AMC ENGINEERING COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

Module 1 Notes

Lasers and Optical Fibers

I/II SEMESTER Physics for CSE Stream

Subject code: BPHYS102/202
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Contents

1 Lasers 5
1.1 Interaction of Radiation with Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.1 Induced absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.2 Spontaneous emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.3 Stimulated emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 Einstein’s A and B Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.1 Expression for energy density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.2 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 Laser Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.1 Conditions for laser action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.2 Requisites of a laser system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Semiconductor/Diode Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5 Characteristic Properties of Laser Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.6 Applications of Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.6.1 Bar Code Scanner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.6.2 Laser Printer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.6.3 Laser Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.7 Model and Previous Year Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.8 Numericals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.8.1 Ratio of Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.8.2 Power and photons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.8.3 Laser Diffraction (Lab) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2 Optical Fibers 19
2.1 Total Internal Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 Optical Fiber Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3 Propagation Mechanism in an Optical Fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4 Acceptance Angle and Numerical Aperture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4.1 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.5 Types of Optical Fibers and Modes of Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.5.1 Step-index single mode fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.5.2 Step-index multimode fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.5.3 Graded-index multimode fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.6 Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.6.1 Absorption Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.6.2 Scattering Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.6.3 Bending Losses (Radiation Losses) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.6.4 Coupling Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.6.5 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

3
 CONTENTS

2.7 Applications of Fiber Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

2.7.1 Fiber Optic Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.7.2 Fiber Optic Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.8 Advantages of Optical Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.9 Disadvantages of Optical Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.10 Model and Previous Year Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.11 Numericals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.11.1 Numerical aperture, acceptance angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.11.2 Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

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Chapter 1

Lasers

Syllabus
Lasers and Optical Fibers
Lasers: Characteristic properties of a LASER beam, Interaction of Radiation with
Matter, Einstein’s A and B Coefficients and Expression for Energy Density (Derivation),
Laser Action, Population Inversion, Metastable State, Requisites of a laser system, Semi-
conductor Diode Laser, Applications: Bar code scanner, Laser Printer, Laser Cooling
(Qualitative), Numerical Problems.

LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

Laser is a device that produces a very intense, concentrated, highly directional, monochro-
matic, and coherent beam of light with very little divergence. (More on this later in sec-
tion 1.5)

1.1 Interaction of Radiation with Matter

Consider an assembly of atoms or molecules in a material which is exposed to light radiation
(a stream of photons with energy hν, where h is Planck’s constant and ν is the frequency of
the photon).
In general, three different processes occur when light radiation interacts with a material.
They are

ˆ Induced absorption

ˆ Spontaneous emission

ˆ Stimulated emission

1.1.1 Induced absorption

An atom (represented by a black dot in the given figure) in the ground state with energy E1
absorbs an incident photon of energy hν and is excited to higher energy state with energy
E2 only when hν = E2 − E1 . This process is known as induced absorption and is shown in
1.1. This type of interaction can be represented as

atom + photon → atom⋆

where atom⋆ is the excited state of the atom.

5
 1.1. INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTER

Figure 1.1: Induced absorption

The excited atoms do not stay in the higher energy state for a long time. It is the tendency
of atoms in excited state to come to the lower energy state. Thus, the atoms in the excited
state quickly return to the ground state by emitting a photon of energy hν. Such emission
of photons takes place in two ways, namely spontaneous emission and stimulated emission.

1.1.2 Spontaneous emission

Figure 1.2: Spontaneous emission

The atom in the excited state E2 (higher energy state) stays there for around 10−8 s and
then returns to the ground E1 (lower energy state) by emitting a photon of energy hν such
that E2 − E1 = hν without the influence of any external agency. Such an emission of light
radiation which is not triggered by an external influence is called spontaneous emission. This
process is shown in 1.2. This type of interaction can be represented as

atom⋆ → atom + photon

It is a random and uncontrollable process. The photons emitted in this process travel in
random directions.

1.1.3 Stimulated emission

Figure 1.3: Stimulated emission

Einstein suggested that there must be another mechanism by which an atom in the
excited state (E2 ) can return to the ground state (E1 ). He found that there is an interaction
between the atom in excited state and a photon. During this interaction, the photon (of
energy hν = E2 − E1 ) triggers the excited atom to make a transition to the ground state.
This transition produces a second (stimulated) photon which is similar to the triggering
(stimulating) photon with respect to frequency, phase, and propagation direction. Such kind

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 1.2. EINSTEIN’S A AND B COEFFICIENTS

of a forced emission of photons by the incident photons is called stimulated emission and is
as shown in 1.3. This type of interaction can be represented as

atom⋆ + photon → atom + photon + photon

This process plays a key role in the working of a laser.

1.2 Einstein’s A and B Coefficients

Consider an assembly of atoms with two energy states E1 and E2 at an absolute temperature
T . Let N1 be the number of atoms in state E1 and N2 be the number of atoms in state E2 .
Let light radiation of frequency ν = (E2 − E1 )/h with energy density Uν be incident on this
assembly of atoms. Uν is the number of photons incident on the system per unit area per
unit time.
From statistical mechanics, for thermal equilibirum condition, there is a relation between
an energy state Ei and the number of atoms Ni in that state. It is given as
−Ei
Ni ∝ e kB T

This is called the Boltzmann’s relation. For two energy states E1 and E2 such that E2 > E1
and (E2 − E1 ) = hν, we can write
−E1
E2 −E1
N1 e kB T hν
= −E2 = e kB T = e kB T
N2
e kB T
We notice here that since (E2 − E1 ) is positive, N N2 > 1, which says that at thermal
1

equilibrium condition, there are more number of atoms in the lower energy state than the
higer energy state.
Now we write relations for the rate at which the three different process that we discussed
above occur.
The rate of induced absorption is directly proportional to the number of atoms in the
lower energy level N1 and the number of incident photons Uν . So we have

rate of induced absorption ∝ N1 Uν

rate of induced absorption = B12 N1 Uν

where B12 is the constant of proportionality called Einstein’s coefficient for induced absorp-
tion.
The rate of spontaneous emission is directly proportional to the number of atoms in the
higher energy level N2 only. This is because spontaneous emission occurs... well, sponta-
neously. Uν does not play any role in this interaction. So we have

rate of spontaneous emission ∝ N2

rate of spontaneous emission = A21 N2

where A21 is the constant of proportionality called Einstein’s coefficient for spontaneous
emission.
The rate of stimulated emission is directly proportional to the number of atoms in the
higher energy level N2 and the number of incident photons Uν . So we have

rate of stimulated emission ∝ N2 Uν

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 1.2. EINSTEIN’S A AND B COEFFICIENTS

rate of stimulated emission = B21 N2 Uν

where B21 is the constant of proportionality called Einstein’s coefficient for stimulated emis-
sion.
The Einstein’s coefficients tell us about the probability of the respective processes occuring
in the system.

