Review

Electricity Theft Detection and Prevention Using

Technology-Based Models: A Systematic Literature Review
Potego Maboe Kgaphola 1 , Senyeki Milton Marebane 1, * and Robert Toyo Hans 2

1 Faculty of Information and Communication Technology, Tshwane University of Technology,

eMalahleni 1035, South Africa; [email protected]
2 Computer Science Department, Tshwane University of Technology, Soshanguve 0152, South Africa;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Electricity theft comes with various disadvantages for power utilities, governments, busi-
nesses, and the general public. This continues despite the various solutions employed to detect and
prevent it. Some of the disadvantages of electricity theft include revenue loss and load shedding,
leading to a disruption in business operations. This study aimed to conduct a systematic literature
review to identify what technology solutions have been offered to solve electricity theft and the
effectiveness of those solutions by considering peer-reviewed empirical studies. The systematic
literature review was undertaken following the guidelines for conducting a literature review in
computer science to assess potential bias. A total of 11 journal articles published from 2012 to 2022 in
SCOPUS, Science Direct, and Web of Science were analysed to reveal solutions, the type of theft
addressed, and the success and limitations of the solutions. The findings show that the focus in
research is channelled towards solving electricity theft in Smart Grids (SGs) and Advanced Metering
Infrastructure (AMI); moreover, there is a neglect in the recent literature on finding solutions that can
prevent electricity theft in countries that do not have SG and AMI installed. Although the results
reported in this study are confined to the analysed research papers, the leading limitation in the
selected studies, lack of real-life data for dishonest users. This study’s contribution is to show what
technology solutions are prevalent in solving electricity theft in recent years and the effectiveness of
such solutions.
Citation: Kgaphola, P.M.; Marebane,
S.M.; Hans, R.T. Electricity Theft Keywords: electricity theft; electricity theft detection; electricity theft prevention; systematic literature
Detection and Prevention Using review; technology solutions
Technology-Based Models: A
Systematic Literature Review.
Electricity 2024, 5, 334–350. https://
doi.org/10.3390/electricity5020017
1. Introduction
Academic Editor: Andreas Sumper Electricity theft continues to be a major challenge despite various efforts employed
Received: 14 March 2024
to detect and prevent it. According to Arkorful [1], with the exception of credit cards and
Revised: 4 May 2024
automobiles, electricity is the third most commonly stolen item in developing countries.
Accepted: 31 May 2024 Electricity theft harms the financial health of distribution companies and negatively af-
Published: 7 June 2024 fects future investments in the power sector [2]. Furthermore, Mujuzi [2], Yurtseven [3]
stated that developing countries suffer the most because of the nature of their distribution
setup, which only records consumption readings from the meter box inside a household.
Shahid, et al. [4] outlined common ways in which this theft occurs; these include line
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors. hooking, meter bypassing, and meter tempering.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. As part of ongoing efforts to reduce electricity theft, researchers have proposed several
This article is an open access article solutions to curb this challenge. Savian, et al. [5] demonstrated that various regulations had
distributed under the terms and
been placed in different countries across the globe to punish perpetrators. Other efforts,
conditions of the Creative Commons
such as awareness campaigns on electricity theft, have been explored as stated by Chetty [6].
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
Furthermore, Adongo, et al. [7] proposed a model for whistleblowing on electricity theft
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
to contribute to mitigating the challenge. Moreover, technology-based models have been
4.0/).

Electricity 2024, 5, 334–350. https://doi.org/10.3390/electricity5020017 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electricity

Electricity 2024, 5 335

explored Yan and Wen [8], Tanwar, et al. [9], Zheng, et al. [10]. Regardless of these noble
efforts to address electricity theft, Ballal, et al. [11] stated that the challenge had reached
alarming levels, as shown by the catastrophic impact that the challenge has had on people’s
lives and various economies across the world. It is on this basis that Mohanty, et al. [12],
Leninpugalhanthi, et al. [13] contend for further exploration of technology-based solutions
to curb the persistent electricity-theft phenomenon. Such research findings provide the
basis for information to develop solutions. A systematic literature review (SLR) can assist
in putting together studies that can be used for empirical studies in developing solutions.
Furthermore, SLR can serve as a springboard for future research by identifying knowledge
gaps [14]. Thus, this study performed an SLR to determine what various technology-based
solutions have been developed to address electricity theft and the effectiveness of such
solutions. To the best of our knowledge, no research work of this nature was undertaken to
address the objective achieved by this study.
This study contributes to the body of knowledge in two-folds, as follows:
(1) Firstly, it provides a holistic view and understanding of existing technology-based
solutions for electricity theft detection and prevention.
(2) Secondly, the study provides future solution providers with much-needed knowl-
edge and insights on the current solution’s capabilities and effectiveness, as well as
their shortcomings.
This study aims to answer the following research questions:
(1) What empirical studies have been performed to address electricity theft, detection,
and prevention using technology-based solutions?
(2) Which type of publication and publisher’s focuses on technology-based electricity
theft detection and prevention methods?
(3) How effective have the proposed/designed solutions been (what are their success
and shortcomings)?

