LECTURE 5 Cont…

MCEN303
Materials Technology
Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials

Prepared by

DR. A. A. ADEBISI
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria

[email protected]; [email protected] | 08069179272

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INTRODUCTION
Fabrication techniques are methods by which materials are formed or manufactured into
components that may be incorporated into useful products. Sometimes it also may be necessary
to subject the component to some type of processing treatment in order to achieve the required
properties. In addition, on occasion, the suitability of a material for an application is dictated
by economic considerations with respect to fabrication and processing operations.

Fabrication of Metals
Metal fabrication techniques are normally preceded by refining alloying and often heat-treating
processes that produce alloys with the desired characteristics. The classifications of fabrication
techniques include various metal forming methods, casting, powder metallurgy, welding, and
machining; often two or more must be used before a piece is finished. The methods chosen
depend on several factors; the most important are the properties of the metal, the size and shape
of the finished piece, and the cost. The metal fabrication techniques we discuss are classified
according to the scheme illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Classification of metal fabrication techniques

Forming Operations
Forming operations are those in which the shape of a metal piece is changed by plastic
deformation; for example, forging, rolling, extrusion, and drawing are common forming
techniques. The deformation must be induced by an external force or stress, the magnitude of
which must exceed the yield strength of the material. Most metallic materials are especially
amenable to these procedures, being at least moderately ductile and capable of some permanent
deformation without cracking or fracturing.
Hot working is a process where deformation is achieved at a temperature above that at
which recrystallization occurs, otherwise, it is cold working. With most of the forming
techniques, both hot- and cold-working procedures are possible. For hot-working operations,
large deformations are possible, which may be successively repeated because the metal remains
soft and ductile. Also, deformation energy requirements are less than for cold working.

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However, most metals experience some surface oxidation, which results in material loss and a
poor final surface finish.
Cold working produces an increase in strength with the attendant decrease in ductility
because the metal strain hardens; advantages over hot working include a higher-quality surface
finish, better mechanical properties and a greater variety of them, and closer dimensional
control of the finished piece. On occasion, the total deformation is accomplished in a series of
steps in which the piece is successively cold worked a small amount and then process annealed;
however, this is an expensive and inconvenient procedure. Forming operations include:

Forging
Forging is mechanically working or deforming a single piece of a usually hot metal; this may
be accomplished by the application of successive blows or by continuous squeezing. Forgings
are classified as either closed or open die. For closed die, a force is brought to bear on two or
more die halves having the finished shape such that the metal is deformed in the cavity between
them (Figure 2a). For open die, two dies having simple geometric shapes (e.g., parallel flat,
semicircular) are employed, normally on large work-pieces. Forged articles have outstanding
grain structures and the best combination of mechanical properties. Wrenches, automotive
crankshafts, and piston connecting rods are typical articles formed using this technique.

Figure 2: Metal deformation during (a) forging, (b) rolling, (c) extrusion, and (d) drawing.
Rolling
Rolling, the most widely used deformation process, consists of passing a piece of metal
between two rolls; a reduction in thickness results from compressive stresses exerted by the
rolls. Cold rolling may be used in the production of sheet, strip, and foil with a high-quality
surface finish. Circular shapes, as well as I-beams and railroad rails, are fabricated using
grooved rolls.

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Extrusion
For extrusion, a bar of metal is forced through a die orifice by a compressive force that is
applied to a ram; the extruded piece that emerges has the desired shape and a reduced cross-
sectional area. Extrusion products include rods and tubing that have rather complicated cross-
sectional geometries; seamless tubing may also be extruded.

Drawing
Drawing is the pulling of a metal piece through a die having a tapered bore by means of a
tensile force that is applied on the exit side. A reduction in cross section results, with a
corresponding increase in length. The total drawing operation may consist of a number of dies
in a series sequence. Rod, wire, and tubing products are commonly fabricated in this way.