1.2.1 Expression for energy density

At thermal equilibrium, the rate of all absorptions is equal to the rate of all emissions. So
we have

rate of induced absorption = rate of spontaneous emission

+ rate of stimulated emission
Therefore, we have
B12 N1 Uν = A21 N2 + B21 N2 Uν
B12 N1 Uν − B21 N2 Uν = A21 N2
(B12 N1 − B21 N2 )Uν = A21 N2
A21 N2
Uν =
B12 N1 − B21 N2
!
A21 N2 1
Uν = B12 N1
B21 N2 B21 N2 −1
But we know that
N1 hν
= e kB T
N2
Thus we have  
A21  1
Uν = 
B21 B12 e khν
BT − 1
B21
Comparing this equation with Planck’s law (in terms of frequency) given by
!
8πhν 3 1
Uν =
c3 hν
e kB T − 1
we see that
B12
= 1 or B12 = B21
B21
and
A21 8πhν 3
=
B21 c3
Since B12 = B21 , we can say that the probabilty of occurence of induced absorption
is equal to the probabilty of occurence of stimulated emission. Further, we can drop the
subscripts and simply write B12 = B21 = B and A21 = A.
Therefore the above equation can be written as
!
A 1
Uν =
B e khνBT − 1

This is the expression for energy density in terms of the Einstein’s coefficients.

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 1.2. EINSTEIN’S A AND B COEFFICIENTS

A
Consequence of the B relation
We have the relation
A21 8πhν 3
=
B21 c3
where ν is the frequency of the incident photon, A21 and B21 are the probabilities for spon-
taneous emission and stimulated emission respectively.
Normally, for a system under thermal equilibrium, the probability for spontaneous emis-
sion is greater than that for stimulated emission. This is because by the time a stimulating
photon can cause stimulated emission from an excited atom, the atom would already be
de-excited and instead undergo spontaneous emission.
According to the above relation, the relative probability for spontaneous emission in-
creases proportionally with the cube of frequency of the emitted photon. This means that it
becomes more difficult to produce photons of higher frequencies from a laser. This is why we
see blue and higher frequency lasers very rarely, because they are expensive to manufacture.

1.2.2 Worked Examples

Q 1. Find the ratio of population of two energy levels in a laser if the transition between
them produces light of wavelength 6493 Å, assuming the ambient temperature at 27 ◦ C.
Given:
λ = 6493 Å = 6493 × 1 × 10−10 = 6.493 × 10−7 m
T = 27 + 273 = 300 K
N1
To find: =?
N2
We know that
N1 hc
= e λkB T
N2
Let’s consider the exponent,

hc 6.625 × 10−34 × 3 × 108

= = 73.94
λkB T 6.493 × 10−7 × 1.38 × 10−23 × 300
So we get,
N1 hc
= e λkB T = e73.94 = 1.289 × 1032
N2

Q 2. The ratio of population of two energy levels is 1.059 × 10−30 Find the wavelength of
light emitted at 330 K.
Given:
N2
= 1.059 × 10−30
N1
To find: λ =?
−hc
N2
We know that, N1 = e λkB T
After, rearranging the terms, we get

−6.625 × 10−34 × 3 × 108

−hc
λ=  = −23 × 330 × ln (1.059 × 10−30 )
= 6.323 × 10−7 m
N2
kB T ln N1 1.38 × 10

λ = 632.3 nm

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 1.3. LASER ACTION

Q 3. The average power output of a laser beam of wavelength 6500 Å is 10 mW. Find the
number of photons emitted per second by the laser source.
Given:
λ = 6500 Å = 6.5 × 10−7 m
P = 10 mW = 10 × 10−3 W = 0.01 W
To find: N/t =?
The formula to solve this problem is

N Pλ 0.01 × 6.5 × 10−7

= = = 3.27 × 1016 photons/s
t hc 6.625 × 10−34 × 3 × 108

N
= 3.27 × 1016 photons/s
t

Q 4. A pulsed laser with power 1 mW lasts for 10 ns. If the number of photons emitted per
pulse is 5 × 107 photons/pulse, calculate the wavelength of laser.
Given:
P = 1 mW/pulse = 0.001 W/pulse
t = 10 ns = 1 × 10−8 s
N = 5 × 107 photons/pulse
To find: λ =?
We know that
N Pλ
=
t hc
After, rearranging the terms, we get

N hc 5 × 107 × 6.625 × 10−34 × 3 × 108

λ= = = 9.937 × 10−7 m
Pt 0.001 × 1 × 10−8

λ = 9.937 × 10−7 m

1.3 Laser Action

1.3.1 Conditions for laser action
Under normal conditions of thermal equilibrium in an atomic system (a system of many
atoms), we can show that the number of atoms in the lower energy state E1 will be more
than that in the excited state E2 . In other words if N1 and N2 are the number densities
of atoms in the lower and excited states respectively, then N1 > N2 . This can be shown as
follows: Since E1 < E2 , then according to the Boltzmann’s relation, we get
E2
− (E −E )
N2 e kB T − 2 1
= E1 = e kB T
N1 −
e kB T
But we know that (E2 − E1 ) = hν. So we get

N2 − hν
= e kB T
N1

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 1.3. LASER ACTION

As E2 > E1 , the RHS of the above equation is always less than unity, hence N2 < N1 .
But we know that lasers work under the principle of stimulated emission (it’s in the name
- LASER), and for this process, we need many atoms in the higher energy state. In other
words, we need to have the system in a situation where N2 > N1 . This situation, if attained,
is called Population Inversion.
But there’s another problem. When an atom is excited to a higher energy state, it gen-
erally stays there for a very short amount of time, around 10−8 seconds. This is such a short
amount of time that stimulated emission may not take place (the atom can get de-excited
even before a photon can initiate stimulated emission). So to realize stimulated emissions,
we need the atoms in the excited states to stay there for a longer time. This is achieved by
using elements which have a special kind of excited state called the Metastable state. Atoms
excited to these metastable states are found to stay there for around 10−6 to 10−3 seconds
(which is 100 to 100000 times longer than that for the regular excited states).

