Fiber Optics

It is a data-communication technology which is used for data transfer.

In fiber optics, the transmission medium is light and light is carried within a thin optical fiber
via the process of Total Internal Reflection (TIR)
It is a transparent rod which is made up of glass or any transparent plastic.
It consists of a dielectric cylinder of refractive index n , called the core of the fiber.
1

It is surrounded by a solid dielectric called cladding, of refractive index n where n > n .

2 1 2

Propagation mechanism in Optical Fiber

The TIR at the fiber will occur only if the following conditions are satisfied:
1. n > n
1 2

2. at the core-cladding interface, incident angle must be greater than critical angle.
When light incident at one end of the fiber at air-core interface then refraction takes place
and it reaches the core-cladding interface.
At the core-cladding interface, if incident angle greater than critical angle then it is totally
reflected into the core and in this way the ray undergoes repeated TIR unit it emerges out
from the other end of the fiber.

Acceptance angle (θ ) and Numerical Aperture (NA)

a

For Air-Core interface, from Snell's Law:

sinθ a
0 n
1=
sinθ c

n1 sinθ a n1
= => sinθ = a
sinθ ---(1)
c
n0 sinθ c n0

Now, for Core-Cladding interface, from Snell's Law:

sinα c
1 n
2= o
sin90
n2
sinα = c
n1
n2
sin(90-θ ) = c
(α = 90-θ)
c
n1
 n2
cosθ = c
n1

2
n
sinθ = √1 − cos
c
2
θc = √1 − 2

2
n1

1
sinθ = c
√n 2 − n 2
1 2
---(2)
n1

From (1) and (2)

n1 1
sinθ = a
√n 2 − n 2
1 2
n0 n1

1
sinθ = a
√n
2
1
− n
2
2
n0

n sinθ = √n
0 a
2
1
− n2
2

Here, the term n sinθ is known as Numerical Aperture (NA).

0 a

Thus, NA = √n 2
1
− n2
2

And acceptance angle can be given as:

1
- sinθ =a
√n 2 − n 2
1 2
n0
1
- So, θ = sin (
a
−1
√n 2 − n 2
1 2
)
n0

#complete

Acceptance Cone
A cone within which all the rays incident will be collected and propagated through the fiber.

Relative Refractive Index Difference (\Delta) and Relation

b/w Δ and NA
n1 − n2
Δ =
n1
n1 − n2 n1 + n2
Δ = x
n1 n1 + n2
2 2
n − n
Δ = 1 2
---(1)
n 1 (n 1 + n 2 )

NA = √n 2
1
− n
2
2

(NA) = n - n ---(2)
2 2
1
2
2

From (1) and (2):

 2
NA
Δ =
n 1 (n 1 + n 2 )

(NA) = n (n +n )Δ
2
1 1 2

Since n 1 ≈ n => n +n = n +n = 2n
2 1 2 1 1 1

So, (NA) = n (2n )Δ = n (2Δ)

2
1 1
2
1

NA = n 1
√ 2Δ

Classification of Optical Fiber

Based on Refractive Index Profile
1. Step Index Profile: in this fiber, core is homogeneous with a constant refractive index N 1

and cladding also has a constant refractive index N . 2

2. Graded (variable) Index Profile: in this fiber, core refractive index decreases from axis to
outward and cladding has a constant refractive index.

Based on number of modes

1. Single-mode Fiber

An optical fiber designed to carry only a single mode of light propagation.

Characteristics:
1. The core diameter of single-mode step index fiber is of about 8-12 µm and cladding
thickness is of about 125 µm. In single-mode graded index fiber, the core diameter is
slightly larger than step-index fiber. Thickness is almost same.
2. It is suitable for long distance communication.
3. Light is passed through light diodes.
4. Fabrication is very difficult and costly.
5. Difference b/w core and cladding is very small, therefore its NA is very small.

2. Multi-mode Fiber

It contains multiple modes, i.e. light can travel through the core by many different paths.
The light can enter and leave the fiber at various angles.
Characteristics:
1. In multi-mode step index fiber, the core diameter is in the order of 50-200 µm with a
cladding thickness of about 125 to 400 µm. And core diameter of multi-mode graded
index fiber is about 50-100 µm and cladding thickness of about 125-140 µm.
 2. The light ray enters into the fiber by LED source.
3. Fabrication is less difficult compared to single-mode fiber.
4. Not suitable for long distance communications.
5. NA is large compared to single-mode fiber.

V-number or Cut off Parameter or Normalized Frequency

and Number of Modes
The number of modes supported by a fiber is determined by a parameter which is known
as cut-off parameter or V-number.
2πa
It can be given by: V = √n 2 − n 2
1 2
λ

where a = core radius and λ = wavelength of operating length

2
V
No. of modes for step-index multi-mode fiber is given by:
2
2
V
No. of modes for grade-index multi-mode fiber is given by:
4

When answer comes in decimal, ignore the fractional part. Ex: if answer comes 2.99,
we will write 2 not 3.

For single-index multi-mode fiber, V-number should be less than 2.405

It should be less than approx. 2.405 for the fiber to support multiple modes of
propagation. This threshold is commonly referred to as the V-number cutoff.

Attenuation or Power Loss (α)

It is the measure of reduction in signal strength by comparing output power with input
power.
It is represented in dB/Km and given by:

−10 Po
α = log 10
L Pi
Dispersion in Optical Fiber
It is the spreading of light at the output ends of optical fiber.

Types of Dispersion
1. Modal Dispersion (in multi-mode fibers): Different modes arrive at the exit ends of the
fiber at different times because of their different group velocities. So there is spreading in
the signals.
2. Material Dispersion (in single and multi-mode fibers): When different components of
input pulse travel with different wavelengths they travel with different velocities inside the
fiber, therefore pulse are spread at the exit end.
3. Wave-guide Dispersion (in single-mode fibers): It arises due to the guiding property of
the fiber, because a single mode fiber contains about 80% of the output power through
core and 20% of light through cladding. In cladding, light travels faster than core so pulse
are spread at the exit end. It can be ignored in multi-mode fibers.