2. Literature Review
2.1. The Impact of Electricity Theft on Society
Electricity theft occurs when electricity is used up directly from distribution utilities
in an un-metered or illegal way [15]. This includes the meter being made to record low
consumption or being made to stop working, referred to as meter bypassing [16]. Another
common method of electricity theft, as outlined by Bhalshankar and Thorat [17], is widely
known as line or cable hooking, whereby perpetrators tap into the power line just before
the distribution box to steal electricity. Furthermore, another common method of stealing
electricity is manipulating the electricity bill by tempering with the meter box circuitry;
this is known as meter tempering [18]. These types of theft are a global challenge, but the
extent to which each type of theft is done depends on the electricity infrastructure of a
particular country. This is to say, one type of theft can be prevalent in one country but not
so in another.
The theft of electricity has seen governments and state utilities for electricity suffer
billions of dollars in revenue loss across the world [19]. Additionally, Mujuzi [2] reported
that damage has been done to the power grid, and substations have become overloaded.
This becomes frustrating to citizens in affected areas, as they have to deal with unexpected
power outages. Countries such as South Africa and Pakistan resort to load shedding in a
bid to save electricity [19]. As a result, some businesses lost revenue during this period,
while others ceased to operate [6]. Moreover, this challenge affects social lives, disturbs
government service delivery, increases criminality, and inhibits the delivery of education
and health services. For example, in terms of health, Gehringer, et al. [20] alluded that
hospital operations have been negatively affected by load-shedding. As a result, hospitals
are constrained from delivering primary health services, and in case of no alternative power
supplies, loss of life is unavoidable because doctors are not able to perform critical and
life-saving surgeries on patients [21]. Furthermore, this challenge can lead to poverty if the
deceased was the only one who was able to provide for their family.
Electricity 2024, 5 336

2.2. Electricity Theft Prevention Solutions

To address the challenge of electricity theft, various solutions have been explored by
power utilities, governments, and researchers. The following discussion explores different
solutions found in the literature.
Electricity theft stems from socio-economic and behavioural factors that require socio-
technological solutions, as recommended by Saini [22]. However, Yurtseven [3] argues that
prevention should happen before the actual theft; in other words, dealing with consumer
behavioural and socio-economic factors might reduce the need to implement engineering
and technology-based solutions. Saini [22], Depuru, et al. [23], Yakubu, et al. [24] added
that some of the contributing behavioural and socio-economic factors include lower literacy
levels, unemployment, corrupt politicians, poor economic conditions of consumers, and
weak control systems. Some of these factors could be mitigated if communities were to
treat the electricity infrastructure as part of their property and encourage others to get
electricity through legal means.
Conventional ways to detect and prevent electricity theft that have been applied
include awareness campaigns, conducting physical inspections, disconnecting dishonest
users from the grid, and whistleblowing [1,25,26]. It is worth noting that conventional
methods are subject to socio-economic factors affecting the consumers; hence, campaigns
involve dedicated programmes that encourage communities to join the movement for
legitimate power use and seek to influence voluntary behaviour in a sustainable way [27].
Furthermore, Shokoya and Raji [28] added that the Energy Losses Management Programme
(ELP), a countrywide campaign launched in 2006 by Eskom, a state utility in South Africa,
is directed at educating the public about the issue of electricity theft in the country. They
further alluded that making those responsible face justice has successfully reduced elec-
tricity theft from 7.12% to 6.43% between 2013 and 2016. This shows that the punishing
offenders plays a psychological role in influencing individuals to abstain from illegally
consuming electricity.
Other efforts and strategies include meter auditing, disabling unauthorised connec-
tions, looking into theft incidents, collecting tamper fines, and replacing defective meters.
Efforts have been made to educate customers to use electricity legally, safely, responsibly,
and efficiently, encouraging the public to report electricity-theft suspects, and focusing on
high-profile areas [28]. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that a participatory method
in which residents are directly involved by supplying local intelligence is one social channel
through which behavioural changes can develop and become effective in combating energy
theft [6]. Exploring informal reporting possibilities, such as whistleblowing, becomes
critical in this regard.
In countries like South Africa, the IOL [29] reported that communities become hostile
to electrical technicians who disconnect them from the grid, and such hostilities result in
damage to the electricity supplier’s vehicles and equipment. Furthermore, when discon-
nected, the consumers reconnect immediately after the technician leaves. This behaviour
leads to honest users becoming dishonest, as they do not see value in paying for services
that others are illegally getting for free.
Governments are also playing a role in combating electricity theft by placing regu-
lations and subsidising electricity [30]. For instance, Turkey’s Energy Market Law No.
4628, as revised by Electricity Market Law No. 6446, was enacted in 2001 and paved the
way for a free market in the nation’s electricity generation and delivery. It established a
regulatory body with authority to establish energy prices, provide licenses, and prevent
anti-competitive behaviour [5]. Furthermore, governments applied regulatory measures
to punish perpetrators. This is demonstrated by Savian, Siluk, Garlet, do Nascimento,
Pinheiro and Vale [5] when they allude to the fact that a person who uses deceptive means
to interrupt or change the public electrical service in Lebanon faces up to six months in
prison and a fine. However, in other developing countries, electricity theft is not treated as
a criminal offence, rendering the regulations ineffective [2]. Nonetheless, Yakubu, Babu C
and Adjei [24] argue that the high cost of electricity and the subpar quality of the electricity
Electricity 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW 4

