AMC ENGINEERING COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

Module 4 Notes

Electrical Properties of Materials and Applications

I/II SEMESTER Physics for CSE Stream

Subject code: BPHYS102/202
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Contents

1 Electrical Conductivity in Metals 5

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Failures of Classical Free Electron Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.1 Specific Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.2 Dependance of Electrical Conductivity on Temperature . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.3 Dependance of Electrical Conductivity on Electron Concentration . . 7
1.3 Concept of Phonon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Mattheissen’s rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 Quantum Free Electron Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5.1 Assumptions of Quantum Free Electron Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5.2 Density of States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5.3 Fermi Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.6 Fermi-Dirac Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.6.1 Dependence of Fermi Factor on Temperature and Energy . . . . . . . 10
1.6.2 Worked Examples/Numericals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.7 Model and Previous Year Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2 Superconductivity 15
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.1.2 Critical Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.1.3 Variation of resistivity with temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2 Meissner’s Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.1 Critical Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2.2 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3 Types of Superconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3.1 Type I superconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3.2 Type II superconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4 BCS Theory of Superconductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.5 High-temperature Superconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.6 Quantum Tunnelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.7 Josephson Junction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.7.1 DC Josephson Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.7.2 AC Josephson Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.8 SQUID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.8.1 Flux Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.8.2 DC SQUID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.8.3 RF SQUID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.9 Applications of superconductors in quantum computing . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

3
 CONTENTS

2.9.1 Charge qubit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

2.9.2 Flux qubit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.9.3 Phase qubit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.10 Model and Previous Year Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.11 Numericals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Department of Physics 4 Physics for CSE Stream Notes

AMC Engineering College BPHYS102/202
Bengaluru-560083 Prof. Nithin Manju
Chapter 1

Electrical Conductivity in Metals

Syllabus
Electrical Conductivity in Metals
Resistivity and Mobility, Concept of Phonon, Matheissen’s rule, Failures of Classical Free
Electron Theory, Assumptions of Quantum Free Electron Theory, Fermi Energy, Den-
sity of States, Fermi Factor, Variation of Fermi Factor With Temperature and Energy.
Numerical Problems.

1.1 Introduction
Metallic solids have atoms bound together by metallic bonds. In such solids, the valence
electrons are free to move about in the whole body of the solid and hence contribute to
conduction in it. Such electrons do not belong to a particular atom but belong to the
material as a whole. Normally, one or two electrons per atom are free electrons and they
move about randomly in the absence of electric field. This motion is identical with the motion
of molecules in a gas, and hence it is called electron gas. This electron gas is responsible for
high electrical and thermal conductivity in metals.

Classical Free Electron Theory of Metals (Only for reference)

Drude and Lorentz developed the classical free electron theory based on the following as-
sumptions:

ˆ Metal atoms have some of the valence electrons freely moving about in the body of
the metal. These electrons are called free electrons or conduction electrons as they
contribute to conduction in the metal.

ˆ The electrostatic force of attraction between the free electron and the ion cores is negli-
gible. Also, the electrostatic force of repulsion amongst the free electrons is negligible.

ˆ Due to the above assumption, we can say that the free electrons are equivalent to
molecules in a gas and thus are assumed to obey the laws of kinetic theory of gases.
In the absence of external electric field, they are at random motion and their average
1 2 3
kinetic energy is given by mvth = kB T , where vth is the average thermal velocity of
2 2
the electrons, m is the mass of the electron, kB is the Boltzmann’s constant, and T is
the temperature.

5
 1.2. FAILURES OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY

ˆ Inside the metal, the electric potential due to the ionic cores is constant and the elec-
trons cannot escape from the metal due to the potential barrier at the surface.

Terminologies
Thermal Velocity (vth ): The average velocity of random motion of free electrons within
the body of the metal in the absence of external field is called thermal velocity.

Mean Free Path (λ): It is the average distance travelled by the free electrons between
successive collisions with the lattice ions.

Mean collision time (τ ): The average time interval between successive collisions of the
free electrons with the lattice ions is called mean collision time. If v is the average velocity
of electrons and λ is the mean free path, then τ = λ/v.

Drift velocity (vd ): When an electric field is applied across the metal, some of the free
electrons acquire a constant, terminal velocity in a direction opposite to that of the field.
This steady and very small velocity is called drift velocity.

Current Density (J): It is the electric current (I) passing normally through unit area of
cross-section (A) of the conductor, i.e., J = I/A. But we know that I = nAevd . Therefore,
J = nevd , where n is number density of electrons, e is charge of electrons, vd is drift velocity
of electrons. Unit of current density is Am−2 .

Electric Field (E): It is the potential difference (V ) across unit length (L) of a conductor,
i.e., E = V /L. Unit of electric filed is Vm−1 .

Conductivity (σ): It is the quantity that characterizes the ability of a material to conduct
electricity. It is the reciprocal of resistivity (ρ), i.e., σ = 1/ρ. (Resistivity is the property
of the material by virtue of which the flow of current through it is opposed.) As per the
classical free electron theory, we have

ne2 τ
σ=
m

where n is the free electron concentration, e is charge of electron, m is mass of electron and
τ is the mean collision time.

Mobility (µ): It is the magnitude of drift velocity (vd ) acquired per unit electric field (E),
i.e.,
vd
µ=
E
eEτ
But vd = m . So we have
eτ
µ=
m

1.2 Failures of Classical Free Electron Theory

The classical free electron theory could successfully explain electrical and thermal conduction
in metals. But it could not account for specific heat of metals, temperature and free electron
concentration dependence of electrical conductivity.

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 1.2. FAILURES OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY

1.2.1 Specific Heat

According to the classical theory, the molar heat capacity of free electrons in a metal is 32 R.
However, the experimentally determined molar heat capacity of metals is 10−4 RT , which
is very much lower than the theoretically predicted value and also shows a dependence on
temperature which is not predicted by the classical free electron theory.

