solution :

At ℎ1 , 𝑔𝑒′ = 0.99𝑔𝑒 At ℎ2 , 𝑔𝑒′′ = 0.64𝑔𝑒

⇒ ℎ1 ≪ 𝑅𝑒 ⇒ ℎ2 is comparable with 𝑅𝑒 From (1) and (2),

2ℎ1 𝑔𝑒 ℎ1 1
0.99𝑔𝑒 = 𝑔𝑒 1− 0.64𝑔𝑒 = 2 =
𝑅𝑒 ℎ ℎ2 50
1+ 2
𝑅𝑒
𝑅𝑒 𝑅𝑒
⇒ ℎ1 = ----- (1)
⇒ ℎ2 = ----- (2)
200 4
 Variation in g due to Earth’s Rotation

𝜔
𝑚 𝑚𝜔2 𝑅 cos 2 𝜃
Acceleration due to gravity for
2
a place at latitude 𝜃 is, 𝐹𝐺 𝑚𝜔 𝑅 cos 𝜃 𝜃
𝐹𝐺
𝑔′ = 𝑔 − 𝜔2 𝑅 cos 2 𝜃 𝑅

𝜃
Case 1: At poles (𝜃 = 90°) 𝑚𝜔2 𝑅
𝐹𝐺
𝑚
𝑔′ = 𝑔 𝑀

Case 2: At equator (𝜃 = 0°)

𝑔′ = 𝑔 − 𝜔 2 𝑅
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐹𝐺 =
𝑅2
 At what rate should the earth rotate so that the apparent 𝑔 at the
equator becomes zero? What will be the length of the
3 −2
day in this situation? (𝑅 = 6400 × 10 𝑚, 𝑔 = 10 𝑚𝑠 )

Solution : At equator, 𝜃 = 0°
′
𝑔𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑔 − 𝜔2 𝑅 = 0

𝑔
⇒𝜔=
𝑅

𝜔 = 1.25 × 10−3 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑠 −1

Length of the day,

2𝜋 𝑅
𝑇= = 2𝜋
𝜔 𝑔

𝑇 ≈ 1.4 ℎ𝑟
 Variation in g due to Non Sphericity

Pole Gravitational field at poles

(𝑅𝑒 > 𝑅𝑝 )
𝑴 𝐺𝑀
𝑔𝑝 = 2
𝑅𝑝 𝑅𝑝

Equator 𝑅𝑒 Gravitational field at the equator

𝐺𝑀
𝑔𝑒 = 2
𝑅𝑒

𝑔𝑝 > 𝑔𝑒
 Gravitational Potential Energy

 The energy possessed or acquired by an object by virtue of its position in the presence of a gravitational field.

 Negative of the work done by the conservative force as the system changes from initial to final configuration is
change in Potential Energy.

Change in potential energy,

Δ𝑈 = 𝑈𝑓 − 𝑈𝑖 = − 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝑖→𝑓
 Gravitational Potential Energy

𝑟1 = ∞

𝑚1 (Fixed) 𝑚2 𝑚2

𝑟2 = 𝑟

2
1 1
Ԧ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ = −𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
𝛥𝑈 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 = − න 𝐹. −
1 𝑟2 𝑟1

1 1
𝑈 𝑟 − 𝑈 ∞ = −𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2 −
𝑟 ∞

𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
𝑈 𝑟 =−
𝑟
 At the pole of the Earth, a body is imparted an initial velocity 𝑣0
directed vertically upwards. Find the height to which the body will
ascend. (Neglect air drag)

Solution : Using the principle of conservation of

mechanical energy,

𝐾𝐴 + 𝑈𝐴 = 𝐾𝐵 + 𝑈𝐵

1 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚
⇒ 𝑚𝑣02 − =0−
2 𝑅 𝑅+ℎ

𝑣02 1 1 ℎ
= 𝐺𝑀 − ⇒ 𝑣02 = 2𝐺𝑀 2
2 𝑅 𝑅+ℎ 𝑅 + 𝑅ℎ

𝑣02 𝑅 2 + 𝑅ℎ = 2𝐺𝑀ℎ ⇒ 𝑣02 𝑅 2 = ℎ 2𝐺𝑀 − 𝑅𝑣02

𝑅 2 𝑣02
ℎ=
2𝐺𝑀 − 𝑅𝑣02
 Gravitational Potential Difference

 Gravitational potential difference between two points in a

gravitational field is defined as the work done by an
external agent in moving a unit mass from the initial point
to final point.