Population Inversion

Figure 1.4: A 3-level system with metastable state

To understand how the presence of a metastable state helps in attaining population

inversion, let’s consider a 3-level system as shown in figure 1.4. Here E2 is the metasable
state. Initially, there are more number of atoms in E1 compared to the other energy levels.
So when a photon of appropraite energy (here, E3 − E1 ) is given, the atoms are excited to
the higher energy state E3 . But these excited atoms won’t stay at E3 for long and will get
de-excited to any of the lower levels. If the atoms fall to the E2 level, they will stay there
for a longer time since it is a metastable state. While the atoms are still present in level E2 ,
the process of excitation from E1 to E3 continues and more atoms can fall down to E2 and
stay there longer. Eventually, there will arise a situation when there are more atoms in E2
than in E1 . This is the situation of population inversion. At this point, a photon of energy
E2 − E1 is given to initiate stimulated emission.
The situation of population inversion can be achieved by supplying energy from an ex-
ternal source. This process of supplying energy externally to attain population inversion is
called Pumping.

1.3.2 Requisites of a laser system

ˆ Active Medium: It is the quantum system between whose energy levels the pumping
and lasing action occurs.

ˆ Excitation Source: To achieve population inversion, pumping is required. Pumping

can be done in different ways, such as optical pumping, electrical pumping, and chemical

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 1.4. SEMICONDUCTOR/DIODE LASER

pumping.

Figure 1.5: Laser Cavity

ˆ Laser Cavity: The system containing the active medium between two mirrors of high
reflectivity is called the laser cavity (see figure 1.5). The mirrors (one fully reflecting
and one partially reflecting) reflect the photons produced due to stimulated emission
to and fro through the active medium. This arrangement ensures that the direction of
photons is parallel to the axis of the cavity. If a photon travels in any other direction, it
escapes out of the cavity from the sides. Thus the radiation inside the laser cavity builds
up resulting in amplification of photons from stimulated emission in only one direction.
Hence the output of the system is a coherent, unidirectional laser light. Note that the
length (L) of the cavity should be such that L = nλ/2, where λ is the wavelength of
the laser light, and n = 1, 2, 3, . . . (this is the condition for standing waves).

1.4 Semiconductor/Diode Laser

A semiconductor/diode laser is a specially-fabricated pn-junction device that emits coherent
light when it is forward biased.

Figure 1.6: Semiconductor/diode Laser

Construction
A schematic diagram of a homojunction semiconductor laser is shown in figure 1.6. The
laser diode is a single crystal consisting of a heavily doped n and p sections. The doping
concentration is very high and is of the order of 1017 to 1019 dopant atoms/cm3 .

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 1.4. SEMICONDUCTOR/DIODE LASER

The diode is extremely small in size with sides of the order of 1mm. The junction lies in
a horizontal plane through the center and its width varyies from 1µm to 100µm depending
upon the diffusion and temperature conditions that exists at the time of fabrication. The end
surfaces of the p and n sections parallel to the plane of junction (top and bottom surfaces
in the figure) are provided with electrodes in order to facilitate application of a forward bias
voltage with the help of a voltage source. The front and rear faces are polished (also called
cleaved facets). The cleaved facets play the role of reflecting mirrors. The other two opposite
faces are roughened to prevent lasing action in that direction.

Figure 1.7: Energy level diagram of semiconductor/diode laser

Working

In a diode laser, the p and n sections are heavily doped. Because of heavy doping, the
Fermi level lies within the conduction band in the n-type material and it lies within the
valence band in the p-type material. A simple way of achieving population inversion in a
semiconductor is to use it in the form of heavily doped pn-junction and to forward bias
the junction. When the junction is forward biased, the energy levels shift as shown in the
energy level diagram in figure 1.7. The width of depletion region decreases due to injection
of electrons and holes. At low forward currents, the electron-hole recombination causes
spontaneous emission of radiation and the diode acts as a LED. When current is increased
and reaches a threshold value, population inversion is achieved in the depletion region due to
large concentration of electrons in conduction band and holes in valence band. The narrow
region where population inversion is achieved becomes the active region where lasing action
takes place. The forward bias applied to the junction is thus the pumping mechanism which
produces population inversion. The photons traveling in the junction along the resonant
cavity stimulate recombination of electron-hole pairs due to which the intensity of coherent
light builds up along the axis of the cavity.
The wavelength of the photon emitted by a semiconductor laser can be found by consid-
ering its energy gap. Since the energy of the emitted photon is the same as the energy gap

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 1.5. CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES OF LASER BEAMS

(Eg ) of the semiconductor, we can say

hν = Eg
hc
= Eg
λ
hc
=⇒ λ =
Eg

where we have used c = νλ for photons. An example of a semiconductor laser is the GaAs
(Gallium arsenide) laser. The energy gap of GaAs is 1.44eV . So the wavelength of the laser
beam emitted by this semiconductor can be found using the above formula to be ≈ 8626Å
The semiconductor lasers have low power consumption, are compact and highly efficient.
But the laser output is less monochromatic and more divergent compared to other lasers.

Applications of Semiconductor laser

ˆ Fiber Optical Communications

ˆ Writing, reading of CDs

1.5 Characteristic Properties of Laser Beams

1. Intensity: Since a large number of photons are emitted by stimulated emission con-
tinually, the laser beam is highly intense.

2. Monochromaticity: Since laser results from stimulated emission, all the photons in
the beam are of the same frequency and the line width of radiation is negligible.

3. Coherence: Coherence is another important characteristic that distinguishes laser

from other types of monochromatic light. Coherence means constancy in phase differ-
ence between any two points in a wave separated by the same distance, in any of the
waves emitted by the source.