Casting
Casting is a fabrication process in which a completely molten metal is poured into a mold
cavity having the desired shape; upon solidification, the metal assumes the shape of the mold
but experiences some shrinkage. Casting techniques are employed when
1. the finished shape is so large or complicated than any other method would be
impractical;
2. a particular alloy is so low in ductility that forming by either hot or cold working would
be difficult; and
3. in comparison to other fabrication processes, casting is the most economical. The final
step in the refining of even ductile metals may involve a casting process.

A number of different casting techniques are commonly employed, including sand, die,
investment, lost-foam, and continuous casting. Only a cursory treatment of each of these is
offered.

Sand Casting
With sand casting, probably the most common method, ordinary sand is used as the mold
material. A two-piece mold is formed by packing sand around a pattern that has the shape of
the intended casting. A gating system is usually incorporated into the mold to expedite the flow
of molten metal into the cavity and to minimize internal casting defects. Sand-cast parts include
automotive cylinder blocks, fire hydrants, and large pipe fittings.

Die Casting
In die casting, the liquid metal is forced into a mold under pressure and at a relatively high
velocity and allowed to solidify with the pressure maintained. A two-piece permanent steel

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mold or die is employed; when clamped together, the two pieces form the desired shape. When
the metal has solidified completely, the die pieces are opened and the cast piece is ejected.
Rapid casting rates are possible, making this an inexpensive method; furthermore, a single set
of dies may be used for thousands of castings. However, this technique lends itself only to
relatively small pieces and to alloys of zinc, aluminium, and magnesium, which have low
melting temperatures.

Investment Casting
For investment (sometimes called lost-wax) casting, the pattern is made from a wax or plastic
that has a low melting temperature. Around the pattern a fluid slurry is poured, that sets up to
form a solid mold or investment; plaster of Paris is usually used. The mold is then heated, such
that the pattern melts and is burned out, leaving behind a mold cavity having the desired shape.
This technique is employed when high dimensional accuracy, reproduction of fine detail, and
an excellent finish are required for example, in jewellery and dental crowns and inlays. Also,
blades for gas turbines and jet engine impellers are investment cast.

Lost-Foam Casting
A variation of investment casting is lost-foam (or expendable pattern) casting. Here the
expendable pattern is a foam that can be formed by compressing polystyrene beads into the
desired shape and then bonding them together by heating. Alternatively, pattern shapes can be
cut from sheets and assembled with glue. Sand is then packed around the pattern to form the
mold. As the molten metal is poured into the mold, it replaces the pattern, which vaporizes.
The compacted sand remains in place, and, upon solidification, the metal assumes the shape of
the mold. With lost-foam casting, complex geometries and tight tolerances are possible.
Furthermore, in comparison to sand casting, lost-foam casting is a simpler, quicker, and
less expensive process and there are fewer environmental wastes. Metal alloys that most
commonly use this technique are cast irons and aluminium alloys; furthermore, applications
include automobile engine blocks, cylinder heads, crankshafts, marine engine blocks, and
electric motor frames.

Continuous Casting
At the conclusion of extraction processes, many molten metals are solidified by casting into
large ingot molds. The ingots are normally subjected to a primary hot-rolling operation, the
product of which is a flat sheet or slab; these are more convenient shapes as starting points for
subsequent secondary metal-forming operations (forging, extrusion, drawing). These casting
and rolling steps may be combined by a continuous casting (sometimes termed strand casting)

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process. Using this technique, the refined and molten metal is cast directly into a continuous
strand that may have either a rectangular or circular cross section; solidification occurs in a
water-cooled die having the desired cross-sectional geometry. The chemical composition and
mechanical properties are more uniform throughout the cross sections for continuous castings
than for ingot-cast products. Furthermore, continuous casting is highly automated and more
efficient.

Miscellaneous Techniques
Powder Metallurgy
Another fabrication technique involves the compaction of powdered metal followed by a heat
treatment to produce a denser piece. The process is appropriately called powder metallurgy,
frequently designated as P/M. Powder metallurgy makes it possible to produce a virtually
nonporous piece having properties almost equivalent to those of the fully dense parent material.
Diffusional processes during the heat treatment are central to the development of these
properties. This method is especially suitable for metals having low ductilities because only
small plastic deformation of the powder particles need occur. Metals with high melting
temperatures are difficult to melt and cast, and fabrication is expedited using P/M. Furthermore,
parts that require very close dimensional tolerances (e.g., bushings and gears) may be
economically produced using this technique.