1.2.2 Dependance of Electrical Conductivity on Temperature

According to the assumption of classical free electron theory, we have
1 2 3 √
mvth = kB T =⇒ vth ∝ T
2 2
Since mean collision time is inversely proportional to thermal velocity, we can write
1 1
τ∝ =⇒ τ ∝ √
vth T
But we know that
ne2 τ
σ=
m
σ∝τ
1
=⇒ σ ∝ √
T
So from theory, we see that conductivity is inversely proportional to the square root of
temperature. But experimentally, it was found that conductivity was inversely proportional
to temperature, i.e., σ ∝ T1 . Thus the classical theory couldn’t explain the temperature
dependance of conductivity.

1.2.3 Dependance of Electrical Conductivity on Electron Concentration

ne2 τ
From the expression for electrical conductivity σ = , conductivity is directly propor-
m
tional to the electron density n. Hence, divalent and trivalent metals should possess much
higher electrical conductivity than monovalent metals. This is contrary to the experimental
observation that silver and copper (monovalent metals) are more conducting than zinc and
aluminium (divalent and trivalent metals). The experimental values of conductivity of some
metals are listed below:

Electron
Conductivity σ
Type Metals Concentration n
(Sm−1 )
(cm−3 )
Copper 5.88 × 107 8.4 × 1028
Monovalent
Silver 4.5 × 107 5.8 × 1028
Zinc 1.09 × 107 13 × 1028
Divalent
Cadmium 0.15 × 107 9.2 × 1028
Aluminium 3.65 × 107 18.06 × 1028
Trivalent
Silver 0.67 × 107 15.3 × 1028

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 1.3. CONCEPT OF PHONON

From the above values it is clear that the conductivity is low for metals with high electron
concentration and conductivity high for those metals with lower electron concentration. Thus
classical free electron theory could not explain the dependence of conductivity on free electron
concentration.

1.3 Concept of Phonon

In the free electron theory, electrons in a crystal are treated as if they move independently,
almost as if they were free particles in a metal. However, in reality, the crystal lattice, which
consists of atoms or ions held in a regular repeating pattern, is not completely still. The atoms
or ions in the lattice are in constant motion, vibrating about their equilibrium positions due
to thermal energy. These vibrations give rise to what we call as phonons. Phonons represent
the vibrational modes of atoms or ions in a crystal lattice.
Phonons are quantized units of lattice vibrations, similar to how photons are quantized
units of light. They carry both energy and momentum. When an electron moves through
the crystal lattice, it can interact with phonons. These interactions can scatter electrons,
leading to phenomena like electrical resistance and heat conduction. Phonons play a crucial
role in understanding the behavior of electrons in a crystal, especially in explaining why some
materials conduct electricity well while others do not.

1.4 Mattheissen’s rule

Matthiessen’s rule is a principle that describes the total electrical resistivity of a crystalline
material as the sum of its individual resistivities due to various scattering mechanisms.
In a crystalline material, the flow of electrical current is impeded by various scattering
mechanisms that electrons encounter as they move through the lattice. These mechanisms can
include impurities, defects, lattice vibrations (phonons), and electron-electron interactions.
Matthiessen’s rule states that the total electrical resistivity of the material is the sum of the
resistivities associated with each of these scattering processes.
Mathematically, it can be expressed as:

ρtotal = ρimpurities + ρdefects + ρphonons + ρelectron-electron interactions + . . .

Each term on the right side represents the contri-

bution to the resistivity due to a specific scattering
mechanism. By considering these individual contribu-
tions, Matthiessen’s rule provides a way to estimate
the total resistivity of a material.
But for our discussion, to make things simpler,
we will say there are two kinds of contributions to-
wards the total resistivity: a temperature-independent
resistivity (ρ0 ) due to impurities and a temperature-
dependent resistivity (ρT ) which is the sum of all other
resistivities. So we can write Mattheissen’s rule simply
as:
ρtotal = ρ0 + ρT
The variation of resistivity with temperature for
Figure 1.1: Mattheissen’s rule
pure and impure metals is as shown in figure 1.1.

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 1.5. QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY

1.5 Quantum Free Electron Theory

The partial failure of classical free electron theory led Somerfield to propose the quantum
free electron theory. He retained some of the assumptions of classical theory and introduced
a few new ones.

1.5.1 Assumptions of Quantum Free Electron Theory

ˆ The valence electrons are free to move about inside the metal. But they cannot escape
from the metal due to the potential barrier at the surface.

ˆ The force of attraction between the free electrons and the ionic core and the force of
repulsion between electrons is negligible.

ˆ The potential inside the metal is constant.

ˆ The energies of electrons are quantized.

ˆ The allowed discrete energy levels obey Pauli’s exclusion principle, accord-
ing to which no two electrons in an energy level can have the same set of
quantum numbers.

What is meant by ’energy is quantized’ ?

Before the advent of quantum mechanics, the prevailing belief was that the energy of any
given system could span an entire continuum from 0 to ∞ (which means any possible real
number). However, subsequent observations revealed that discrete (non-continuous or
specific) values of energy were characteristic of certain microscopic systems. For instance,
the energy states of a hydrogen atom, the conduction and valence bands in solids, and
the energy levels of a particle confined to a one-dimensional box (refer module 2) all
exemplify this phenomenon. This concept of non-continuous, distinct energy values led to
the term ”quantum” (derived from the Latin word for quantity) mechanics. Importantly,
it’s worth noting that quantization doesn’t solely apply to energy; it extends to other
physical attributes such as angular momentum and particle ”spin” (spin is a property
of electrons just like mass and charge, but don’t think of it as physical spinning).
So in the context of quantum free electron theory, we make the assumption that electrons
within a metal do not possess an arbitrary range of energy values; instead, they are
restricted to specific, discrete energy values. This gives rise to the idea of a energy level
diagram, where along a vertical y-axis, we depict horizontal lines (levels) stacked one
above the other to represent distinct energy values accessible to electrons within the
metal. As you ascend on this diagram, the energy values increase. On these levels,
we place dots to symbolize electrons (and we say the level is occupied by electron(s)).
Importantly, there is a limit to the number of dots on each level, as dictated by Pauli’s
exclusion principle: a maximum of two electrons, each with opposite spin, can occupy
a single energy level. Consequently, as you progress from the bottom, you can place a
maximum of two dots on each energy level until all electrons are have been accounted
for. At temperatures above 0 K, some energy levels may lack electrons or may contain
only a single electron.