4. Directionality: The laser cavity mirrors can reflect only those photons incident normal
to their planes. Due to this, photons moving even at slightly different angles fail
to return to the lasing medium and form standing waves. Such beams are therefore
suppressed and hence the laser beam is highly directional.

5. Focussability: Since laser beam is highly monochromatic and collimated, it can be

brought to a sharp focus by a lens.

1.6 Applications of Laser

1.6.1 Bar Code Scanner
A bar code consists of a series of strips of dark and white bands (see figure 1.8a). These
white and dark bands are of different widths separated from each other by specific distances
that contain all the information about the product.
A laser is used to scan the bar code with the help of a rotating mirror (see figure 1.8b).
Typical scanning speeds are about 200m/s. Such high speeds enable the product to be
scanned even when in motion in a delivery line. When the laser beam is incident on the bar
code, the amount of light scattered depends on whether the strip is black or white. Since the

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 1.6. APPLICATIONS OF LASER

(a) Bar Code (b) Bar Code Scanner

Figure 1.8: Scanning Bar Codes with Laser

bars are separated by variable distance, light intensity varies with time and is recorded by
the photodetector. The signal is fed into an amplifier and later to a decoder which displays
the information on a TV monitor and also sends it to product inventory system.

1.6.2 Laser Printer

Figure 1.9: Schematic of Laser Printer

The primary principle at work in a laser printer is static electricity. Since oppositely
charged atoms are attracted to each other, objects with opposite static electricity fields cling
together. A laser printer uses this phenomenon as a sort of ”temporary glue.” As seen in
figure 1.9, the core component of this system is the photoreceptor, typically a revolving drum
or cylinder. This drum assembly is made out of highly photoconductive material that is
discharged by photons. Initially, the drum is given a total negative charge by the charge
corona wire, a wire with an electrical current running through it. (Some printers use a
charged roller instead of a corona wire, but the principle is the same.) As the drum revolves,
the printer shines a tiny laser beam across the surface to discharge certain points (see figure
1.10). In this way, the laser ”draws” the letters and images to be printed as a pattern
of electrical charges - an electrostatic image. The system can also work with the charges
reversed, i.e., a negative electrostatic image on a positive background.

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 1.6. APPLICATIONS OF LASER

Figure 1.10: Laser Assembly (for reference only)

After the pattern is set, the printer coats the drum with negatively charged toner, which is
a fine, black powder. Since it has a negative charge, the toner clings to the positive discharged
areas of the drum, but not to the negatively charged ”background.” With the powder pattern
affixed, the drum rolls over a sheet of paper, which is moving along a belt below. Before
the paper rolls under the drum, it is given a positive charge by the transfer corona wire (or
charged roller). This charge is stronger than the positive charge of the electrostatic image,
so the paper can pull the toner powder away. Since it is moving at the same speed as the
drum, the paper picks up the image pattern exactly. To keep the paper from clinging to the
drum, it is discharged by the detac corona wire immediately after picking up the toner.
Finally, the printer passes the paper through the fuser, a pair of heated rollers. As the
paper passes through these rollers, the loose toner powder melts, fusing with the fibers in the
paper. The fuser rolls the paper to the output tray, and you have your finished page. The
fuser also heats up the paper itself, of course, which is why pages are always hot when they
come out of a laser printer or photocopier.
After depositing toner on the paper, the drum surface passes the discharge lamp. This
bright light exposes the entire photoreceptor surface, erasing the electrical image. The drum
surface then passes the charge corona wire, which reapplies the negative charge.

1.6.3 Laser Cooling

Laser cooling includes a number of techniques in which atoms, molecules, and small mechan-
ical systems are cooled, often approaching temperatures near absolute zero. Laser cooling
techniques rely on the fact that when an object (usually an atom) absorbs and re-emits a
photon, its momentum changes. For an ensemble of particles, their thermodynamic temper-
ature is proportional to the variance in their velocity. That is, more homogeneous velocities
among particles corresponds to a lower temperature. Laser cooling techniques combine atomic
spectroscopy with the aforementioned mechanical effect of light to compress the velocity dis-
tribution of an ensemble of particles, thereby cooling the particles.
An example of laser cooling, and also still the most common method (so much so that
it is still often referred to simply as ’laser cooling’) is Doppler cooling. This involves light
with frequency tuned slightly below an electronic transition in an atom. Because the light is
detuned to the lower frequency of the transition, the atoms will absorb more photons if they
move towards the light source, due to the Doppler effect.
Consider the simplest case of 1D motion on the x axis. Let the photon be traveling in
the +x direction and the atom in the −x direction. In each absorption event, the atom loses

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 1.7. MODEL AND PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

Figure 1.11: Laser Cooling

a momentum equal to the momentum of the photon. The atom, which is now in the excited
state, emits a photon spontaneously but randomly along +x or −x. Momentum is returned
to the atom. If the photon was emitted along +x then there is no net change; however, if
the photon was emitted along −x, then the atom is moving more slowly in either −x or +x.
(Of course, in the 3D case, spontaneous emission can cause the emitted photon to travel in
any direction.)
The net result of the absorption and emission process is a reduced speed of the atom,
on the condition that its initial speed is larger than the recoil velocity from scattering a
single photon. If the absorption and emission are repeated many times, the mean velocity,
and therefore the kinetic energy of the atom, will be reduced. Since the temperature of an
ensemble of atoms is a measure of the random internal kinetic energy, this is equivalent to
cooling the atoms.

1.7 Model and Previous Year Questions

Q 1. Define LASER and Discuss the interaction of radiation with matter.

Q 2. Derive an expression for energy density for a system in thermal equilibrium in terms
of Einstein’s co-efficient.

Q 3. Explain requisites of LASER system.

Q 4. Explain the construction and working of a semiconductor Laser with the help of energy
level diagram.

Q 5. Discuss the applications of laser in barcode scanner and laser cooling.

Q 6. With the help of a sketch describe the principle, construction and working of the laser
printer.

