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6 views

Mod 2

Uploaded by

kanadakeerti
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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A proposition is a declarative sentence (that is, a sentence that declares a

fact) that is either true or false, but not both.


Many mathematical statements are constructed by combining one or more
propositions. New propositions, called compound propositions, are
formed from existing propositions using logical operators.
The conventional letters used for propositional variables are p, q, r, s, . . . .
The truth value of a proposition is true, denoted by T,
if it is a true proposition, and
the truth value of a proposition is false, denoted by F,
if it is a false proposition.

and
,
but

Or >
-
inclusive exclusive .
,
only one not
both/all .

Whenever, implies sufficient


,
neces
,

Gary pe
conditional statement p >
-

& -
P> q = 1
q f
-

converse -
q >
1
q-
>
P = - ->
+q
contrapositive
- +

-q k

inverse
q
>
- -
p
-
The statement has two parts. The first part, the variable x, is the subject
of the statement. The second part—the predicate, refers to a property
that the subject of the statement can have. We can denote the statement
by P(x), where P denotes the predicate and x is the variable.
The statement P(x) is also said to be the value of the propositional
function P at x. Once a value has been assigned to the variable x, the
statement P(x) becomes a proposition and has a truth value.

P at
P(X) propositional function
D
:

↳> proposition i variable

predicate
Quantifies
When the variables in a propositional function are assigned values, the
resulting statement becomes a proposition with a certain truth value.
However, there is another important way, called quantification, to create a
proposition from a propositional function. Quantification expresses the
extent to which a predicate is true over a range of elements. In English, the
words all, some, many, none, and few are used in quantifications. We will
focus on two types of quantification here: universal quantification, which
tells us that a predicate is true for every element under consideration, and
existential quantification, which tells us that there is one or more element
under consideration for which the predicate is true. The area of logic that
deals with predicates and quantifiers is called the predicate calculus.

UNIVERSAL QUANTIFICATION

of discourse
EXISTENTIAL QUANTIFICATION
-
K -1 1 V -
,
↓ , , , , ,

W >
-
order
Es

Proofs in mathematics are valid arguments that establish the truth of mathematical
statements. By an argument, we mean a sequence of statements that end with a
conclusion. By valid, we mean that the conclusion, or final statement of the argument,
must follow from the truth of the preceding statements, or premises, of the argument.
That is, an argument is valid if and only if it is impossible for all the premises to be true
and the conclusion to be false. To deduce new statements from statements we already
have, we use rules of inference which are templates for constructing valid arguments.
Rules of inference are our basic tools for establishing the truth of statements.
5)

-qn(r
+

(P 9) 1(v
+ - 5) 17 9V s) >
-

CPUV) Destructive dilemne e


Universal instantiation is the rule of inference used to conclude that P
(c) is true, where c is a particular member of the domain, given the
premise ∀xP (x).
Universal generalization is the rule of inference that states that ∀xP (x)
is true, given the premise that P (c) is true for all elements c in the
domain. Universal generalization is used when we show that ∀xP (x) is
true by taking an arbitrary element c from the domain and showing that
P (c) is true. The element c that we select must be an arbitrary, and not
a specific, element of the domain.
Existential instantiation is the rule that allows us to conclude that
there is an element c in the domain for which P (c) is true if we know
that ∃xP (x) is true. We cannot select an arbitrary value of c here, but
rather it must be a c for which P (c) is true. Usually we have no
knowledge of what c is, only that it exists. Because it exists, we may
give it a name (c) and continue our argument.
Existential generalization is the rule of inference that is used to
conclude that ∃xP (x) is true when a particular element c with P (c) true
is known. That is, if we know one element c in the domain for which P
(c) is true, then we know that ∃xP (x) is true.

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