1.5.2 Density of States

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 1.6. FERMI-DIRAC STATISTICS

Density of states g(E) is defined as the number of available en-

ergy states (or levels) per unit energy range per unit volume,
about a given energy E. From quantum mechanical consider-
ations, it can be shown that for a metal
√
8 2πm3/2 1/2
g(E)dE = E dE
h3
where h is Planck’s constant and m is mass of electron.
In simple words, the density of states tells us how many
energy levels are available in a small energy-region dE around
energy E. A plot of g(E) versus E is as shown in figure 1.2, Figure 1.2: g(E) vs. E
which we see is a parabola. The above formula says that if we
have a fixed size of energy-region dE and we move to higher energy values, then the number
of energy levels around those energy values increases. Note that this only tells us how many
energy levels are available and not how many are occupied by electrons.

1.5.3 Fermi Energy

The highest energy that an electron can possess at 0 K in a metal is called Fermi energy and
is denoted by EF . The corresponding energy level is called the Fermi level (or Fermi energy
level). At 0 K, all the energy levels above Fermi level are empty and all those below the Fermi
level are completely filled, which will be shown later.

1.6 Fermi-Dirac Statistics

At temperatures above 0 K, one cannot tell with certainty whether a particular energy level
will be occupied by an electron or not. Consequently, we need to assign probabilities to each
energy level indicating the likelihood of it being occupied. For example, under thermal equi-
librium, the free electrons occupy various energy levels in accordance with a statistical rule
known as Fermi-Dirac statistics. Fermi-Dirac statistics enables the evaluation of probability
of finding electron in energy levels over a certain range of energy values. The evaluation is
done with the help of a quantity called Fermi factor f (E) given by
1
f (E) = E−EF (1.1)
1+e kB T

Fermi factor is the probability of occupation of a given energy state for a material at
thermal equilibrium.

1.6.1 Dependence of Fermi Factor on Temperature and Energy

Since most measurements are made at room temperature, we must consider the effect of
temperature on the electron gas. So it is important to know the variation of Fermi-Dirac
distribution function with respect to temperature.

Case 1: f (E) for E < EF at T = 0 K

E − EF
When E < EF and T = 0 K, becomes −∞. Therefore (1.1) becomes
kB T
1
f (E < EF ) = =1
T =0 K 1 + e−∞

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 1.6. FERMI-DIRAC STATISTICS

Figure 1.3: Variation of Fermi factor with energy for different temperatures

because e−∞ = 0.
This means that at T = 0 K, all the energy levels below the Fermi level are fully occupied
by electrons, i.e., there is 100% probability of finding an electron below the Fermi energy
level at absolute zero temperature.

Case 2: f (E) for E > EF at T = 0 K

E − EF
When E > EF and T = 0 K, becomes ∞. Therefore (1.1) becomes
kB T

1
f (E > EF ) = =0
T =0 K 1 + e∞

because e∞ = ∞.
This means that at T = 0 K, none of the energy levels above the Fermi level are occupied
by electrons, i.e., there is 0% probability of finding an electron above the Fermi energy level
at absolute zero temperature.

Case 3: f (E) for E = EF at T > 0 K

E − EF
When E = EF and T > 0 K, becomes 0. Therefore (1.1) becomes
kB T

1 1
f (E = EF ) = =
T >0 K 1 + e0 2

because e0 = 1.
This means that at T > 0 K, there is 50% probability of finding an electron at the Fermi
energy level.
Figure 1.3 shows the variation of the Fermi factor with energy for different temperatures.

1.6.2 Worked Examples/Numericals

Q 1. Calculate the probability of occupation of an energy level 0.2 eV above fermi level at
temperature 27 ◦ C.

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 1.6. FERMI-DIRAC STATISTICS

Given:

E = EF + 0.2 eV
E − EF = 0.2eV = 0.2 × 1.6 × 10−19
E − EF = 3.2 × 10−20 J

T = 27 ◦ C = 27 + 300 = 300 K
To find: f (E) =?
We know that,
1 1
f (E) = E−EF = 3.2×10−20
= 4.395 × 10−4
1+e kB T
1+e 1.38×10−23 ×300

f (E) = 4.395 × 10−4

Q 2. Find the temperature at which there is 1% probability that a state with an energy
0.5 eV above Fermi energy is occupied.
Given:
f (E) = 1% = 0.01

E = EF + 0.5 eV
E − EF = 0.5eV = 0.5 × 1.6 × 10−19
E − EF = 8 × 10−20 J

To find: T =?
We know that,
1
f (E) = E−EF
1+e kB T

Rearranging the terms, we get,

E − EF 8 × 10−20
T =  = 1

= 1262 K
1
kB ln f (E) −1 1.38 × 10−23 × ln 0.01 −1

T = 1262 K

Q 3. The Fermi level in potassium is 2.1 eV. What is the energy of the energy level for which
the probability of occupation at 300 K is 0.98?
Given:
EF = 2.1eV = 2.1 × 1.6 × 10−19 = 3.36 × 10−19 J

T = 300 K
f (E) = 0.98
To find: E =?

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 1.7. MODEL AND PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

We know that,
1
f (E) = E−EF
1+e kB T

Rearranging the terms, we get,

 
1
E = EF + kB T ln −1
f (E)
 
1
= 3.36 × 10−19 + 1.38 × 10−23 × 300 × ln −1
0.98
E = 3.199 × 10−19 J

In eV,
E = 1.999 eV

1.7 Model and Previous Year Questions

Q 1. Enumerate the failures of classical free electron theory and discuss the assumptions of
quantum free electron theory of metals.
Q 2. Define Fermi energy level. Discuss various energy states by the electrons at T = 0 K
and T > 0 K on the basis of fermi factor.
Q 3. Define Fermi factor. Discuss the variation of Fermi factor with temperature and energy.