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 1.8. NUMERICALS

1.8 Numericals
1.8.1 Ratio of Population

Q 1. Find the ratio of population of two energy levels in a medium at thermal equilibrium,
if the wavelength of light emitted at 291 K is 6928 Å.
Q 2. Calculate the ratio of population for a given pair of energy levels corresponding to
emission of radiation 694.3 nm at a temperature of 300 K.
Q 3. A laser source has a power output of 10−3 W. Calculate the number of photons emitted
per second given the wavelength of LASER 692.8 nm.
Q 4. Find the ratio of population of two energy levels in a medium at thermal equilibrium, if
the wavelength of light emitted at 300 K is 10 µm. Also find the effective temperature when
energy levels are equally populated.
Q 5. In a laser system when the energy difference between two energy levels is 2 × 10−19 J,
the average power output of laser beam is found to be 4 mW. Calculate number of photons
emitted per second.

1.8.2 Power and photons

Q 1. The average power of a laser beam of wavelength 6328 Å is 5 mW. Find the number of
photons emitted per second by the laser source.
Q 2. A Ruby laser emits a pulse of 20 ns duration with average power per pulse being
100 kW. If the number of photons in each pulse is 6.981 × 1015 , calculate the wavelength of
photons.
Q 3. A pulsed laser has an average power output 1.5 mW per pulse and pulse duration is
20 ns. The number of photons emitted per pulse is estimated to be 1.047 × 108 Find the
wavelength of the emitted laser.

1.8.3 Laser Diffraction (Lab)

Q 1. In a diffraction grating experiment, the laser light undergoes second order diffraction
for diffraction angle 1.48◦ . The grating constant is 5.08 × 10−5 m and the distance between
the grating and the source is 80 cm, find the wavelength of laser light.
Q 2. In diffraction grating experiment, the laser light undergoes first order diffraction with
diffracting angle 23.86◦ . The grating constant is 1.66 × 10−6 m. Calculate the wavelength of
laser source.

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Chapter 2

Optical Fibers

Syllabus
Lasers and Optical Fibers
Optical Fibers: Principle and Structure, Propagation of Light, Acceptance angle and
Numerical Aperture (NA), Derivation of Expression for NA, Modes of Propagation, RI
Profile, Classification of Optical Fibers, Attenuation and Fiber Losses, Applications:
Fiber Optic networking, Fiber Optic Communication. Numerical Problems.

An optical fiber is a device which can conduct light along any desired curved path. It
transmits light through a bundle of thin fibers of transparent material from one end to other
end covering a very long distance. It works on the principle of total internal reflection.

2.1 Total Internal Reflection

Figure 2.1: Total Internal Reflection

Let a luminous object O be placed in a denser medium of refractive index n1 (see figure
2.1). A ray OA incident normally on the interface of two media proceeds undeviated into
the rarer medium of refractive index n2 . But a ray OP passing from the denser medium into

19
 2.2. OPTICAL FIBER CONSTRUCTION

the rarer medium bends away from the normal; this process is called refraction. As the angle
of incidence (i) increases in the denser medium, the angle of refraction also increases, and
for a particular angle of incidence, the refracted ray just grazes the surface of separation of
the media, i.e., angle of refraction is 90◦ (see the third ray). This angle of incidence in the
denser medium for which the angle of refraction is 90◦ is known as the critical angle (C) for
the given pair of media and for the given colour of the light. For further increase in the angle
of incidence, i.e., i > C, (see the last ray) the ray is not refracted but gets reflected back into
the medium. This phenomenon is known as total internal reflection (TIR).

Conditions for TIR

We observe the following conditions for total internal reflection to occur:
1. The ray of light must travel from a denser medium into a rarer medium.

2. The angle of incidence in the denser medium must be greater than the critical angle
for the given pair of media and the given colour of light.

2.2 Optical Fiber Construction

Fibers that are used for optical communication are waveguides made up of transparent di-
electrics whose function is to guide visible and infrared light over long distances.

Figure 2.2: Optical Fiber

An optical fiber consists of a cylinder of glass or plastic called the core which is surrounded
by a cylindrical shell of glass or plastic of lower refractive index (compared to core) called
cladding. The cladding in turn is covered by a polyurethane jacket (see figure 2.2). Light
is transmitted within the core. The cladding helps to keep the light waves confined to the
core on account of its lower refractive index than that of the core. In addition, the cladding
provides some mechanical strength to the core. The additional jacket provided protects the
fiber from moisture and abrasion (rubbing or scrapping away).
Many such fibers, each one protected by individual jackets, are grouped to form a cable.
A cable may consist of one to several hundred fibers.
In optical fibers, the core and cladding are made up of either plastic or glass, and it is
found that plastic fibers are flexible and inexpensive. Usually there are 3 types of optical
fibers based on the fiber material:
ˆ Glass core with glass cladding

ˆ Plastic core with plastic cladding

ˆ Glass core with plastic cladding

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 2.3. PROPAGATION MECHANISM IN AN OPTICAL FIBER

2.3 Propagation Mechanism in an Optical Fiber

A waveguide is a tubular structure through which energy of some sort could be guided in the
form of waves. Since light waves can be guided through a fiber, it is called light guide. It is
also called fiber wave guide or fiber light guide.

Figure 2.3: Propagation Mechanism in an Optical Fiber

The cladding in an optical fiber always has a lower refractive index than that of the core.
The light signal which enters into the core can strike the interface of the core and cladding
only at large angle of incidence (greater than critical angle), because of the ray geometry
shown in figure 2.3. Therefore the light signal undergoes total internal reflections many
times and the signal sustains its strength and also confines itself completely within the core
during propagation. Thus the optical fiber functions as a waveguide. Any sharp bends in
the core is avoided, since for sharp bends, the light fails to undergo total internal reflections
because of which the signal strength comes down drastically.
The main difference between regular reflection and total internal reflection is that in the
case of the latter, there is absolutely no absorption (loss) of light energy at the reflecting
surface; the entire incident energy is returned along the reflected light (which is not the case
in the former). Because of this phenomenon, optical fibers are able to sustain the light signal
transmission over very long distances in spite of large number of reflections that occurs within
the fiber.