Electricity 2024, 5 fine. However, in other developing countries, electricity theft is not treated as a criminal
337
offence, rendering the regulations ineffective [2]. Nonetheless, Yakubu, Babu C and Adjei
[24] argue that the high cost of electricity and the subpar quality of the electricity provided
in developing countries should be considered while developing policies to combat elec-
provided in developing countries should be considered while developing policies to combat
tricity theft. In agreement with the previous statement, policy makers should take into
electricity theft. In agreement with the previous statement, policy makers should take into
account the
account the unemployment
unemployment and and poverty
poverty rate rate in
in developing
developing countries
countries to to accommodate
accommodate
those who are disadvantaged.
those who are disadvantaged.
Other efforts,
Other efforts, such
such asas subsidies
subsidiesforforelectricity,
electricity,have
havebeen
beenimplemented.
implemented.ToTosubsidise
subsidise a
a significant portion of the capital expenditures of electrical connections
significant portion of the capital expenditures of electrical connections under the electrifi- under the electri-
ficationprogram,
cation program,the thegovernment
governmentofofSouth SouthAfrica
Africaestablished
established thethe National
National Electrification
Electrification
Fund (NEF). The NEF receives funds from a variety of sources, including
Fund (NEF). The NEF receives funds from a variety of sources, including grants, budgetary grants, budget-
ary allocations, and the electrical sector [31]. Subsidizing alters attitudes
allocations, and the electrical sector [31]. Subsidizing alters attitudes toward legitimacy toward legiti-
macy and affordability, which eventually promotes inclusiveness
and affordability, which eventually promotes inclusiveness and adherence to the official and adherence to the
official framework for electricity
framework for electricity use [32]. use [32].
The development
The development and andinstallation
installationofofSmartSmartGirds
Girds(SGs)
(SGs)and andAdvanced
Advanced Metering
MeteringIn-
frastructure (AMI)
Infrastructure (AMI) in in
thethesupply of electricity
supply havehave
of electricity given rise to
given risethetoapplication of tech-
the application of
nology-based solutions in addressing the issue of electricity theft.
technology-based solutions in addressing the issue of electricity theft. Such technology-Such technology-based
solutions
based includeinclude
solutions the application of the Internet
the application of Things
of the Internet of(IoT),
Things the(IoT),
application of machine
the application of
learning (ML) and Artificial Intelligence (AI), and the use of data analytics
machine learning (ML) and Artificial Intelligence (AI), and the use of data analytics [33,34]. [33,34].
The theft of electricity is a topic that is treated more technically in literature. As such,
numerous initiatives
numerous initiatives are being implemented
implemented worldwide
worldwide to achieve a decrease in electricity
theft. For example, Yakubu and Babu. [35] developed a hybrid ML model based on DFT
decomposition for
decomposition forforecasting
forecastingmostmosttime-series
time-series challenges,
challenges, andand Munikoti
Munikoti et[36]
et al. al. [36] ap-
applied
plied
the the voltage
voltage sensitivity
sensitivity analysis
analysis (VSA) (VSA) to develop
to develop a model
a model thatthat enables
enables thethe analysis
analysis of
voltage change
of voltage stochastically,
change usingusing
stochastically, low computational
low computational resources. In VSA,Insensitive
resources. voltage
VSA, sensitive
levels
voltage are compared
levels to variations
are compared in systeminparameters
to variations like generation,
system parameters load, or network
like generation, load, or
topology at different
network topology at points
different in points
the electrical grid.
in the electrical grid.
From the preceding discussion, the solutions can be classified under three three categories,
categories,
namely conventional,
conventional, government-enabled, and technology-based solutions.
technology-based solutions. Figure Figure 1
summarizes the identified solutions.

Figure 1. Summary of electricity theft solutions.

Figure 1. Summary of electricity theft solutions.

3. Methodology
PreferredItems
The Preferred Items for Reporting
for Reporting for Systematic
for Systematic ReviewsReviews and Meta-Analysis
and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA)
(PRISMA)was
statement statement was
followed infollowed in the development
the development of thisreview,
of this systematic systematic review, as rec-
as recommended by
ommended
Page by Page et al. [37].
et al. [37].
study used
This study usedaasystematic
systematicliterature
literaturereview
reviewtotofulfil
fulfil
itsits research
research objective.
objective. Accord-
According
to Xiao and Watson [38], an SLR approach consists of six steps known as
ing to Xiao and Watson [38], an SLR approach consists of six steps known as systematic systematic review
protocol, and these
review protocol, arethese
and the formulation of research
are the formulation ofproblem
researchand corresponding
problem questions,
and corresponding
article-search plan, selection criteria, quality assessment criteria, data extraction process,
and data extraction and synthesis process. Figure 2 depicts a diagrammatic summary of the
Electricity 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEW 5

Electricity 2024, 5 338

questions, article-search plan, selection criteria, quality assessment criteria, data extrac-
tion process, and data extraction and synthesis process. Figure 2 depicts a diagrammatic
summary of the six steps. The subsections below present a discussion on how each step
six steps. The subsections below present a discussion on how each step was implemented
Electricity 2024, 5, FOR PEER REVIEWwas 5
implemented by the study.
by the study.

questions, article-search plan, selection criteria, quality assessment criteria, data extrac-
tion process, and data extraction and synthesis process. Figure 2 depicts a diagrammatic
summary of the six steps. The subsections below present a discussion on how each step
was implemented by the study.

Figure
Figure 2. SLR
SLR protocol.
protocol.