𝑚
𝑟 𝐴 𝐵

Work done by External 𝐴→𝐵

∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 =
Mass
 Gravitational Potential

 Change in gravitational
𝐸𝑔 𝐴 potential between
𝑚 points 𝐴 and 𝐵,
𝑈𝐴

𝐵 𝑈𝐵 − 𝑈𝐴
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 =
𝑚
𝑈𝐵
 Potential due to a Point Mass

 Gravitational potential due to a

mass 𝑀 at distance 𝑟 is
𝑟=∞

𝑀 𝑚 𝐺𝑀
𝑟=𝑟 𝑃 𝑉 𝑟 =−
𝐴 𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑈𝑃 − 𝑈∞ = −
𝑟

𝑉
 Two bodies of masses 𝑚 and 4𝑚 are placed at a distance 𝑟 from
each other. Find the gravitational potential at a point on the
line joining them where the gravitational field is zero.

Solution : Let the gravitational field be zero at the

point 𝑃 located at a distance 𝑥 from 𝑚.

𝐺𝑚 𝐺(4𝑚)
∴ =
𝑥2 (𝑟 − 𝑥)2

1 2
⟹ =
𝑥 𝑟−𝑥
𝑟
⟹𝑥=
3

Gravitational potential at 𝑃 is,

𝐺𝑚 4𝐺𝑚 9𝐺𝑚
𝑉=− 𝑟 − =−
2𝑟 𝑟
3 3
 Relation b/w Gravitational Field & Potential

 If potential function in a 3𝐷 space is given as : 𝑉 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

Then, the gravitational field component

𝜕𝑉
along 𝑥 - direction: 𝐸𝑔 (𝑥) = −
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑉
along 𝑦 - direction: 𝐸𝑔 (𝑦) = −
𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑉
along 𝑧 - direction: 𝐸𝑔 (𝑧) = −
𝑑𝑉 = −𝐸𝑔 . 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ 𝜕𝑧

If 𝐸𝑔 = 𝐸𝑔 (𝑥)𝑖Ƹ + 𝐸𝑔 (𝑦)𝑗Ƹ + 𝐸𝑔 (𝑧)𝑘෠

& 𝑑𝑟Ԧ = 𝑑𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑑𝑦𝑗Ƹ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘෠

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝐸𝑔 = − 𝑖Ƹ − 𝑗Ƹ − 𝑘෠
𝑑𝑉 = −𝐸𝑔 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 − 𝐸𝑔 (𝑦)𝑑𝑦 − 𝐸𝑔 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝑉2 𝑟2
න 𝑑𝑉 = − න 𝐸𝑔 . 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ
𝑉1 𝑟1
 Potential due to a Uniform Ring at an Axial Point

𝑀
𝑅
𝐺𝑀
𝑉𝑃 = −
𝑃 𝑅2 + 𝑥 2

𝜕𝑉
𝐸𝑔 = − 𝑖Ƹ
𝜕𝑥

𝑉 𝜕 𝐺𝑀
⇒ 𝐸𝑔 = − − 𝑖Ƹ
𝜕𝑥 2
𝑅 +𝑥 2

𝑥 𝐺𝑀𝑥
𝐸𝑔 = − 2 𝑖Ƹ
𝑅 + 𝑥2 3/2
 A uniform circular ring of mass 𝑀 and radius 𝑅 is placed in 𝑦𝑧 plane
with centre at origin. A particle of mass 𝑚 is released from rest at a
point 𝑥 = 2𝑅. Find the speed with which it will pass through the
centre of ring.

Solution :
 Potential due to a Uniform Thin Spherical Shell

To find potential due to the shell, we can divide the shell into multiple small ring elements.
 Potential due to a Uniform Thin Spherical Shell

Case 1: 𝑃 is outside
the shell 𝑟 > 𝑅
𝑅 𝐺𝑀
𝑉=−
𝑟
𝑂 𝑃
Case 2: 𝑃 is at the
surface of shell 𝑟 = 𝑅

𝑀 𝐺𝑀
𝑉=−
𝑟 𝑅

Case 3: 𝑃 is inside
the shell 𝑟 < 𝑅
𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀
− 𝑉=−
𝑅 𝑅
𝑉
 Potential due to a Uniform Solid Sphere