2.4 Acceptance Angle and Numerical Aperture

Figure 2.4: Acceptance Angle and Numerical Aperture

Let us consider a ray having critical incidence at the core-cladding interface (see figure
2.4). Consider ray AO entering into the core at an angle θ0 to the fiber axis. Let it be

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 2.4. ACCEPTANCE ANGLE AND NUMERICAL APERTURE

refracted along OB at an angle θr in the core. It will proceed to fall at the critical angle of
incidence (= 90◦ − θr ) at B. Since it is a critical angle of incidence, the ray is refracted at
90◦ to the normal drawn at the interface i.e., it travels along the interface. Hence it is clear
that any ray which enters the core at an angle less than θ0 will have refracting angle less than
θr because of which its angle of incidence (90◦ − θr ) at the interface will become more than
critical angle of incidence, and it undergoes total internal reflection. On the other hand, if
the ray enters the core at an angle greater than θ0 , then, by following a similar argument, we
can say that the ray won’t undergo TIR at the core-cladding interface and will be refracted
into the cladding region and lost.
If AO is rotated, keeping θ0 constant, it describes a conical surface called the Acceptance
Cone. Only those rays which fall into the fiber within this acceptance cone will be totally
internally reflected and are confined within the fiber for propagation. Angle θ0 is called the
acceptance angle and its sine i.e., sin(θ0 ) is called the numerical aperture (N.A) of the fiber.
The light gathering capacity of the fiber is represented by the numerical aperture.
Let n0 , n1 , n2 be the refractive indices of surrounding medium, core and cladding of the
fiber respectively. Applying Snell’s law at O, the point of entry of the ray AO, we have

n0 sin(θ0 ) = n1 sin(θr ) (2.1)

Now, apply Snell’s law at B. We get

n1 sin(90◦ − θr ) = n2 sin(90◦ )
n1 cos(θr ) = n2

because sin(90◦ ) = 1 and sin(90◦ − θ) = cos(θ).

n2
=⇒ cos(θr ) = (2.2)
n1

Now 2.1 becomes p

n0 sin(θ0 ) = n1 1 − cos2 (θr ) (2.3)
p
because sin(θ) = 1 − cos2 (θ).
Substitute 2.2 in 2.3
s  2
n2
n0 sin(θ0 ) = n1 1−
n1
s
n21 − n22
n0 sin(θ0 ) = n1
n21
q
n0 sin(θ0 ) = n21 − n22

Therefore we have p
n21 − n22
N.A = sin(θ0 ) = (2.4)
n0
This is the expression for the numerical aperture (N.A) of an optical fiber given the
refractive indices of the media involved.
If the surrounding medium is air, then n0 = 1, and
q
sin(θ0 ) = n21 − n22 (2.5)

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 2.4. ACCEPTANCE ANGLE AND NUMERICAL APERTURE

If θi is the angle of incidence of an incoming ray at the point of entry O, then the ray will
propagate through the fiber (i.e., TIR will occur) only if

θi < θ0
sin(θi ) < sin(θ0 )
sin(θi ) < N.A

This is the condition for propagation of light in an optical fiber.

2.4.1 Worked Examples

Q 1. Calculate the numerical aperture and angle of acceptance for an optical fiber having
refractive indices 1.563 and 1.498 for core and cladding respectively.
Given:
n1 = 1.563, n2 = 1.498, n0 = 1
(since n0 is not given, we take it to be 1.)
To find: N.A and θ0
First let’s calculate N.A. We know that,
√
q
n1 2 − n2 2 (1.563)2 − (1.498)2
N.A = = = 0.4461
n0 1
Next, we’ll find theta0 . We know that,

θ0 = sin−1 (N.A) = sin−1 (0.4461) = 26.49◦

Q 2. Calculate numerical aperture, acceptance angle and critical angle of a fiber having a
core RI 1.50 and cladding RI 1.45.
Given:
n1 = 1.50, n2 = 1.45, n0 = 1
(since n0 is not given, we take it to be 1.)
To find: N.A, θ0 , and θc
First let’s calculate N.A. We know that,
√
q
2
n1 − n2 2 (1.5)2 − (1.45)2
N.A = = = 0.3841
n0 1
Next, we’ll find θ0 . We know that,

θ0 = sin−1 (N.A) = sin−1 (0.3841) = 22.58◦

Finally, let’s find θc (we had θc = 90◦ − θr in the derivation. Note that the question asks
us to find θc and not θr ). We know that,
   
−1 n2 −1 1.45
θc = sin = sin = 75.16◦
n1 1.5

Q 3. The angle of acceptance of an optical fiber is 30◦ when kept in air. Find the angle of
acceptance when it is in medium of refractive index 1.33.

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 2.5. TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBERS AND MODES OF PROPAGATION

Given:
θ0a = 30◦ (acceptance angle when fiber kept in air)
n0a = 1 (RI of surrounding when fiber kept in air)
n0m = 1.33 (RI of surrounding when fiber kept in medium)

To find:
θ0m =? (acceptance angle when fiber kept in medium)
We know that,
q
n0 sin(θ0 ) = n21 − n22

The RHS of this equation is independent of the surrounding medium, whereas the LHS
is dependent on the surrounding. This means that the product of the terms on the LHS is
constant no matter which medium the fiber is placed in. So we can say

n0m sin(θ0m ) = n0a sin(θ0a )

Rearranging the terms, we get

   
−1 n0a −1 1
θ0m = sin sin(θ0a ) = sin × sin(30 ) = 22.08◦
◦
n0 m 1.33

2.5 Types of Optical Fibers and Modes of Propagation

Figure 2.5: Classification of optical fibers

The classification of optical fibers can be made based on three major categories as shown
in figure 2.5, i.e., based on material used or number of modes or the refractive index (RI)
profile of the fiber.
What is a refractive index (RI) profile of a fiber? It is a plot of the refractive indices
(both core and cladding) of the fiber (on the y-axis) versus the diameter of the lateral cross
section of the fiber (on the x-axis). Sometimes this profile might also include the refractive
index of the surrounding medium.
Now, between the kinds mentioned above, there are three main types of optical fibers:

ˆ Step-index single mode fiber

ˆ Step-index multimode fiber

ˆ Graded-index multimode fiber

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 2.5. TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBERS AND MODES OF PROPAGATION

(b) Lateral cross section

(a) Longitudinal cross section

(c) RI Profile

Figure 2.6: Step-index single mode fiber

2.5.1 Step-index single mode fiber

A step-index single mode fiber consists of a very thin core of uniform refractive index n1
surrounded by a cladding of uniform refractive index n2 (see figure 2.6). The refractive index
abruptly changes at the core cladding boundary. This is reflected in the RI profile as shown
in figure 2.6c and is the reason why it is called a step-index fiber (RI changes step wise). The
diameter of the core is about 8 to 10 µm and external diameter of cladding is about 60 to 70
µm (see figure 2.6b). Since the core is narrow, it can guide just a single mode as shown in
figure 2.6a. Hence it is called a single mode fiber. Single mode fibers are the most commonly
used fibers and are moderately expensive among the three types. They need lasers as the
source of light. They find particular application in submarine cable system.