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This page was intentionally left blank.
Chapter 2

Superconductivity

Syllabus
Superconductivity
Introduction to Super Conductors, Temperature dependence of resistivity, Meissner Ef-
fect, Critical Field, Temperature dependence of Critical field, Types of Super Conductors,
BCS theory (Qualitative), Quantum Tunneling, High Temperature superconductivity,
Josephson Junctions (Qualitative), DC and RF SQUIDs (Qualitative), Applications in
Quantum Computing : Charge, Phase and Flux qubits. Numerical Problems.

2.1 Introduction
The story of superconductivity begins with Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, a Dutch physicist, who
was conducting experiments at the University of Leiden during 1911. He was particularly
interested in the behavior of materials at extremely low temperatures, using a specialized
cryogenic apparatus to achieve temperatures very close to absolute zero (−273.15 ◦ C or 0 K).
Kamerlingh Onnes focused his attention on mercury, a common element, which he cooled
to near-absolute-zero temperatures. His goal was to study how the electrical resistance of
materials changes as they approach these incredibly low temperatures. To his amazement,
he observed something extraordinary: as the temperature of the mercury dropped below a
critical point, its electrical resistance suddenly and inexplicably vanished. This meant that
electricity could flow through the material without any loss of energy due to resistance.
This phenomenon was so surprising that Kamerlingh Onnes initially doubted the accuracy
of his own measurements. He meticulously repeated his experiments and found the same
result every time. This marked the first documented observation of superconductivity, a
term that would later be coined to describe materials that exhibit this remarkable property.
Onnes’ original graph depicting R vs. T for mercury (Hg) can be seen in figure 2.1.
He published his findings in 1911, describing the sudden drop in electrical resistance as a
”zero resistance” state. This groundbreaking discovery earned him the Nobel Prize in Physics
in 1913. Kamerlingh Onnes and his colleagues continued to investigate superconductivity,
exploring other materials that exhibited this behavior and laying the foundation for future
research into the underlying mechanisms.
Kamerlingh Onnes’ discovery of superconductivity not only expanded our understanding
of the behavior of matter at low temperatures but also sparked intense interest and research
into the unique properties of superconducting materials. It set the stage for subsequent
discoveries, the development of theoretical explanations like the BCS theory, and eventually,

15
 2.2. MEISSNER’S EFFECT

Figure 2.1: Onnes’ original graph with

resistance on y-axis and temperature on x-axis

the practical applications of superconductors in a wide range of technologies.

2.1.1 Definition
Thus superconductivity can be defined as follows: Superconductivity is the phenomenon in
which the resistance of certain materials abruptly drops to zero below a certain temperature.
And superconductors are materials which exhibit the phenomenon of superconductivity.

2.1.2 Critical Temperature

The temperature below which materials exhibit superconducting property is called critical
temperature and is denoted by Tc . Critical temperature is different for different materials.
Above the critical temperature, the material is said to be in normal state where it offers
resistance for the flow of electric current. Below the critical temperature, the material is said
to be in superconducting state where it exhibits superconducting behavior. Thus Tc is also
called as transition temperature.

2.1.3 Variation of resistivity with temperature

The variation of resistivity of superconductors with temperature is as shown in figure 2.2.
This figure also shows the variation of pure and impure metals, which was seen in figure 1.1,
for comparison.

2.2 Meissner’s Effect

Walther Meissner, a German physicist, and Robert Ochsenfeld were conducting experiments
with superconductors at the University of Tübingen. They were particularly interested in
the behavior of superconducting materials in the presence of magnetic fields. Up to that

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 2.2. MEISSNER’S EFFECT

Figure 2.2: Variation of resistivity with temperature

point, researchers had already discovered the remarkable property of superconductivity -

zero electrical resistance - but its interaction with magnetic fields remained unexplored.
During their experiments, Meissner and Ochsenfeld observed something extraordinary:
when a superconducting material was cooled to its superconducting transition temperature
and placed in a magnetic field, it exhibited an unexpected behavior. The magnetic field lines
were not simply repelled; instead, they were expelled from the interior of the superconductor.
This expulsion of magnetic flux created a unique effect in which the superconductor became
a perfect diamagnet, meaning it experienced no magnetic field within its bulk.
The Meissner effect not only demonstrated that superconductors could expel magnetic
fields but also highlighted that this phenomenon was a bulk property of superconducting
materials, rather than a surface effect. It also laid the groundwork for the development
of superconducting materials for powerful magnets used in technologies such as magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) and particle accelerators.

Figure 2.3: Meissner’s Effect

Figure 2.3 shows an illustration of the Meissner’s effect, with B representing the magnetic
flux density and the sphere representing a solid superconductor. At temperatures exceeding
the critical temperature (T > Tc ), the material remains in its normal state, allowing mag-
netic field lines to permeate it. Conversely, when the temperature falls below the critical

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 2.2. MEISSNER’S EFFECT

temperature (T < Tc ), the material transitions into a superconducting state, leading to the
expulsion of magnetic field lines from the sphere’s interior.
Now to prove that Meissner’s effect leads to perfect diamagnetism, we will consider the
following relation taken from the theory of electromagnetism:

B = µ0 (M + H)

where B is the magnetic flux density, M is the magnetization, and H is the magnetic field
strength.

Note:
Magnetic field strength (H) represents the intensity of magnetic field generated by an
external current or a magnetizing force. Its unit is A/m (ampere per meter).
Magnetization (M ) quantifies the extent to which a material becomes magnetized when
subjected to an external magnetic field. Its unit is also A/m.
Magnetic flux density (B) represents the intensity of a magnetic field within a material
or space. Its unit is T (tesla) or Wb/m2 (weber per meter-square).
Basically, when a material is exposed to an external magnetic field, the strength of that
applied field is denoted as H. Due to the applied field, the material gets magnetized and
produces its own magnetic field whose strength is denoted as M . The overall magnetic
flux that is present in the material due to the external field and the material’s own field
is denoted as B.

Since the magnetic field lines are completely expelled from the bulk of the superconductor,
we can say that the magnetic flux density is zero inside the superconductor, i.e., B = 0. So
we have

0 = µ0 (M + H)
M +H =0
M
= −1
H
=⇒ χm = −1

where χm = M H is called the magnetic susceptibility of the material (magnetic susceptibility is

a dimensionless quantity that indicates the degree of magnetization of a material in response
to an applied magnetic field).
A material which has χm = −1 is said to be perfectly diamagnetic. So our superconduct-
ing material exhibits perfect diamagnetism when it is below its critical temperature.