3.1. Search
3.1. Search for
for Empirical
Empirical Studies
Studies
Three electronic
Three electronic databases
databases werewere selected
selected forfor this
this study,
study, SCOPUS,
SCOPUS, Science
Science Direct,
Direct, and
and
Web of Science, because of the vast number of journals they have
Web of Science, because of the vast number of journals they have from major reputable from major reputable
publishers. This
publishers. This study
study considered
considered journal
journal articles
articles only
only because
because they
they are
are the
the backbone
backbone of of
academic
Figure
academic2. SLRresearch [39,40]. Search
protocol.
research [39,40]. Search strings
strings used
used include
include electricity
electricity theft
theft (including
(including detection
detection
and/or prevention) and synonyms for electricity (power and energy)
and/or prevention) and synonyms for electricity (power and energy) and theft (fraud). and theft (fraud). The
combination
3.1. Search for of the following
Empirical Studies keywords was used to retrieve relevant
The combination of the following keywords was used to retrieve relevant empirical stud- empirical studies from
the abovementioned databases: (“Electricity” OR “Power” OR “Energy”) AND (“theft OR
ies from
Three the abovementioned
electronic databasesdatabases:
were selected(“Electricity” OR “Power”
for this study, SCOPUS,OR “Energy”)
Science Direct,AND and
“fraud”) AND “detection” OR (“detection” AND “prevention”). The search string terms
(“theft OR “fraud”) AND “detection” OR (“detection” AND “prevention”).
Web of Science, because of the vast number of journals they have from major reputable The search
were customized according to the individual needs and syntax of the individual databases.
string termsThis
publishers. were customized
study consideredaccording
journaltoarticles
the individual needs
only because andare
they syntax of the indi-
the backbone of
The database searches, as depicted in Table 1, were conducted in May 2022 and re-
vidual databases.
academic research [39,40]. Search strings used include electricity theft (including detection
turned a total of 1017 (111 from Science Direct, 289 from Web of Science and 617 from
and/or The database searches,
prevention) as depicted
and synonyms in Table 1,
for electricity were conducted
(power and energy) in and
Maytheft
2022(fraud).
and re-
SCOPUS) articles, inclusive of duplicates, that were published between 2012 and 2022.
turned
The a total of of
combination 1017
the(111 from Science
following keywords Direct, 289 from
was used Web of
to retrieve Scienceempirical
relevant and 617 stud-
from
Mendeley, one of the popular reference management tools, was used to filter out duplicate
SCOPUS) articles, inclusive of duplicates, that were published
ies from the abovementioned databases: (“Electricity” OR “Power” OR “Energy”) AND between 2012 and 2022.
articles. After the removal of duplicate articles, 622 articles remained for further analy-
Mendeley,
(“theft OR one of theAND
“fraud”) popular reference OR
“detection” management
(“detection” tools,
ANDwas“prevention”).
used to filter out Theduplicate
search
sis. Of these, 281 were removed based on the title screening process, while 341 of them
articles.
string Afterwere
terms the removal
customized of duplicate
according articles,
to the 622 articles needs
individual remainedand for further
syntax of analysis.
the indi-
were retained for further screening. The abstract screening process resulted in 24 articles
Of these,
vidual 281 were removed based on the title screening process, while 341 of them were
databases.
considered for inclusion. These articles also met the full selection criteria shown in Figure 3.
retained
The for furthersearches,
database screening. The abstract
as depicted screening
in Table 1, wereprocess resulted
conducted in 242022
in May articles
andcon-re-
sidered
turned for inclusion.
Table 1.aDatabase
total of search These
1017 (111 articles also met the full selection criteria shown
from Science Direct, 289 from Web of Science and 617 from
results. in Figure 3.
SCOPUS) articles, inclusive of duplicates, that were published between 2012 and 2022.
SearchMendeley,
Strings one of the popular reference
Articles management tools, was used to filter out duplicate
Returned per Database
articles. After the removal of duplicate articles,
Science Direct 622 articles remained
Web of Science for further
SCOPUS analysis.
TOTAL
Of these, 281 were removed based on the title screening process, while 341 of them were
(“Electricity” OR “Power” OR “Energy”) AND (“theft OR
retained for further screening. The 111 abstract screening 289 process resulted 617 in 24 articles
1017 con-
“fraud”) AND “detection” OR (“detection” AND “prevention”)
sidered for inclusion. These articles also met the full selection criteria shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Full selection criteria.

Figure
Figure3.
3.Full
Fullselection
selectioncriteria.
criteria.
Electricity 2024, 5 339

3.2. Quality Assessment of Articles

The remaining 24 articles were quality assessed using the assessment criteria (see
Table 2) extracted from the guidelines suggested by Kitchenham and Charters [41]. The
results of this process are summarised in Table 3. Of the 24 articles assessed, 17 articles
were empirical studies, and 7 were survey studies. The following scoring criteria were
used in the assessment process: An article was allocated a score of 1, denoted by “Y” for
meeting a quality criterion, and 0 denoted by “N” for failing to meet an assessment criterion.
Only 11 articles met all the quality assessment criteria, and, therefore, these articles were
considered for data extraction. Using the 11 articles, forward and backward reference
searches were performed, and 5 relevant articles were identified. However, the full text
of the 5 articles could not be located, and, therefore, they were excluded based on the
inclusion/exclusion criteria.

Table 2. Quality assessment criteria.

Quality Assessment Criteria

Q1. Is the study empirical?
Q2. Is the research method clearly defined (data collection and analysis)?
Q3. Are the study’s objectives clearly stated and addressed?
Q4. Is there a clear link between data analysis and the study findings that lead to a sound conclusion?

Table 3. Quality assessment criteria results [11,19,25,42–62].

# Author(s) Year Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Total

1 Abdulaal et al. [50] 2022 Y Y Y Y 4
2 Arif et al. [52] 2022 Y Y Y Y 4
3 Ibrahim et al. [53] 2021 Y Y Y Y 4
4 Jain et al. [54] 2019 Y Y Y Y 4
5 Javaid et al. [55] 2021 Y Y Y Y 4
6 Lepolesa et al. [56] 2022 Y Y Y Y 4
7 Li et al. [57] 2019 Y Y Y Y 4
8 Micheli et al. [58] 2019 Y Y Y Y 4
9 Shaaban et al. [59] 2021 Y Y Y Y 4
10 Ullah at al. [60] 2021 Y Y Y Y 4
11 Zheng et al. [61] 2018 Y Y Y Y 4
12 Jindal et al. [62] 2016 Y N Y Y 3
13 Ahmed et al. [51] 2022 N Y Y Y 3
14 Althobaiti et al. [25] 2021 N Y Y Y 3
15 Dash et al. [49] 2021 N Y Y Y 3
16 Glauner et al. [48] 2017 N Y Y Y 3
17 Gupta et al. [47] 2020 N Y Y Y 3
18 Takiddin [46] 2021 N Y Y Y 3
29 Xia et al. [45] 2022 N Y Y Y 3
20 Afridi et al. [19] 2021 Y N Y N 2
21 Ballal [44] 2021 Y N Y N 2
22 Ballal et al. [11] 2020 Y N Y N 2
23 Wisetsri et al. [43] 2022 Y N N N 1
24 Yao et al. [42] 2019 Y N N N 1

According to Xiao and Watson [38], a review protocol is vital for reducing potential
bias by the researcher, and it should cover all aspects of a review. Figure 2 shows the review
protocol for this study, covering the aforementioned guidelines and process steps for an SLR.
The protocol was developed by one author (P.M.K) and validated by the other two authors
(S.M.M and R.T.H). Furthermore, to alleviate potential bias, the authors followed quality
assessment guidelines proposed by Kitchenham and Charters [41].
Electricity 2024, 5 340

3.3. Data Extraction and Synthesis of Results

Data were extracted from 11 articles selected based on the selection process shown in
Figure 4. The sorting of articles for data extraction was performed using JabRef (Version
5.13), which is an open-source reference manager, and the extracted data were organized
and stored in Microsoft Excel (Version 16.0) by the first author (P.M.K.) and verified by the
second author (S.M.M.). The data extracted include the author, year of publication, title of
the study, publisher, type of electricity theft addressed, proposed solution, detection and
prevention technology used, and results of the study.