Case 1: Potential at an
External Point 𝑟 > 𝑅
𝑅 𝐺𝑀
𝑉=−
𝑟
𝑂 𝑃
𝑟
Case 2: Potential at
the surface 𝑟 = 𝑅
𝑟 𝐺𝑀
𝑉=−
𝑅

𝐺𝑀 Case 3: Potential at an
− Internal Point 𝑟 < 𝑅
𝑅
3𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀
− 𝑉=− (3𝑅2 − 𝑟 2 )
2𝑅 2𝑅 3
𝑉
 A uniform ring of mass 𝑀1 and a uniform solid sphere of mass 𝑀2
are separated by a distance 3𝑅. Imagine that a small object of
mass 𝑚 is displaced from 𝐴 to 𝐵. Find the work done by the
gravitational force.
Solution :

At 𝐴:

𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐴 Due to Ring + 𝑉𝐴 Due to solid sphere

𝐺𝑀1 𝐺𝑀2
𝑉𝐴 = − −
𝑅 3𝑅
At 𝐵:
𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝐵 Due to Ring + 𝑉𝐵 Due to solid sphere

𝐺𝑀1 3𝐺𝑀2
𝑉𝐵 = − −
2𝑅 2𝑅
𝑊𝑔 = −Δ𝑈 = −𝑚(𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 )

𝐺𝑚 𝑀1 3 1
⇒𝑊= − + 𝑀2 −
𝑅 2 2 3
 Inertial and Gravitational mass

 Inertial mass: It is a measure  Gravitational mass: It is determined

of an object's resistance to by the strength of the gravitational
acceleration when a force is force experienced by a body in the
applied. gravitational field.

𝐹𝑔 𝑅2
𝑚𝑔 =
𝐺𝑀
𝐹 𝑚𝑖
𝐹𝑔
𝑚𝑔 =
𝐸𝑔
𝑎
𝐸𝑔 = Gravitational
𝐹 field
𝑚𝑖 = strength
𝑎
 Kepler’s 1st Law : Law of Elliptical Orbits

Aphelion Perihelion
• Perihelion & Aphelion are the closest &
farthest points of approach.
𝑆′ 2𝑏 𝑆 • The separation velocity is zero at these
points or the entire velocity is
perpendicular to the line joining the
Sun & Planet.

𝑎 𝑎
 Kepler’s 2nd Law : Law of Areas
𝑟𝑣
⇒ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑑𝑡 sin 𝜃
2
𝑑𝐴 𝑟𝑣
⇒ = sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑𝐴 𝑟𝑣 𝑚
= sin 𝜃 ×
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚

𝑑𝐴 𝑚𝑣𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝐿
⇒ = =
𝑑𝑡 2𝑚 2𝑚

𝑑𝐴 𝐿
⇒ = = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2𝑚

⇒ 𝐿 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
• Radius vector joining the Sun to any planet
sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of 𝜃- Instantaneous angle between 𝑣Ԧ and 𝑟Ԧ
time. ⇒ Angular
Area swept by the radius vector,
momentum of the
• Areal velocity
𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡
remains constant.
𝑑𝐴 ≈ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(∆𝑆𝑃𝑃′ ) system remains
1 conserved.
𝐴1 𝐴2 ⇒ 𝑑𝐴 ≈ 𝑟 𝑣𝑑𝑡 sin 𝜋 − 𝜃
= 2
𝑡1 𝑡2
 The earth moves around the sun in an elliptical orbit as shown in
𝑂𝐴
the figure. The ratio = 𝑥. The ratio of the speed of the earth at 𝐵
𝑂𝐵
to that at 𝐴 is

𝑂𝐴
Solution : Given: =𝑥
𝑂𝐵

Using the conservation of angular

momentum,

𝑚𝑣𝑟 = constant

⇒ 𝑚𝑣𝐴 𝑟𝐴 = 𝑚𝑣𝐵 𝑟𝐵

𝑣𝐵 𝑟𝐴 𝑂𝐴
⇒ = = =𝑥
𝑣𝐴 𝑟𝐵 𝑂𝐵

𝑣𝐵
=𝑥
𝑣𝐴
 Kepler’s 3rd Law : Harmonic Law/Law of Time Periods

𝑎 𝑆

Law states that the square of the planet’s time period of revolution is
directly proportional to the cube of semi-major axis length of its orbit.

𝑇2 𝑇 − Time period of revolution

= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑎3 𝑎 − Semi-major axis length of the orbit

NOTE: This is true for a planet – satellite system as well.