Origin of Meissner’s effect

In the presence of an external magnetic field, superconducting materials adhere to Lenz’s
law. This law dictates that a changing magnetic field induces eddy currents within the su-
perconductor. These eddy currents generate magnetic fields of their own, which counteract
and repel the external magnetic field. Consequently, the superconductor effectively resists
the intrusion of the magnetic field, preventing it from permeating the material. These unique
currents are not your typical electric currents; they are referred to as ”supercurrents.” They
are persistent flows of electrons that encounter no resistance. These supercurrents are excep-
tionally efficient, expelling any magnetic flux attempting to penetrate the material, resulting
in the expulsion of all magnetic flux from within the material’s bulk.

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 2.2. MEISSNER’S EFFECT

Figure 2.4: Critical field vs temperature

2.2.1 Critical Field

Can the superconductor keep expelling the magnetic field lines if we keep increasing the
external field indefinitely? No. It is found that there is a limit to how much external field
a superconductor can expel before turning into its normal state. This limit is called the
critical field. Formally, the critical field represents the maximum magnetic field strength that
a superconducting material can tolerate before it transitions from a superconducting state to
a normal (non-superconducting) state. It is denoted as Hc .
However, it’s important to note that it’s feasible to recover the superconducting state
even when the applied magnetic field surpasses the critical field. It has been observed that by
further reducing the temperature, the superconducting state can be reinstated. Consequently,
this implies an increase in the critical field value, necessitating a much higher magnetic field
to disrupt superconductivity.
Then, according to the above discussion, we can say that the critical field is dependent
on temperature, i.e., Hc (T ). This relation is mathematically written as follows:

T2
 
Hc (T ) = H0 1 − 2
Tc

where Hc (T ) is the critical field at some temperature T , H0 is the critical field at 0 K temper-
ature, Tc is the critical temperature of the material. Tc and H0 are characteristic values for a
specific material and are fixed. The above relation tells us that if we decrease the temperature
of the material, the critical field (the amount of field required to break superconductivity)
increases.
Figure 2.4 shows the variation of critical with temperature. Superconductivity is man-
ifested in a material when its temperature and critical field value combination falls within
the shaded area. Conversely, if the temperature and critical field value pair falls outside this
region, the material will remain in its normal state.

The above expression for critical field can also be written in terms of the magnetic flux
density as follows:
T2
 
Bc (T ) = B0 1 − 2
Tc
where Bc (T ) and B0 represent the critical field at temperature T and 0 K respectively,
with units of tesla.

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 2.2. MEISSNER’S EFFECT

Origin of critical field

If superconductors were devoid of any critical field limitation, it would imply an ability to
expel an infinite amount of magnetic fields. However, this would necessitate the presence of
infinite supercurrents, which in turn would require infinite energy - a physical impossibility.
Alternatively, envision that as supercurrents increase indefinitely, electrons would eventually
attain speeds surpassing the speed of light, violating fundamental physical constraints. Thus,
superconductors possess a characteristic limit to the magnetic field they can sustain before
forfeiting their superconducting property.

2.2.2 Worked Examples

Q 1. Lead has superconducting transition temperature of 7.26 K. If the initial field at 0 K is

50 × 103 A/m, calculate the critical field at 6 K.
Given:
Tc = 7.26 K
H0 = 50 × 103 A/m = 5 × 104 A/m
T = 6K
To find: Hc =?
We know that,
" #
2
T2
 
(6)
Hc = H0 1 − 2 = 5 × 104 × 1 − = 1.585 × 104 A/m
Tc (7.26)2

Hc = 1.585 × 104 A/m

Q 2. Superconducting tin has a critical magnetic field of 0.0217 T at 2 K. If the critical

temperature for superconducting transition for tin is 3.7 K, find the critical magnetic field at
3 K.
Given:
Note that the critical field at 0 K is not given.

Tc = 3.7 K

T1 = 2 K
Bc1 = 0.0217 T
T2 = 3 K
To find: Bc2 =?
We know that,
T2
 
Bc (T ) = B0 1 − 2
Tc
We need to write this for two different temperatures, i.e.,

T12 T22
   
Bc1 (T1 ) = B0 1 − 2 and Bc2 (T2 ) = B0 1 − 2
Tc Tc

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 2.3. TYPES OF SUPERCONDUCTORS

Taking the ratio of the second expression with the first, we get

(3)2
h 2
i h i
1 − TT2 2 1 − (3.7) 2
c
Bc2 = Bc1 h i = 0.0217 × h 2
i = 0.0105 T
T1 2 (2)
1− T 2 1 − (3.7) 2
c

Bc2 = 0.0105 T

2.3 Types of Superconductors

Superconductors are classified into two types:

1. Type I superconductors

2. Type II superconductors

(Very creative names, I know.)

Figure 2.5: Type I Superconductor Figure 2.6: Type II Superconductor

2.3.1 Type I superconductors

Type I superconductors demonstrate complete Meissner’s effect and are characterized by a
single critical field value. The graph depicting negative magnetization versus magnetic field
strength for these superconductors is illustrated in figure 2.5. With increasing field strength,
the material exhibits an increasingly diamagnetic response until the field strength equals
Hc . Beyond this threshold, the material permits flux lines to penetrate, leading to normal
conductivity.
These superconductors possess an exceptionally low critical field value, rendering them
vulnerable to high magnetic fields. Because magnetization abruptly vanishes upon reach-
ing the critical field, they are often termed ”soft superconductors” and hence have limited
practical applications. Examples of Type I superconductors include Hg, Pb, and Zn.