Figure 4. Article search and selection process.

The information extracted was combined to answer the study’s research questions.
The information shown in Table 4 shows the extracted data from the 11 selected articles.
The information helps address the study’s Questions 1 and 2, which assess what research
has been performed on the topic and where the studies have been published, respectively.
The information in Table 5, on the other hand, seeks to answer Question 3, which assesses
the effectiveness of the proposed solutions by showing the performance measures of the
solutions and results of the studies.

Table 4. Identified studies for electricity theft, detection, and prevention.

Study
Author(s) Title Publication Publisher
ID
Abdulaal, Ibrahem, “Real-Time Detection of
Institute of Electrical and
Mahmoud, Khalid, False Readings in Smart Grid
Journal (IEEE Access) Electronics Engineers Inc.: A
Aljohani, Milyani and AMI Using Deep and
Piscataway, NJ, United States
Abusorrah [50] Ensemble Learning”
“Towards Efficient Energy
Arif, Alghamdi, Khan Utilization Using Big Data Journal (Big Data Elsevier Inc.: Amsterdam,
B
and Javaid [52] Analytics in Smart Cities for Research) The Netherlands
Electricity Theft Detection”
“Electricity-theft detection in Journal (Bulletin of Institute of Advanced
Ibrahim, Al-Janabi
Smart Grids based on deep Electrical Engineering Engineering and Science: C
and Al-Khateeb [53]
learning” and Informatics) Yogyakarta City, Indonesia
Electricity 2024, 5 341

Table 4. Cont.

Study
Author(s) Title Publication Publisher
ID
“Rule-based classification of
Institution of Engineering
Jain, Choksi and energy theft and anomalies Journal (IET Smart
and Technology: Lucknow, D
Pindoriya [54] in consumers load demand Grid)
India
profile”
“An adaptive synthesis to
handle imbalanced big data Journal (Journal of Academic Press Inc.:
Javaid, Jan and Javed
with deep Siamese network Parallel and Distributed Cambridge, MA, United E
[55]
for electricity theft detection Computing) States
in smart grids”
Institute of Electrical and
Lepolesa, Achari and
S Journal (IEEE Access) Electronics Engineers Inc.: F
Cheng [56]
Piscataway, NJ, United States
“Electricity Theft Detection
Journal (Journal of
Li, Han, Yao, Yingchen, in Power Grids with Deep Hindawi Limited: London,
Electrical and Computer G
Wang and Zhao [57] Learning and Random United Kingdom
Engineering)
Forests”
Micheli, Soda, “Big data analytics: an aid to
Journal (Computational Springer Verlag: Berlin,
Vespucci, Gobbi and detection of non-technical H
Management Science) Germany
Bertani [58] losses in power utilities”
“Data-Driven Detection of
Shaaban, Tariq, Ismail, Institute of Electrical and
Electricity Theft Journal (IEEE Systems
Almadani and Electronics Engineers Inc.: I
Cyberattacks in PV Journal)
Mokhtar [59] Piscataway, NJ, United States
Generation”
“A Hybrid Deep Neural
Ullah, Javaid, Yahaya, Network for Electricity Theft Journal (Wireless
Hindawi Limited: London,
Sultana, Al-Zahrani Detection Using Intelligent Communications and J
United Kingdom
and Zaman [60] Antenna-Based Smart Mobile Computing)
Meters”
“Wide and Deep
Convolutional Neural Journal (IEEE
Zheng, Yang, Niu, Dai IEEE Computer Society:
Networks for Transactions on K
and Zhou [61] London, United Kingdom
Electricity-Theft Detection to Industrial Informatics)
Secure Smart Grids”

Synthesizing data includes organizing and summarizing the results of the empirical
studies included in the systematic review [41]. Therefore, the technologies used for the
proposed solutions included in the review are summarized into categories, as displayed
in Table 5. This study applied a descriptive synthesis to answer research Question 1 of
this study.
Electricity 2024, 5 342

Table 5. Technology based solutions for electricity theft detection and prevention.

Study
Proposed Solution Dataset + Performance Measurement + Results Technology Used Category
ID
Reference Energy Disaggregation Dataset (REDD): The dataset comprises of
real consumption readings from honest users recorded at one-minute intervals.
The authors generated a new dataset using 10-min intervals for training their
Ensemble-based deep-learning detector that enables model.
A the System Operator to detect false readings in real Confusion matrix (False Alarm): Gated Recurrent Unit (GRU) Classification
time. The detector (equipped with GRU and a fully connected neural network) was
able to identify false readings after only about 15 readings, which is
significantly fewer than what is required by daily detection methods
(144 readings) or weekly detection methods (1008 readings).
State Grid Cooperation of China (SGCC) dataset: is labelled and consists of
honest and fraudulent consumption data recorded over a period of 3 years on
a daily basis (has imbalanced data).
Pakistan Residential Electricity Consumption (PRECON) dataset:
Tomek Link Borderline Synthetic Minority
consumption data of 43 users recorded every minute over a period of a year
Oversampling Technique with Support Vector Temporal Convolutional Network
(contains consumption and auxiliary data). The data was converted to one day
B Machine and Temporal Convolutional Network with (TCN) + Enhanced Multi-Layer Classification
intervals for training the model.
Enhanced Multi-Layer Perceptron electricity theft Perceptron (EMLP)
AUC:
detection.
The TCN-EMPL model obtained a higher AUC (83%) reading in low
computational resources when compared with other deep learning models
such as MLP combined with LSTM (82%—second best). After using auxiliary
data, the model improved by 2%.
SGCC dataset: The authors filled the missing data with zero values for
training their model.
A convolutional neural network (CNN) model for Accuracy:
C CNN + BM Classification
automatic electricity theft detection. In terms of reducing features to improve performance, the authors applied the
blue monkey (BM) algorithm that reduced the number of features from 1035 to
666 and obtained an accuracy score of 92%.
Dataset: The dataset utilized in this study belongs to Gujarat Urja Vikas
Nigam Limited. It is made up of 15-min interval consumption recordings over
a period of a year.
Rule-based classification of energy theft and Hierarchical Clustering + Decision Clustering +
D Accuracy + FPR +Recall + Precision + F1-Score:
anomalies in consumers’ load demand profile. Tree (DT) + Classification
The proposed model addresses user privacy by only using consumer
consumption patterns and low sampling rate, while adequately predicting
electricity theft.
Electricity 2024, 5 343