 The time period of a satellite of the earth is 5ℎ. If the separation
between the earth and the satellite is increased to four times the
previous value, the new time period will become

Solution : Given: 𝑇1 = 5ℎ, 𝑅2 = 4𝑅1

To find: 𝑇2

According to Kepler’s third law,

𝑇 2 ∝ 𝑅3

2 3
𝑇1 𝑅1
⇒ =
𝑇2 𝑅2 ⇒ 𝑇2 = 8 × 𝑇1 = 40 ℎ

3
3/2 𝑇2 = 40 ℎ
𝑇1 𝑅1 2 1
⇒ = =
𝑇2 𝑅2 4
 Circular Orbits

• Since semi-major axis & semi-minor axis

are equal, the planet performs uniform
𝑣 circular motion about the Sun.
𝑟

𝐹𝑐 • Gravitational Force (𝐹𝐺 ) provides the

𝑀 𝑚 necessary Centripetal Force (𝐹𝑐 ).

𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑚𝑣 2
⇒ 2 =
𝑟 𝑟

𝐺𝑀
∴ Orbital Speed, 𝑣 =
𝑟
𝑎≈𝑏≈𝑟

NOTE: Since 𝑀 ≫ 𝑚, we consider the Sun as an inertial frame of reference

 Summary

• Time period(𝑇): Time taken for

completing one revolution.
𝑣
𝑟
2𝜋𝑟 4𝜋 2
𝑇= OR 𝑇 2 = 𝑟3
𝑣 𝐺𝑀
𝑀 𝑚

• Total Energy of planet is,

𝑈 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐸 = −𝐾 = = −
2 2𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐾= 𝑈=−
2𝑟 𝑟 • Binding Energy for an object
in orbit is,
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐸=− 𝐵. 𝐸 = |𝐸|
2𝑟
Variation of Energy with Distance

𝐾 − Kinetic Energy
𝑈 − Potential Energy
E − Total Energy
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐾=
2𝑟

𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐸=−
2𝑟

𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑈=−
𝑟
 A 400 𝑘𝑔 satellite is in a circular orbit of radius 2𝑅𝐸 about the Earth.
How much energy is required to transfer it to a circular orbit of
T
radius 4𝑅𝐸 ? [𝑀𝐸 = 6 × 1024 𝑘𝑔, 𝑅𝐸 = 6.4 × 106 𝑚]
Solution :
Given: 𝑚 = 400 𝑘𝑔, 𝑀𝐸 = 6 × 1024 𝑘𝑔, 𝑅𝐸 = 6.4 × 106 𝑚

Energy required to transfer the satellite from 2𝑅𝐸

to 4𝑅𝐸 ,

𝐸 = 𝐸𝑓 − 𝐸𝑖

𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚
= − − −
2𝑟2 2𝑟1

𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚

= − − − =
8𝑅𝐸 4𝑅𝐸 8𝑅𝐸

6.64 × 10−11 × 6 × 1024 × 400

= 𝐸 = 3.13 × 109 𝐽
8 × 6.4 × 106
 Satellites

• For a satellite orbiting very close

to Earth (𝑟 ≈ 𝑅).
𝑟
𝑣 𝐺𝑀
Orbital speed, 𝑣= ≈ 7.9 𝑘𝑚/𝑠
𝑟

2𝜋𝑅
Time period, 𝑇= ≈ 84.6 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠
𝑣

𝐺𝑀𝑚
Total energy, 𝐸≈−
2𝑅
 Geostationary Satellites

• For Geostationary satellites,

𝜔𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜔𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Geostationary radius, 𝑟 ≈ 4.2 × 104 𝑘𝑚

Geostationary
Orbit Orbital velocity, 𝐺𝑀
𝑣= ≈ 3.1 𝑘𝑚/𝑠
𝑟

𝑇 = 24 ℎ𝑟
 Polar Satellites

Polar Orbit

• Orbits of these satellites are

perpendicular to equator.

• Time period = 2 to 3 ℎ𝑟.

• Height = 200 to 1,000 𝑘𝑚.

 Weightlessness

• It is the complete or near-complete absence of the sensation of

weight. (free-fall)

• Bodies inside satellite experience weightlessness since the satellite has

an acceleration towards the Centre of the earth, which is exactly equal
to the gravitational acceleration at that point.