Welding
Welding may be considered to be a fabrication technique. In welding, two or more metal parts
are joined to form a single piece when one-part fabrication is expensive or inconvenient. Both
similar and dissimilar metals may be welded. The joining bond is metallurgical (involving some
diffusion) rather than just mechanical, as with riveting and bolting. A variety of welding
methods exist, including arc and gas welding, as well as brazing and soldering.
During arc and gas welding, the work-pieces to be joined and the filler material (i.e.,
welding rod) are heated to a sufficiently high temperature to cause both to melt; upon
solidification, the filler material forms a fusion joint between the work-pieces. Thus, there is a
region adjacent to the weld that may have experienced microstructural and property alterations;
this region is termed the heat-affected zone (sometimes abbreviated HAZ). Possible alterations
include the following:
1. If the work-piece material was previously cold worked, this heat-affected zone may
have experienced recrystallization and grain growth and thus a decrease of strength,
hardness, and toughness. The HAZ for this situation is represented schematically in
Figure 3.

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 2. Upon cooling, residual stresses may form in this region that weaken the joint.
3. For steels, the material in this zone may have been heated to temperatures sufficiently
high so as to form austenite. Upon cooling to room temperature, the microstructural
products that form depend on cooling rate and alloy composition. For plain carbon
steels, normally pearlite and a proeutectoid phase will be present. However, for alloy
steels, one microstructural product may be martensite, which is ordinarily undesirable
because it is so brittle.
4. Some stainless steels may be “sensitized” during welding, which renders them
susceptible to intergranular corrosion.

Figure 3: Cross-sectional view showing the zones in the vicinity of a typical fusion weld.

A relatively modern joining technique is that of laser beam welding, in which a highly
focused and intense laser beam is used as the heat source. The laser beam melts the parent
metal, and, upon solidification, a fusion joint is produced; often a filler material need not be
used. Some of the advantages of this technique are as follows:
1. it is a noncontact process, which eliminates mechanical distortion of the work-pieces;
2. it can be rapid and highly automated;
3. energy input to the work-piece is low, and therefore the heat-affected zone size is
minimal;
4. welds may be small in size and very precise;
5. a large variety of metals and alloys may be joined using this technique; and
6. porosity-free welds with strengths equal to or in excess of the base metal are possible.

Laser beam welding is used extensively in the automotive and electronic industries, where
high-quality and rapid welding rates are required.

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Thermal Processing of Metals
Thermal processing of metals refers to a set of manufacturing techniques that involve the use
of heat to modify the properties of metal materials. These processes can affect the structure,
strength, hardness, and other mechanical and physical properties of metals. The main goals of
thermal processing are to improve the material's mechanical characteristics, enhance its
microstructure, and achieve desired properties for specific applications.
The choice of thermal processing method depends on the type of metal, its intended
use, and the desired material properties. Each technique has specific temperature, time, and
cooling rate parameters that must be carefully controlled to achieve the desired results. Several
common thermal processing methods for metals include:

Annealing Processes
The term annealing refers to a heat treatment in which a material is exposed to an elevated
temperature for an extended time period and then slowly cooled. Typically, annealing is carried
out to
i. relieve stresses;
ii. increase softness, ductility, and toughness; and/or
iii. produce a specific microstructure.
A variety of annealing heat treatments are possible; they are characterized by the changes that
are induced, which often are microstructural and are responsible for the alteration of the
mechanical properties.
Any annealing process consists of three stages:
i. heating to the desired temperature,
ii. holding or “soaking” at that temperature, and
iii. cooling, usually to room temperature.

Time is an important parameter in these procedures. During heating and cooling, temperature
gradients exist between the outside and interior portions of the piece; their magnitudes depend
on the size and geometry of the piece. If the rate of temperature change is too great, temperature
gradients and internal stresses may be induced that may lead to warping or even cracking. Also,
the actual annealing time must be long enough to allow any necessary transformation reactions.
Annealing temperature is also an important consideration; annealing may be accelerated by
increasing the temperature because diffusional processes are normally involved.