Table 5. Cont.

Study
Proposed Solution Dataset + Performance Measurement + Results Technology Used Category
ID
SGCC dataset: The authors used recommended metrics such as AUC and
mAP to understand the imbalanced data.
AUC + MAP:
An adaptive synthesis to handle imbalanced big data The combination of CNN-LSTM and DSN outperforms benchmark methods Adaptive Synthesis + CNN + Long
E with a deep Siamese network for electricity theft such as LR, SVM, RF, etc., in terms of AUC and mean average precision (MAP). Short-Term Memory (LSTM) + Deep Classification
detection in Smart Grids The model reached the score of 90% for MAP and 93% for AUC, Siamese Network (DSN)
outperforming the benchmark methods who fall in the 70% range and below.
This model proved to a better classifier of honest and fraudulent electricity
users.
SGCC dataset: Data interpolation methods were used to fill out missing and
zero values from the dataset.
Theft detection method, which uses comprehensive
Accuracy + AUC:
F features in time and frequency domains in a deep Deep Neural Network (DNN) Classification
Compared to models in other studies using the same dataset, the proposed
neural network-based classification
model reached 91.8% accuracy (second best) and 97% AUC. The model detects
electricity theft slightly better (1%) than others in literature.
Electric Ireland and Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland (SEAI) dataset:
smart meter data recorded in 30 min intervals over 525 days. one-hour interval
data were generated for training the model.
Low-Carbon London (LCL) dataset: consumption readings over a period of
A novel hybrid convolutional neural
525 days. The authors used one-hour sampling rate.
G network-random forest (CNN-RF) model for CNN + Random Forest (RF) Classification
AUC:
automatic electricity theft detection.
Classifiers such as SVM, RF, and GBDT were created and compared to
CNN-RF on the same two datasets for electricity theft detection. The CNN-RF
model achieved an AUC of 99% and 97% on datasets one and two, respectively,
while the runner-up model scored 98% and 96% for the different datasets.
Dataset: References a utility database with 96 days’ worth of consumption
readings recorded in 15 min’ intervals.
An AMI intrusion detection system that uses Accuracy + Sensitivity + Specificity:
information fusion to combine the sensors and –In case of incomplete data from meter readings; the proposed multi-linear
H Multiple Linear Regression Regression
consumption data from a smart meter to accurately regression model outperforms classification models in terms of detecting
detect energy theft. fraudulent users. The model reached 100% accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity
when using a very big dataset; for lower dataset sizes, the model prediction is
in the 80% range.
Electricity 2024, 5 344

Table 5. Cont.

Study
Proposed Solution Dataset + Performance Measurement + Results Technology Used Category
ID
Dataset: generated from historical records of temperature and solar irradiance
data.
Sensitivity + Specificity + Precision + Negative Predictive Value (NPV) +
A data-driven approach based on machine learning Accuracy + False Alarm:
I Regression Tree Regression
to detect electricity thefts. The TDU detects cyber-attacks in distributed generators. When compared
with SVM, ARIMA, and LSE detectors in the same context. ARIMA and SVM
performed better in terms of NPV and Sensitivity whereas the TDU
outperformed them in the other metrics.
SGCC dataset: The authors used SMOTE to balance data.
AUC + Accuracy + F1-Score + Recall + Precision
Several models were trained to resolve data imbalance when predicting
A hybrid deep neural network, which combines
electricity theft. The CNN-GRU-PSO model was tested against SVM, LR, CNN + GRU + Particle swarm
J convolutional neural network, particle swarm Classification
LSTM, CNN-LSTM, and CNN-GRU. SVM was 1% higher than the proposed optimization (PSO)
optimization, and gated recurrent unit.
CNN-GRU-PSO model in terms of accuracy (94%). The proposed model
outperformed all the other models in all the remaining performance matrices
recording 94% for Precision and F1-Score, and 95% for Recall and AUC.
SGCC dataset: The dataset was balanced using data interpolation. Data were
analysed using one-week intervals.
A novel electricity-theft detection method based on AUC + MAP:
K wide and deep convolutional neural networks Detects the periodic patterns of electricity consumption and non-periodic Wide and deep CNN Classification
(CNN). consumption to classify dishonest (non-periodic) and honest (periodic) users
of electricity. For this challenge, the proposed model outperformed LR, SVM,
RF, and CNN in predicting electricity theft.
Electricity 2024, 5 345

4. Results and Discussion

A database search was conducted on SCOPUS, Science Direct, and Web of Science
which resulted in 1017 articles spanning from 2012 to 2022. The screening process resulted
in the removal of 395 duplicate articles and the exclusion of 281 articles based on title,
256 based on abstract, 53 based on irrelevant content, 8 based on full text not available, and
13 failing to meet the quality criteria. Eleven articles met all quality assessment criteria
and were considered for data extraction. Additionally, through forward and backward
reference searches, five relevant articles were identified, but full texts could not be located,
resulting in their exclusion.
The discussions in the following subsections aim to present insight into the study’s
results and findings. Section 4.1 discusses the research results regarding empirical studies
that address electricity theft detection and prevention using technology. It further provides
information on where such studies have been published. Therefore, the first subsection
presents information and findings which fulfil the first two objectives of the study, namely
to identify empirical studies that have been performed to address electricity theft, detection,
and prevention using technology-based solutions; and to identify which journals and
publishers focus on technology-based electricity theft, detection, and prevention methods.
Section 4.2 discusses the study’s research results, addressing the following research objec-
tive: to determine how effective the proposed/designed solutions have been (determination
of their success and shortcomings).