𝑣
𝑅 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑔

𝑀
 The mean radius of earth is 𝑅 . Its angular speed about its own
axis is 𝜔 and the acceleration due to gravity at earth’s surface is 𝑔.
Find the radius of the orbit of a geostationary satellite as a
function of 𝜔, 𝑔 & 𝑅.
Solution : Centripetal force = Gravitational force

𝑚 𝑟𝜔 2 𝐺𝑀𝑚
= ∵ 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔
𝑟 𝑟2

𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀 𝑅 2
𝑟3 = 2 =
𝜔 𝑅2 𝜔 2

3
𝑔𝑅2 𝐺𝑀
𝑟 = 2 ∵𝑔=
𝜔 𝑅2

1
2
𝑔𝑅 3
𝑟=
𝜔2
 Escape Speed

• Escape speed is the minimum speed required by a body to be

projected with to overcome the gravitational pull of the earth.

1 2
𝐺𝑀𝑚 1 2
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑚𝑢 + − = 𝑚𝑣 + − 𝑣
2 𝑅 2 𝑅+ℎ

1 ℎ
For ℎ = ∞, 𝑚𝑣 2 ≥ 0
2

1 2
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑚𝑢 + − ≥0
2 𝑅

2𝐺𝑀
𝑢≥
𝑅
 A satellite is revolving in a circular orbit at a height ℎ from the
Earth’s surface (radius of earth 𝑅, ℎ << 𝑅). The minimum
increase in its orbital velocity required, so that the satellite could
escape from the Earth’s gravitational field, is close to (Neglect
the effect of atmosphere)

Solution : Extra velocity required to escape the gravitational field,

∆𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒 − 𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙

2𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀
= −
𝑅 𝑅

𝐺𝑀
= 2𝑔𝑅 − 𝑔𝑅 ∵𝑔=
𝑅2

∆𝑣 = 𝑔𝑅 2−1
 Trajectories for Different Launching Speeds

𝐴 • Case 1: If 𝑣 = 0, then path is a straight

line joining 𝐴𝑂.

2 • Case 2: If 0 < 𝑣 < 𝑣0 , then path is

ellipse.
𝑂
5 6
• Case 3: If 𝑣 = 𝑣0 , then path is a
circle with 𝑂 as centre.
• Case 4: If 𝑣0 < 𝑣 < 𝑣𝑒 , then path is
ellipse.
3 • Case 5: If 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒 , then path is
parabola.
• Case 6: If 𝑣 > 𝑣𝑒 , then path is
4 hyperbola.
 The minimum and maximum distance of a satellite from the center of the earth are
2𝑅 and 4𝑅, respectively, where 𝑅 is the radius of earth and 𝑀 is the mass of the earth.
Find
a) Minimum & Maximum Speed.
b) Radius of curvature at the point of minimum distance of separation.
Solution :
𝐿𝑃 = 𝐿𝐴

⇒ 𝑚𝑣𝑃 𝑟𝑃 = 𝑚𝑣𝐴 𝑟𝐴

⇒ 𝑣𝑃 2𝑅 = 𝑣𝐴 (4𝑅)

⇒ 𝑣𝑃 = 2𝑣𝐴 … (1)
𝑣𝑃 = 2𝑣𝐴 … … (1)
a)
𝐺𝑀
𝐾𝐴 + 𝑈𝐴 = 𝐾𝑃 + 𝑈𝑃 𝑣𝐴2 = 𝑣𝑃2 − … … (2) b)
2𝑅
෍ 𝐹Ԧ𝑐 = 𝑚𝑎Ԧ𝑐
1 𝐺𝑀𝑚 1 𝐺𝑀𝑚
⇒ 𝑚𝑣𝐴2 − = 𝑚𝑣𝑃2 − 𝐺𝑀
2 4𝑅 2 2𝑅 𝑣𝐴2 = 4𝑣𝐴2 − 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑚𝑣𝑃2
2𝑅 =
2𝑅 2 𝑟𝑃
𝑣𝐴2 𝑣𝑃2 𝐺𝑀
⇒ = −
2 2 4𝑅
𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀 8𝑅 𝐺𝑀
𝑣𝐴 = , 𝑣𝑃 = 2 𝑟𝑃 = ∵ 𝑣𝑃 = 2
𝐺𝑀 6𝑅 6𝑅 3 6𝑅
⇒ 𝑣𝐴2 = 𝑣𝑃2 − … (2)
2𝑅
 A particle is projected vertically upwards from the surface of the
Earth(radius 𝑅𝑒 ) with a speed equal to one fourth of escape
speed(𝑣𝑒 ).What is the maximum height attained by it above the
surface of the Earth?
Solution : From the principle of conservation of mechanical
energy,