2.3.2 Type II superconductors

Type II superconductors exhibit both complete and partial Meissner’s effects, depending on
the magnetic field, and are characterized by two distinct critical field values, denoted as
Hc1 and Hc2 , with Hc1 < Hc2 . The graph illustrating the relationship between negative

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 2.4. BCS THEORY OF SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

magnetization and magnetic field strength for these superconductors is provided in figure
2.6.
As the field strength increases, the material increasingly displays a perfect diamagnetic
response (superconducting state), progressing until the field strength equals Hc1 . Beyond
this first critical field, the magnetization starts to gradually decrease as the magnetic field
continues to rise (as opposed to the abrupt drop seen in Type I superconductors) until it
reaches Hc2 . In this phase between Hc1 and Hc2 , also called the Vortex state, the material
exhibits partial Meissner’s effect, allowing limited magnetic flux penetration. Beyond the
second critical field, the material permits the passage of all magnetic flux lines, returning to
a state of normal conductivity.
Type II superconductors possess a notably higher second critical field value Hc2 compared
to Hc of type I superconductors, enabling them to withstand substantial magnetic fields. Be-
cause magnetization diminishes gradually upon approaching the critical field rather than
disappearing abruptly, they are often referred to as ”hard superconductors” and find numer-
ous practical applications such as in superconducting magnets used in MRIs and high-speed
trains. Examples of Type II superconductors include NbTi, Nb3 Sn.
More on vortex state: When a Type II superconductor is subjected to an applied
magnetic field that exceeds its first critical field (Hc1 ), magnetic flux begins to penetrate the
material in quantized units known as flux vortices. These vortices carry discrete amounts
of magnetic flux and create a lattice-like arrangement within the superconducting material.
Each vortex has a normal (non-superconducting) core where the superconductivity is locally
suppressed (where flux is allowed to pass) and is surrounded by circulating superconducting
currents; hence the name ”vortex”.

2.4 BCS Theory of Superconductivity

The Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer (BCS) theory is a microscopic theory of superconductivity,
which explains how certain materials can conduct electric current without any resistance
when cooled below a certain temperature.

Figure 2.7: BCS Theory - Formation of Cooper Pair

The theory goes as follows: In a superconducting material, the atomic nuclei form a lattice
structure. When an electron moves through this lattice, it causes a slight displacement of
the nearby positive nuclei due to its negative charge. This displacement propagates through
the lattice as a quantized vibration, known as a phonon. Refer to figure 2.7.
Now, consider another electron moving through the lattice. This electron can interact
with the phonon, effectively being attracted to the region of positive charge created by the

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 2.5. HIGH-TEMPERATURE SUPERCONDUCTORS

displacement of the nuclei. This results in an effective attractive interaction between the two
electrons, which is counterintuitive because electrons, being negatively charged, should repel
each other due to their like charges. This kind of interaction between two electrons mediated
by a phonon is also called a electron-phonon-electron interaction.
This attractive interaction leads to the formation of special pairs of electrons known as
Cooper pairs, named after Leon Cooper. These pairs are formed from electrons with op-
posite spins and momenta. So the pair as a whole has a total spin of zero. These pairs are
unusual because they act like a single entity, moving through the lattice together without
scattering off impurities or lattice vibrations (phonons), which is what normally causes elec-
trical resistance. As a result, they can flow without any loss of energy or dissipation, leading
to superconductivity.

Origin of critical temperature

It’s important to note that this pairing mechanism and the resulting superconductivity only
occur at temperatures below the critical temperature. Above this temperature, thermal
vibrations of the lattice are too strong and disrupt the Cooper pairs, causing the material to
lose its superconducting properties and behave as a normal conductor.

The following is additional information provided for reference only.

The fact that Cooper pairs have a total spin of zero is significant because particles with
integer spins (like 0) are classified as bosons, while particles with half-integer spins (like
1/2) are fermions.
Electrons, being fermions, obey the Pauli’s Exclusion Principle, which states that no two
fermions can occupy the same quantum state simultaneously. However, when electrons
pair up to form Cooper pairs, they effectively behave as bosons and do not obey the
Pauli Exclusion Principle. This means that many Cooper pairs can exist in the same
quantum state.
When a large number of Cooper pairs form in a superconductor below its critical tem-
perature, they create something called a Bose-Einstein condensate. In this state, the
Cooper pairs move coherently as if they were one “superparticle”, rather than as indi-
vidual pairs. This coherence allows them to move through the lattice without scattering
off impurities or lattice vibrations (phonons), which is what normally causes electrical
resistance. The formation of this Bose-Einstein condensate of Cooper pairs and their
coherent motion is what enables superconductivity.

2.5 High-temperature Superconductors

High-temperature superconductors are materials that exhibit superconducting properties at
temperatures much higher than traditional superconductors. While ”high temperature” in
this context still refers to temperatures that are quite cold by everyday standards, these ma-
terials are exciting because they operate above the boiling point of liquid nitrogen (−196 ◦ C
or 77 K), making them more practical for real-world applications. (The critical tempera-
tures of traditional superconductors are far below the boiling point of liquid nitrogen and
require cooling with liquid helium, which is more expensive and harder to handle than liquid
nitrogen.)
The first high-temperature superconductor was discovered in 1986 by IBM researchers
Georg Bednorz and K. Alex Müller, who found that a lanthanum-based cuprate perovskite
material exhibited superconductivity at a temperature of 35 K. They were awarded the

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 2.6. QUANTUM TUNNELLING

Nobel Prize in Physics the following year for their discovery. Since then, many other high-
temperature superconductors have been discovered. Most of these are cuprates, which are
compounds made up of copper and oxygen, along with other elements. Some popular exam-
ples include:

ˆ Yttrium barium copper oxide (YBCO): This is one of the most well-known high-
temperature superconductors. It was the first material discovered to have a critical
temperature above 77K, which is significant because it means it can be cooled with liq-
uid nitrogen, which is cheaper and more easily available than other coolants like liquid
helium. The highest critical temperature for YBCO is around 93K. YBCO’s chemical
formula is written as YBa2 Cu3 O7 and hence it is also called the 1-2-3 compound.

ˆ Bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide (BSCCO): Also known as BISCO, this mate-
rial has a critical temperature of up to 108K.

ˆ Mercury barium calcium copper oxide (HBCCO): With a critical temperature as high
as 138K under pressure, this is one of the highest high-temperature superconductors
known.