4.1. Existence of Empirical Studies to Address Electricity-Related Problems

The information presented in Tables 3–5 shows that many countries have adopted the
use of SG and AMI to combat the challenge of electricity theft. This finding agrees with
the observation made by Otuoze, et al. [63], who state that SG has become the prevalent
solution in combating electricity theft. Furthermore, SG and AMI offer benefits such as
the generation of electricity bills by a central processing unit and the detection of meter
tempering. As such, studies by Ibrahim, Al-Janabi and Al-Khateeb [53], Li, Han, Yao,
Yingchen, Wang and Zhao [57], Micheli, Soda, Vespucci, Gobbi and Bertani [58] are focused
on finding solutions for detecting and preventing illegal electricity consumption by means
of manipulating consumption readings (meter bypassing) because SG and AMI do not offer
such functionality. However, SG and AMI have sum check meters which are designed to
track the overall energy input into a particular segment of the grid. They then compare
the energy input with the total energy consumption measured by individual consumer
meters within that segment. The information from sum check meters can be used as ground
truth to validate data-processing algorithms’ ability to detect actual electricity theft, as
implemented by Micheli, Soda, Vespucci, Gobbi and Bertani [58], Shaaban, Tariq, Ismail,
Almadani and Mokhtar [59]. However, this technique has been neglected by the majority of
the selected studies. Data-processing algorithms detect electricity theft through analysing
consumption patterns and anomalies to classify potential theft.
Moreover, this study observed that machine learning (ML), deep learning, and big
data analytics are prevalent technology methods for detecting meter bypassing in SG and
AMI. The proposed models in the selected studies employ classification, regression, and
clustering techniques to differentiate between fraudulent and honest users. It is further
observed that classification is the most preferred method for detecting electricity theft,
as shown in Table 5. However, using a single classification method is not sufficient to
produce satisfactory results, and, therefore, a combination of these techniques has been
used by Abdulaal, Ibrahem, Mahmoud, Khalid, Aljohani, Milyani and Abusorrah [50],
Arif, Alghamdi, Khan and Javaid [52], Javaid, Jan and Javed [55], Li, Han, Yao, Yingchen,
Wang and Zhao [57], Ullah, Javaid, Yahaya, Sultana, Al-Zahrani and Zaman [60] to better
detect electricity theft. Furthermore, the authors Shaaban, Tariq, Ismail, Almadani and
Mokhtar [59] have successfully applied regression and clustering techniques to detect and
prevent electricity theft in SG and AMI. This study further discovered that a majority of the
journals that address the issue at hand are from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Electricity 2024, 5 346

Engineers (IEEE). However, the lack of publications of non-SG and AMI studies in detecting
and preventing electricity theft in the past decade points to the need to investigate suitable
mechanisms to deploy in countries that do not have SG and AMI. On the contrary, this
may suggest a potential bias in journals and publication houses in regard to accepting and
publishing studies of such a nature.
The next discussion is on the effectiveness of the existing technological solutions in
addressing electricity theft detection and prevention. The proposed solutions in the listed
studies are grouped according to their categories: classification models, classification with
clustering models, and regression models.

4.2. The Effectiveness of the Existing Solutions in Addressing Electricity-Related Problems

4.2.1. Classification Models
The research results of this study show that machine-learning classification models
are a more efficient way to separate fraudulent consumption of electricity from honest
consumption, as stipulated in Table 5. These findings are drawn from studies by Abdulaal,
Ibrahem, Mahmoud, Khalid, Aljohani, Milyani and Abusorrah [50], Arif, Alghamdi, Khan
and Javaid [52], Ibrahim, Al-Janabi and Al-Khateeb [53], Javaid, Jan and Javed [55], Lep-
olesa, Achari and Cheng [56], Li, Han, Yao, Yingchen, Wang and Zhao [57], Ullah, Javaid,
Yahaya, Sultana, Al-Zahrani and Zaman [60], Zheng, Yang, Niu, Dai and Zhou [61], Huang
and Xu [64], who have all applied classification techniques to detect electricity theft. Of the
applied classification techniques, CNN is the most used. The benefit of using CNN is its
autonomous ability to detect important features, and also it is friendly to computational
requirements of the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and Random Access Memory (RAM), as
indicated by Javaid, Jan and Javed [55]. Nonetheless, this study discussed how CNN alone
does not provide optimal classification results; it is, therefore, no surprise that studies by
Abdulaal, Ibrahem, Mahmoud, Khalid, Aljohani, Milyani and Abusorrah [50], Javaid, Jan
and Javed [55], Li, Han, Yao, Yingchen, Wang and Zhao [57], Ullah, Javaid, Yahaya, Sultana,
Al-Zahrani and Zaman [60] combined CNN with other classification techniques to produce
models with better prediction accuracy for the detection of electricity theft.
The performance of the classification models was largely measured using AUC, fol-
lowed by accuracy metrics. Based on these findings, one might assume that using both
metrics to measure the performance of a classification model will give an advantage in
prediction accuracy over using them separately. However, the findings of this study (see
Table 5) show that selecting a good combination of ML algorithms is the factor that gives
one model an advantage over the other in terms of prediction accuracy. Furthermore, from
the selected studies, classification models that were combined with CNN show to have
AUC and accuracy readings above 90%.
While reducing the frequency of recordings (sampling rate) can affect the ability of
a model to predict accurately, authors such as [50,61,65] carefully considered the trade-
offs between data resolution and prediction accuracy to produce models that performed
satisfactory regardless of the reduced sampling rate. Moreover, reducing the sampling rate
may also help in identifying the periodicity of the data which may be difficult to identify
when data are recorded in short intervals, as seen in [61]. Furthermore, being able to apply
feature reduction techniques that are best suited for your dataset and ML algorithm(s) is
pivotal in terms of increasing the detection rate of your model. These techniques include
the blue monkey algorithm and Minimum Redundancy Maximum Relevance, as displayed
in studies by [53,56]. However, computational resources play a big role in determining the
response time of ML models.