𝐾𝐴 + 𝑈𝐴 = 𝐾𝐵 + 𝑈𝐵

1 𝐺𝑀𝑚 1 𝐺𝑀𝑚
⇒ 𝑚𝑣𝐴2 − = 𝑚 0 2
−
2 𝑅𝑒 2 𝑅

1 1 2𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚 1 1 2𝐺𝑀

⇒ 𝑚× = − ∵ 𝑣𝐴 = 𝑣𝑒 =
2 16 𝑅𝑒 𝑅𝑒 𝑅 4 4 𝑅𝑒

16
⇒𝑅= 𝑅
15 𝑒

𝑅𝑒
⇒ ℎ = 𝑅 − 𝑅𝑒 ⇒ ℎ=
15
 𝑅
There is a crater of depth on the surface of the moon (radius 𝑅). A projectile is
100
fired vertically upward from the crater with velocity, which is equal to the escape
velocity 𝑣 from the surface of the moon. Find the maximum height attained by the
T projectile.
Solution :
The projectile is fired from 𝐴 with velocity 𝑣 equal to escape velocity on surface of moon
2𝐺𝑀
𝑣𝐴 = 𝑣 =
𝑅
From the Conservation of mechanical Energy,

𝐾𝐴 + 𝑈𝐴 = 𝐾𝐵 + 𝑈𝐵

1 1
⇒ 𝑚𝑣𝐴2 − 𝑚 0 2
= 𝑚 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴
2 2
Considering moon to be a uniform solid sphere

𝑣𝐴2 2𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀 𝑅
2 2𝐺𝑀
⇒ = =− − − 3 1.5𝑅 2 − 0.5 𝑅 − ∵ 𝑣𝐴 = 𝑣 =
2 2𝑅 𝑅+ℎ 𝑅 100 𝑅

2
1 1 3 1 99
⇒ =− + −
𝑅 𝑅 + ℎ 2𝑅 2𝑅 100

10000
𝑅 + ℎ = 2𝑅 × ≈ 100.5𝑅 ⇒ ℎ ≈ 99.5𝑅
10000 − 9801
 Distance between the centers of two stars is 10𝑎. The masses of these stars are 𝑀 and
16𝑀 and their radii 𝑎 and 2𝑎, respectively. A body of mass 𝑚 is fired straight from the
surface of the larger star towards the smaller star. What should be its minimum initial
speed to reach the surface of the smaller star? Obtain the expression in terms of 𝐺, 𝑀
and 𝑎.

Solution : Body will reach the smaller sphere

when it crosses point 𝑃.

𝐺𝑀 𝐺 16𝑀
=
𝑥2 10𝑎 − 𝑥 2

𝑥 = 2𝑎 ⇒ 𝑟1 = 2𝑎 , 𝑟2 = 8𝑎

From the principle of conservation of mechanical energy,

1 2 𝐺 𝑀 𝑚 𝐺 16𝑀 𝑚 𝐺 𝑀 𝑚 𝐺 16𝑀 𝑚
𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 + − − =0+ − −
2 8𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎 8𝑎

3 5 𝐺𝑀
𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
2 𝑎
 A system of binary stars of masses 𝑚𝐴 and 𝑚𝐵 are moving in
concentric circular orbits of radii 𝑟𝐴 and 𝑟𝐵 respectively. If 𝑇𝐴 and 𝑇𝐵
T are their time periods respectively then,

Solution : When both are stars are farthest from each other, the
gravitational force on one star due to the other is equal to
centripetal force.

𝐹𝑔 = 𝐹𝐶 = 𝑚𝑟𝜔2

𝐺𝑚𝐴 𝑚𝐵 𝑚𝐴 𝑟𝐴 4𝜋 2 𝑚𝐵 𝑟𝐵 4𝜋 2
= =
𝑟𝐴 + 𝑟𝐵 2 𝑇𝐴2 𝑇𝐵2

The displacement for center of mass 𝐶 for the

system of stars will be zero

𝑚𝐴 𝑟𝐴 = 𝑚𝐵 𝑟𝐵

⇒ 𝑇𝐴 = 𝑇𝐵