ˆ Iron-based superconductors: Discovered in 2008, these are a new family of high tem-
perature superconductors. They have a different structure from the cuprates, and their
highest critical temperature is around 56K.

It’s important to note that while these materials can conduct electricity without resistance
at higher temperatures than traditional superconductors, we still don’t fully understand how
they work. The BCS theory that explains low-temperature superconductivity does not ade-
quately describe high-temperature superconductivity, and developing a comprehensive theory
of high-temperature superconductivity is one of the major unsolved problems in theoretical
physics.

2.6 Quantum Tunnelling

Quantum tunnelling is a fascinating phenomenon that arises from the principles of quantum
mechanics. It allows particles to do things that would seem impossible according to classical
physics.
In classical physics, a particle cannot cross a potential energy barrier (analogous to a hill)
if its energy is less than the height of the barrier. It would be like saying a ball could roll
up and over a hill even if it doesn’t have enough speed (and therefore energy) to reach the
top. (Let me clarify something here to avoid confusion. The barrier that we talk about here
is not a physical barrier; it’s an energy barrier. The higher the barrier, the more energy it
has.)
However, in quantum mechanics, particles such as electrons are described by wavefunc-
tions, which are mathematical functions that describe the probability distribution of a par-
ticle’s position. These wavefunctions can extend beyond potential barriers, even when the
particle’s energy is less than the height of the barrier. This means there’s a non-zero probabil-
ity that the particle can be found on the other side of the barrier, even though it seemingly
doesn’t have enough energy to get there. This is quantum tunnelling - the particle has
effectively ’tunnelled’ through the barrier. Refer to figure 2.8.
Quantum tunnelling plays a crucial role in many physical phenomena and technological
applications. For example, it’s responsible for nuclear fusion in stars, radioactive decay

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 2.7. JOSEPHSON JUNCTION

Figure 2.8: Quantum Tunnelling

of atomic nuclei, and the operation of tunnel diodes and scanning tunnelling microscopes.
Another example of quantum tunnelling can be found in something called the Josephson
junction which we will study next.

2.7 Josephson Junction

(a) Construction (b) Circuit symbol of JJ

Figure 2.9: Josephson Junction

Josephson Junction is a device named after British physicist Brian Josephson, who pre-
dicted its behavior in 1962.
The junction is made up of two superconducting materials separated by a very thin
barrier. Refer figure 2.9a. This barrier can be an insulator, a non-superconducting metal,
or a physical constriction that weakens the superconductivity at the point of contact. The
barrier is thin enough that electrons, or Cooper-paired electrons in the superconducting state,
can tunnel through the barrier at an appreciable rate. The circuit symbol for a Josephson
junction (JJ) is as shown in figure 2.9b.
This phenomenon of tunnelling of electrons through the junction is called the Josephson
effect, and it is of two types: DC Josephson effect and AC Josephson effect.

2.7.1 DC Josephson Effect

The DC Josephson Effect refers to the flow of a supercurrent across a Josephson junction in
the absence of any external voltage. This supercurrent is a direct current (DC) that flows
continuously without any voltage applied. The supercurrent arises due to the tunneling of
Cooper pairs across the thin barrier separating the two superconductors.
The Cooper pairs in a superconductor behave as a unified entity (as was discussed before),
which means they share the same wavefunction, thus allowing us to describe the behavior of

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 2.8. SQUID

electrons in a superconductor with a single wavefunction. This wavefunction is characterized

by a property known as the phase.
In the context of a Josephson junction, the insulating barrier plays a crucial role in
ensuring that the wavefunctions of the two superconductors have differing phases. This
results in a phase difference across the junction. Brian Josephson demonstrated that this
phase difference is responsible for the generation of a supercurrent within the junction, as
described by the formula:
IS = IC sin φ0
where IS represents the supercurrent, IC is the critical current (material-dependent charac-
teristic value), and φ0 signifies the phase difference across the junction.

2.7.2 AC Josephson Effect

The AC Josephson Effect, on the other hand, occurs when there is a fixed voltage across
the junction. Refer figure 2.10. In this case, the phase difference across the junction varies
linearly with time. This leads to an alternating current (AC) across the junction, with a
frequency directly proportional to the applied voltage.
The formula for the supercurrent is:

IS = IC sin(φ0 + ∆φ)

where ∆φ is the additional phase introduced due to

the provided voltage V and is given by the formula
∆φ = 2eV t/h̄, and the other terms have the same
meaning as before.
Both the DC and AC Josephson effects are ex-
amples of macroscopic quantum phenomena, where Figure 2.10: AC Josephson Effect
the effects of quantum mechanics are observable at
ordinary, rather than atomic, scales. They have many practical applications in quantum-
mechanical circuits, such as SQUIDs (Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices), su-
perconducting qubits, etc.

2.8 SQUID
A Superconducting Quantum Interference Device (SQUID) is a highly sensitive magnetome-
ter used to measure extremely weak magnetic fields. It consists of a superconducting loop
interrupted by one or two Josephson junctions.
There are two types of SQUIDs: DC SQUID and RF SQUID.

2.8.1 Flux Quantization

Before delving into the SQUID types, let’s explore flux quantization, which is a key idea
behind the working of a SQUID.
Magnetic flux, denoted by Φ and measured in webers (Wb), signifies the strength of
magentic field lines. It has been experimentally observed that in a superconducting loop
(think of a bulk superconductor with a ”hole”), magnetic flux that threads the loop can not
be arbitrary; it’s quantized. The flux Φ inside the loop must be an integral multiple of the
flux quantum Φ0 , represented as:
Φ = nΦ0