2.5.2 Step-index multimode fiber

(b) Lateral cross section

(a) Longitudinal cross section

(c) RI Profile

Figure 2.7: Step-index multimode fiber

A step-index multimode fiber consists of a large core of uniform refractive index n1 sur-

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 2.6. ATTENUATION

rounded by a cladding of uniform refractive index n2 (see figure 2.7). Just as before, the
refractive index abruptly changes at the core cladding boundary and the RI profile is as
shown in figure 2.7c with the main difference being that the line for n1 in the profile is longer
than before. The diameter of the core is about 50 to 200 µm and external diameter of cladding
is about 100 to 250 µm (see figure 2.7b). Since the core is large, it can guide more than one
mode as shown in figure 2.7a. Therefore it is called a multimode fiber. The rays travel in a
zig-zag manner, in which the high angle modes travel a longer distance as compared to the
low angle modes, causing modal dispersion. Therefore a sharp incoming pulse broadens as
it travels long distances in the fiber, which inturn limits the communication distance. These
are the least expensive of the three types.

2.5.3 Graded-index multimode fiber

(b) Lateral cross section

(a) Longitudinal cross section

(c) RI Profile

Figure 2.8: Graded-index multimode fiber

A graded-index multimode fiber, also known as GRIN fiber, has a similar shape to a step-
index multimode fiber (see figure 2.8), but it’s core is made of a special type of material that
has a refractive index that decreases continuously from the center to the outer edge of the
core. At the interface between the core and the cladding, the refractive index of the material
is equal to that of the cladding. The refractive index of the cladding remains uniform. The
refractive index profile is as shown in figure 2.8c. In this fiber, a number of modes can be
transmitted. The rays move in a sinusoidal path through the core. Light travels at a lower
speed in the high refractive index region of the core (around the center) than that in the low
refractive index region (near the edges). Since the fastest components of the rays take the
longer path and the slower components take the shorter path in the core, the time of travel
of the different modes will be almost similar. This reduces the effect of modal dispersion.
Therefore losses are minimum with only little pulse broadening. The source used is either a
laser or LED.

2.6 Attenuation
The loss of power suffered by the optical signal as it propagates through the fiber is called
attenuation. It is also called fiber loss.
Factors contributing to the attenuation in optical fiber are

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 2.6. ATTENUATION

ˆ Absorption losses.

ˆ Scattering losses.

ˆ Bending losses (Radiation losses).

ˆ Coupling losses.

2.6.1 Absorption Losses

This kind of loss of signal power occurs due to absorption of photons associated with the
signal.
There are two types:

1. Absorption by impurities: The impurities that are generally present in fiber glass
are iron, chromium, cobalt, and copper. During signal propagation, when photons
interact with these impurities, the electrons (in the impurities) absorb the photons and
get excited to higher energy level. Later these electrons give up their absorbed energy
either as heat or light energy. The re-emission of light is of no use, since it will usually
be in a different wavelength or in different phase with respect to the signal. Hence it is
a loss.

2. Intrinsic absorption: The fiber itself has a tendency to absorb light energy however
small it may be. Hence there will be a loss and is termed as intrinsic absorption.

2.6.2 Scattering Losses

This kind of loss occurs due to the scattering of light energy due to the obstructions caused
by imperfections and defects, which are of molecular size, present in the fiber itself. The scat-
tering of light by the obstructions is inversely proportional to the 4th power of the wavelength
of light transmitted through the fiber. Such a scattering is called Rayleigh scattering. The
loss due to the scattering can be minimized by using an optical source of large wavelength.

2.6.3 Bending Losses (Radiation Losses)

This kind of loss occurs due to bending of finite radius of curvature in optical fibers.

(a) Macroscopic Bending Loss (b) Microscopic Bending Loss

Figure 2.9: Bending Losses

There are two types

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 2.6. ATTENUATION

1. Macroscopic Bends: If the radius of the core is large compared to fiber diameter,
it may cause large-curvature at the position where the fiber cable turns at the corner.
At these corners the light will not satisfy the condition for total internal reflection and
hence it escapes out from the fiber (see figure 2.9a). This is called as macroscopic
bending losses. Also note that this loss is negligible for small bends.

2. Microscopic Bends: Microscopic bending losses are caused due to non-uniformities or

micro bends inside the fiber. These micro bends in the fiber appear due to non-uniform
pressures created during the cabling of the fiber or even during the manufacturing stage
itself. This leads to losses of light by leakage through the fiber (see figure 2.9b).

2.6.4 Coupling Losses

Coupling losses occur when the ends of different fibers are connected. At the junction of
coupling, a film may exist or a joint may be inclined or may be mismatched which can
produce a loss. This is known as coupling loss. This loss can be minimized by a technique
called splicing.

Attenuation Coefficient
The net attenuation in an optical fiber is given by a factor called the attenuation coefficient
(α) and its unit is dB/km. It is expressed by the relation
 
10 Pout
α = − log10
L Pin

where, Pin is the power of the input signal, Pout is the power of the output signal, and L is
the length of the fiber in km.