4.2.2. Classification with Clustering Models

In agreement with Saeed, et al. [66], the evaluation of the selected articles shows that
clustering techniques are good for reducing the amount of processing needed for classi-
fication because they excel at grouping similar users of different consumption patterns.
Moreover, clustering offers benefits such as low-sampling rates and minimal usage of meta-
Electricity 2024, 5 347

data and communication layer, which afforded researchers Jain, Choksi and Pindoriya [54]
the flexibility to create a model that protect user privacy. However, it is worth noting that
clustering techniques are not favourable for pinpointing electricity thieves because of their
inability to produce deep insight into fraudulent users. These findings are in sync with the
declarations of Savian, Siluk, Garlet, do Nascimento, Pinheiro and Vale [5]. Thus, clustering
techniques have been used with other techniques to detect electricity theft in AMI.

4.2.3. Regression Models

With regards to regression models, the selected studies show that regression models
perform satisfactorily irrespective of the size of data used; hence, Micheli, Soda, Vespucci,
Gobbi and Bertani [58] model leveraged the strength of the regression technique by outper-
forming data mining models in terms of identifying electricity theft even when analysing a
small dataset. Furthermore, regression models are good when used to predict continuous
data; hence, Shaaban, Tariq, Ismail, Almadani and Mokhtar [59] used a regression tree
to detect electricity theft performed in the distributed generation domain as opposed to
detecting theft from the consumption domain. Accuracy, specificity, and sensitivity were
the common metrics that were used for determining the performance of regression models.
The common limitation amongst the included studies is a lack of fraudulent user
data, which affects the ability of the models to detect theft in complex real-life situations,
as reported by Jain, Choksi and Pindoriya [54], Shaaban, Tariq, Ismail, Almadani and
Mokhtar [59], Ullah, Javaid, Yahaya, Sultana, Al-Zahrani and Zaman [60]. Other limitations
include the lack of adequate computing power, which limits the model’s ability to analyse
fine details of the data, as reported by [52]. Further limitations include theft detection
not being performed in real time, and the neglect of data privacy. Furthermore, a notable
portion of the selected studies, including those by Abdulaal, Ibrahem, Mahmoud, Khalid,
Aljohani, Milyani and Abusorrah [50], Ibrahim, Al-Janabi and Al-Khateeb [53], Javaid, Jan
and Javed [55], Micheli, Soda, Vespucci, Gobbi and Bertani [58], Zheng, Yang, Niu, Dai and
Zhou [61], have not reported their limitations.

5. Conclusions
Xiao and Watson [38] state that the systematic review process must be reported
exhaustively so that it can be reliable and repeatable. This study transparently outlined its
review process and reported its findings on searching the literature, the screening process,
quality screening, and the research results.
A detailed systematic review of the literature on technology-based solutions used
to detect and prevent electricity theft and their effectiveness from three major databases,
namely SCOPUS, Science Direct, and Web of Science, for the period 2012 to 2022, was
presented in the preceding sections. The study focused on the proposed solutions, tech-
nology used, type of theft addressed, results, and limitations. It is well documented in
the literature that electricity theft is a global phenomenon that affects both developed and
developing countries. Electricity theft affects human lives negatively, paralyses economies,
and is costly to governments. Various technological solutions have been implemented in
efforts to address the different forms of electricity theft.
The results of this study show that there is significant neglect in the literature regarding
the electricity theft crisis in countries where SG and AMI are not implemented. Most
studies published in recent years focus on preventing theft in SG and AMI. Nonetheless,
current solutions for detecting theft in SG and AMI lack datasets with sufficient fraudulent
consumer data. There is, therefore, a need to explore models that will use sufficient real-life
fraudulent user datasets to exceed the existing models in terms of electricity-theft detection.
Furthermore, the current solutions do not offer real-time prevention; rather, they
detect and report on electricity theft instances for later preventative measures by electricity
providers. This creates a view that journals that publish articles on the matter at hand
portray detecting and reporting as the ultimate solution for preventing electricity theft in
SG and AMI. Therefore, this study recommends that researchers and publishers focus on
Electricity 2024, 5 348

providing solutions to prevent electricity theft in real time. This study further discovered
that machine learning and big data analytics are the dominant technology used for detecting
electricity theft in SG and AMI. Moreover, classification techniques have proven to be
prevalent among the technology used in solving this challenge, with CNN being the
popular classification technique that was included as part of the provided solutions. To
measure the effectiveness of the provided solutions, AUC and accuracy metrics were the
most used in the selected studies. Although these synthesised results are useful for future
research aimed at developing solutions for combating electricity theft, the findings of this
study are limited to articles found in the selected databases. To obtain a broader view of
the matter, the authors recommend including more databases in future reviews.

Author Contributions: Conceptualisation, P.M.K.; literature review, P.M.K. and S.M.M.; protocol,
P.M.K.; protocol validation, S.M.M. and R.T.H.; quality review and validation, P.M.K., S.M.M. and
R.T.H.; data extraction and synthesis, P.M.K.; verification, S.M.M.; reporting P.M.K., S.M.M. and
R.T.H.; report review, S.M.M. and R.T.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Funding: The APC was funded by Tshwane University of Technology.
Data Availability Statement: The material used in this study is publicly available from the sourced
databases.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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