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Process Annealing
Process annealing is a heat treatment that is used to negate the effects of cold work that is, to
soften and increase the ductility of a previously strain-hardened metal. It is commonly used
during fabrication procedures that require extensive plastic deformation, to allow a
continuation of deformation without fracture or excessive energy consumption. Recovery and
recrystallization processes are allowed to occur. Typically, a fine-grained microstructure is
desired, and, therefore, the heat treatment is terminated before appreciable grain growth has
occurred. Surface oxidation or scaling may be prevented or minimized by annealing at a
relatively low temperature (but above the recrystallization temperature) or in a nonoxidizing
atmosphere.

Stress Relief
Internal residual stresses may develop in metal pieces in response to the following:
(1) plastic deformation processes such as machining and grinding;
(2) nonuniform cooling of a piece that was processed or fabricated at an elevated temperature,
such as a weld or a casting; and
(3) a phase transformation that is induced upon cooling in which parent and product phases
have different densities.

Distortion and warpage may result if these residual stresses are not removed. They may be
eliminated by a stress relief annealing heat treatment in which the piece is heated to the
recommended temperature, held there long enough to attain a uniform temperature, and finally
cooled to room temperature in air. The annealing temperature is typically a relatively low one
such that effects resulting from cold working and other heat treatments are not affected. Several
different annealing procedures are employed to enhance the properties of steel alloys.

Heat Treatment of Steels

Heat treatment is a crucial process in the manufacturing of steels, aiming to alter the
microstructure and properties of the material to meet specific requirements. Various heat
treatment processes are employed for steels, each serving a distinct purpose. Here are some
common heat treatment methods for steels:
Annealing:
Purpose: To soften the steel, improve machinability, enhance ductility, and relieve internal
stresses.

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Process: Heating the steel to a specific temperature and holding it at that temperature before
slow cooling.
Normalizing:
Purpose: Similar to annealing but with a faster cooling rate, resulting in a finer grain structure.
Process: Heating the steel to a temperature above its critical point and allowing it to cool in
still air.
Quenching:
Purpose: Increasing hardness by rapid cooling from a high temperature.
Process: Heating the steel to a high temperature and rapidly cooling it by immersing it in a
quenching medium such as water, oil, or air.
Tempering:
Purpose: To reduce brittleness and improve toughness and ductility after quenching.
Process: Reheating the quenched steel to a specific temperature and then cooling it at a
controlled rate.
Hardening:
Purpose: Increasing hardness and strength.
Process: Usually involves heating the steel to a high temperature, followed by rapid quenching.
Case Hardening:
Purpose: Increasing hardness of the surface layer while maintaining a tough core.
Process: Introducing a high carbon or nitrogen content to the surface by methods like
carburizing or nitriding.
Temper Annealing:
Purpose: Enhancing toughness and eliminating brittleness in certain alloy steels.
Process: Heating the steel to a specific temperature, holding it for a designated time, and then
slow cooling.
Austempering:
Purpose: Reducing distortion and obtaining a structure with improved toughness.
Process: Quenching the steel to a temperature just above the martensitic transformation range
and holding it at that temperature before air cooling.
Martempering:
Purpose: Achieving a balance of hardness and toughness with reduced distortion.
Process: Quenching the steel to a temperature below the martensitic start temperature and
holding it before air cooling.
Cryogenic Treatment:

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Purpose: Enhancing hardness and wear resistance by subjecting the steel to extremely low
temperatures.
Process: Cooling the steel to cryogenic temperatures and holding it for an extended period.
The specific heat treatment process chosen for a particular steel depends on factors such
as the composition of the steel, desired properties, and intended applications. Proper control of
heating and cooling rates, as well as holding temperatures, is essential to achieve the desired
microstructure and properties in the final product.