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 2.8. SQUID

(a) DC SQUID (b) RF SQUID

Figure 2.11: Types of SQUIDs

where n is a positive integer, and Φ0 is defined as

h
Φ0 = = 2.07 × 10−15 Wb
2e

2.8.2 DC SQUID
The DC SQUID consists of a superconducting ring with two parallel Josephson junctions,
preferably with similar properties. Refer to figure 2.11a.
In the absence of an external magnetic field, the constant biasing current I evenly divides
into two branches, I1 and I2 , each equal to I/2. When a small external magnetic field B
is applied to the superconducting loop, a screening current J circulates the loop, generating
a magnetic field that opposes the external flux, following Lenz’s law. The induced current
aligns with I in one branch and opposes I in the other branch. Consequently, the total
current increases in one branch (I1 + J) and decreases in the other (I2 − J). When the
current in either branch surpasses the critical current IC of the Josephson junction, a voltage
emerges across the junction.
Now, suppose the external flux further increases until it exceeds Φ0 /2, half of the magnetic
flux quantum. The SQUID, adhering to energy preferences, shifts from screening the flux
to increasing it to Φ0 . Consequently, the current now opposes the difference between the
admitted flux (Φ0 ) and the external field just over Φ0 /2. As the external field increases,
the current diminishes, reaching zero at exactly Φ0 , and then switches direction with further
increases in the external field. The current periodically changes direction each time the flux
increases by an additional half-integer multiple of Φ0 . The result is an oscillating current in
the SQUID loop that corresponds to the applied magnetic field.
The voltage across the junctions also oscillates with the applied magnetic field. This
oscillation can be detected and used to measure the magnetic field with high precision. The
voltage oscillation is periodic with the flux quantum, and the period of the oscillation gives
the value of the flux quantum.

2.8.3 RF SQUID
The RF SQUID consists of a superconducting loop interrupted by a single Josephson junction.
Refer to figure 2.11b. The flux is coupled into the loop through an input coil (not shown in

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 2.9. APPLICATIONS OF SUPERCONDUCTORS IN QUANTUM COMPUTING

diagram) and an RF coil. The RF coil is part of a high-Q resonant circuit that reads out
changes in current due to induced flux in the SQUID loop. The tuned circuit is driven by a
constant RF oscillator which is weakly coupled to the loop.
When a magnetic field is applied to the RF SQUID, it induces a change in the magnetic
flux through the loop. This change in flux alters the phase difference across the Josephson
junction, which in turn changes the supercurrent flowing through the junction. The change in
supercurrent is then detected by the RF coil, which is part of a resonant circuit. The resonant
frequency of this circuit changes with the supercurrent, allowing the change in magnetic flux
to be measured.
The RF SQUID is less sensitive compared to the DC SQUID but is cheaper and easier to
manufacture in smaller quantities.

2.9 Applications of superconductors in quantum computing

Superconducting qubits are a cornerstone of quantum computing, leveraging the unique prop-
erties of superconductors to store and process quantum information. They are implemented
in superconducting circuits that can exist in two states, representing the binary 0 and 1, sim-
ilar to classical bits. However, unlike classical bits, these qubits can exist in a superposition
of states, enabling them to perform multiple calculations simultaneously.
There are three primary types of superconducting qubits: charge qubit, flux qubit, and
phase qubit.

(a) Charge qubit (b) Flux qubit (c) Phase qubit

Figure 2.12: Superconducting qubits

2.9.1 Charge qubit

Also known as Cooper-pair boxes, charge qubits are qubits whose basis states are charge
states, representing the presence or absence of excess Cooper pairs in a superconducting
island (shown as dotted region in figure 2.12a). The state of the qubit is determined by the
number of Cooper pairs that have tunneled across a Josephson junction.
The operation of charge qubits involves applying a microwave pulse to the gate of the
Cooper-pair box. This causes the qubit to oscillate between its two states. By carefully con-
trolling the amplitude and duration of the pulse, it’s possible to perform arbitrary single-qubit
operations. Despite their sensitivity to charge noise, charge qubits have been successfully used
in many quantum computing experiments.

2.9.2 Flux qubit

Flux qubits, also known as persistent current qubits, are micrometer-sized loops of supercon-
ducting metal interrupted by a number of Josephson junctions. Refer to figure 2.12b. These

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 2.10. MODEL AND PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

devices function as quantum bits, with the two lowest energy eigenstates of the loop being
clockwise and counter-clockwise currents.
The state of a flux qubit is determined by the direction of the current flowing around the
loop. By applying a magnetic field to the loop, it is possible to control the state of the qubit.
Flux qubits are less sensitive to charge noise than charge qubits, but they are more sensitive
to flux noise.

2.9.3 Phase qubit

Refer to figure 2.12c. The state of the phase qubit is determined by the phase difference
across the Josephson junction. Phase qubits use the two lowest energy levels in the local
minimum of something called the washboard potential as computational states.
The operation of phase qubits involves applying a microwave pulse to the junction. This
causes the qubit to oscillate between its two states. By carefully controlling the amplitude
and duration of the pulse, it is possible to perform arbitrary single-qubit operations. They
are less sensitive to charge noise compared to charge qubits.

2.10 Model and Previous Year Questions

Q 1. Explain DC and AC Josephson effects and mention any two applications ot supercon-
ductivity in quantum computing.
Q 2. Discuss the effect of temperature and impurity on electrical resistivity of conductors
and hence explain for superconductors.
Q 3. Explain Meissner’s effect and the variation of critical field with temperature.
Q 4. Define critical temperature and critical magnetic field. Explain briefly BCS theory of
suerconductivity.
Q 5. Distinguish between Type - I and Type - II superconductors.
Q 6. Explain BCS theory of superconductivity.
Q 7. Give the qualitative explanation of RF SQUID with the help of a neat sketch.

2.11 Numericals

Q 1. The critical teniperature of Nb is 9.15 K. At zero kelvin, the critical field is 0.196 T.
Calculate the critical field at 8 K.
Q 2. A superconducting tin has a critical temperature of 3.7 K at zero magnetic field and a
critical field of 0.0306 T at 0 K. Find the critical field at 2 K.
Q 3. The superconducting transition temperature of Lead is 7.26 K. Calculate the initial
field at 0 K given the critical field at 5 K as 33.644 × 103 A/m.
Q 4. Calculate the ratio of critical fields for a superconductor at 7 K and 5 K given the
critical temperature 8 K.
Q 5. The critical field for niobium is 1 × 105 A/m at 8 K and 2 × 105 A/m at 0 K. Calculate
the transition temperature of the element.

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