2.6.5 Worked Examples

Q 1. An optical fiber of 600 m long has input power of 120 mW which emerges out with
power of 90 mW. Find the attenuation in fiber.
Given:
L = 600 m = 0.6 km
Pin = 120 mW = 0.12 W
Pout = 90 mW = 0.09 W
To find: α =?
We know that,
   
−10 Pout (−10) 0.09
α= log10 = × log10 = 2.082 dB/km
L Pin 0.6 0.12

Q 2. The attenuation of light in an optical fiber is 3.6 dB/km. What fraction of its initial
intensity is remains after i) 1 km and ii) 3 km ?
Given:
α = 3.6 dB/km
i. L = 1 km ii. L = 3 km

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 2.7. APPLICATIONS OF FIBER OPTICS

To find:
Pout
=?
Pin
We know that,  
−10 Pout
α= log10
L Pin
Rearranging the terms, we get
Pout −αL
= 10 10
Pin
First, we will find for L = 1 km

Pout −3.6×1
= 10 10 = 0.4365
Pin

Next, we will find for L = 3 km

Pout −3.6×3
= 10 10 = 0.08318
Pin

2.7 Applications of Fiber Optics

2.7.1 Fiber Optic Communication
Principle
The purpose of any kind of communication system is to transfer inforation from one point
(source) to another (destination). If the information is sent as light signals with the help of
optical fibers, then we call that system as a fiber optic communication system.

Figure 2.10: Point-to-point Communication System

Construction
The block diagram of an optical fiber communication system is shown in figure 2.10. It
consists of an information source, coder, optical transmitter, optical fiber, photodetector,
amplifier, and a decoder.

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 2.7. APPLICATIONS OF FIBER OPTICS

Working

Analog information such as voice of a telephone user gives rise to electrical signal in analog
form. The coder converts the analog signal into binary data which comes out as a stream
of electrical pulses. These electrical pulses are transformed into optical power with the help
of a light source such as laser; this unit is called as optical transmitter from which the
optical power is fed into the fiber. The light will travel along the fiber by undergoing total
internal reflections. Finally, at the receiving end, the optical signal from the fiber is fed into
a photodetector, where the signal is converted into pulses of electric current which is then
fed to decoder which converts the binary data into analog signal which will bow be the same
information as the input voice signal.

2.7.2 Fiber Optic Networking

Figure 2.11: Passive Optical Network

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a type of computer network that interconnects multiple
computers and computer-driven devices in a particular physical location. Traditionlly copper
coaxial cables are used for LAN. A Passive Optical Network (PON) is a type of fiber optic
network that uses a passive optical splitter to divide the fiber optic signal into multiple
downstream signals, allowing a single fiber optic line to serve multiple customers or devices.
The net result of this system (which could be referred to as, for example, FTTH (fiber to the
home)) is that each customer no longer needs to be connected to the hub by separate cables.
As seen in figure 2.11, a typical PON is comprised of multiple ONUs (Optical Network
Units) and OLTs (Optical Line Terminations). Generally, an OLT is located at the central
office of the server provider, with as many as 32 ONUs situated close to the end users. The
’passive’ part of the nomenclature refers to the fact that while the optical signal is traversing
the network, there are no active electronic parts, and no power is needed. A PON uses non-
powered optical splitters to separate signals as they progress through the network, sharing
strands of fiber optics for different parts of network architecture. Because PONs only require
power at the transmitting and receiving ends of the network and can serve up to 32 users
with a single strand of fiber, they offer an option that’s both cheaper to build and to maintain
than an Active Optical Network (AON).

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 2.8. ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBERS

2.8 Advantages of Optical Fibers

ˆ Optical fiber material are easily available.

ˆ Optical fibers carry very large amount of information in either digital or analog form.

ˆ Cost of optical fiber communication is less compared to the other modes of communi-
cation.

ˆ Optical fibers are light in weight and compact, so the transformation is easy.

ˆ Optical fibers cannot be tapped as easily as electrical cables.

ˆ Optical fibers do not carry electricity; therefore no shock hazard.

ˆ Optical fibers are not effected by lightning or sparkling.

ˆ Optical fibers do not radiate energy.

ˆ Optical fibers protect the electrical signal from corrosive and flammable environments.

2.9 Disadvantages of Optical Fibers

ˆ Optical connectors used for connecting two fibers are highly expensive.

ˆ Whenever a fiber suffers a line break, operations required to establish the connections
are highly skillful and time consuming.

ˆ Fibers undergo expansion and contraction with temperature that upset some critical
alignments, which lead to loss in signal power.

ˆ Maintenance cost of the systems with optical fiber is very high.

ˆ Optical fibers break if sharply bent.

2.10 Model and Previous Year Questions

Q 1. What is refractive index profile? Discuss three different types of optical fibres based
on modes of propagation and refractive index profile.
Q 2. Define acceptance angle and numerical aperture. Derive an expression for numerical
aperture in terms of refractive indices of core, cladding and surrounding.
Q 3. Define the terms: (i) angle of acceptance, (ii) numerical aperture, (iii) modes of
propagation and (iv) refractive index profile.
Q 4. Describe attenuation and explain the various fiber losses.
Q 5. Discuss Point to Point communication using optical fibers.
Q 6. Explain the Fiber Optic Networking and mention its advantages.

Department of Physics 31 Physics for CSE Stream Notes

AMC Engineering College BPHYS102/202
Bengaluru-560083 Prof. Nithin Manju
 2.11. NUMERICALS

2.11 Numericals
2.11.1 Numerical aperture, acceptance angle

Q 1. An optical fiber has a numerical aperture of 0.32. The refractive index of cladding is
1.48. Calculate the refractive index of the core and the acceptance angle of the fiber.
Q 2. An optical fiber has core RI 1.5 and RI of cladding is 3% less than the core index.
Calculate the numerical aperture, the angle of acceptance, and the critical angle.
Q 3. Given the Numerical Aperture 0.30 and RI of core 1.49 Calculate the critical angle for
the core-cladding interface.
Q 4. The numerical aperture of an optical fiber is 0.2 when surrounded by air. Determine
the RI of its core, given the RI of the cladding is 1.59. Also find the acceptance angle when
the fiber is in water of RI 1.33.

2.11.2 Attenuation

Q 1. Obtain the attenuation co-efficient of the given fiber of length 1500 m given the input
and output power 100 mW and 70 mW.
Q 2. An optical signal propagating in a fiber retains 85% of input power after traveling a
distance of 500 m in the fiber. Calculate the attenuation coefficient.
Q 3. The attenuation of light in an optical fiber is 2.2 dB/km. What fraction of its initial
intensity is remains after i) 2 km and ii) 6 km ?

Department of Physics 32 Physics for CSE Stream Notes

AMC Engineering College BPHYS102/202
Bengaluru-560083 Prof. Nithin Manju