Fabrication of Ceramic Materials

One major concern in the application of ceramic materials is the method of fabrication. Many
of the metal-forming operations discussed earlier in this chapter rely on casting and/or
techniques that involve some form of plastic deformation. Because ceramic materials have
relatively high melting temperatures, casting them is normally impractical. Furthermore, in
most instances the brittleness of these materials precludes deformation. Some ceramic pieces
are formed from powders (or particulate collections) that must ultimately be dried and fired.
Glass shapes are formed at elevated temperatures from a fluid mass that becomes very viscous
upon cooling. Cements are shaped by placing into forms a fluid paste that hardens and assumes
a permanent set by virtue of chemical reactions. A scheme for the several types of ceramic-
forming techniques is presented in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Classification scheme for the ceramic forming techniques

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Fabrication and Processing of Glasses and Glass-Ceramics
Glass Properties
For some specific glass-forming techniques, temperature-sensitive properties of glass materials
need to be discussed. Glassy, or non-crystalline, materials do not solidify in the same sense as
do those that are crystalline. Upon cooling, a glass becomes more and more viscous in a
continuous manner with decreasing temperature; there is no definite temperature at which the
liquid transforms into a solid as with crystalline materials. In fact, one of the distinctions
between crystalline and non-crystalline materials lies in the dependence of specific volume (or
volume per unit mass, the reciprocal of density) on temperature.

Glass Forming
Glass is produced by heating the raw materials to an elevated temperature above which melting
occurs. Most commercial glasses are of the silica–soda–lime variety; the silica is usually
supplied as common quartz sand, whereas Na2O and CaO are added as soda ash (Na2CO3) and
limestone (CaCO3). For most applications, especially when optical transparency is important,
it is essential that the glass product be homogeneous and pore free. Homogeneity is achieved
by complete melting and mixing of the raw ingredients. Porosity results from small gas bubbles
that are produced; these must be absorbed into the melt or otherwise eliminated, which requires
proper adjustment of the viscosity of the molten material.
Five different forming methods are used to fabricate glass products: pressing, blowing,
drawing, and sheet and fibre forming. Pressing is used in the fabrication of relatively thick-
walled pieces such as plates and dishes. The glass piece is formed by pressure application in a
graphite-coated cast iron mold having the desired shape; the mold is typically heated to ensure
an even surface.
Although some glass blowing is done by hand, especially for art objects, the process
has been completely automated for the production of glass jars, bottles, and light bulbs. The
several steps involved in one such technique are illustrated in Figure 5. From a raw gob of
glass, a parison, or temporary shape, is formed by mechanical pressing in a mold. This piece is
inserted into a finishing or blow mold and forced to conform to the mold contours by the
pressure created from a blast of air.
Drawing is used to form long glass pieces that have a constant cross section such as
sheet, rod, tubing, and fibres.

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 Figure 5: The press-and-blow technique for producing a glass bottle

Until the late 1950s, sheet glass (or plate) was produced by casting (or drawing) the
glass into a plate shape, grinding both faces to make them flat and parallel, and, finally,
polishing the faces to make the sheet transparent a procedure that was relatively expensive. A
more economical float process was patented in 1959 in England. With this technique
(represented schematically in Figure 6), the molten glass passes (on rollers) from one furnace
onto a bath of liquid tin located in a second furnace. Thus, as this continuous glass ribbon
“floats” on the surface of the molten tin, gravitational and surface tension forces cause the faces
to become perfectly flat and parallel and the resulting sheet to be of uniform thickness.
Furthermore, sheet faces acquire a bright, “fire-polished” finish in one region of the furnace.
The sheet next passes into an annealing furnace (lehr), and is finally cut into sections (Figure
6). The success of this operation requires rigid control of both temperature and chemistry of
the gaseous atmosphere.

Figure 6: Schematic diagram showing the float process for making sheet glass.

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 Continuous glass fibres are formed in a rather sophisticated drawing operation. The
molten glass is contained in a platinum heating chamber. Fibres are formed by drawing the
molten glass through many small orifices at the chamber base. The glass viscosity, which is
critical, is controlled by chamber and orifice temperatures.

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